CNC Programming and Machining & Machining strategies and tool selection for specific operations

Module-5

CNC Programming and Machining

Introduction to CNC Programming:
What is CNC?

CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control. It’s a way to control machine tools (like mills,
lathes, and etc.,) using a computer program instead of manual operation.

The program tells the machine:

 Where to move
 How fast to move
 What tool to use
 What operation to perform (cutting, drilling, etc.)

What is CNC Programming?

CNC programming is the process of writing instructions (called code) that a CNC machine
follows to make a part.

These instructions are usually written in G-code and M-code.

Basic CNC Machine Axes

Most CNC machines move along these axes:

 X-axis → le and right

 Y-axis → forward and backward
 Z-axis → up and down

(Some machines also have A, B, or C axes for rotation.)

G-code and M-code

G-codes (Geometry / Motion)

They control movement:

 G00 – Rapid (fast) movement

 G01 – Linear cutting movement
 G02 – Clockwise circular movement
 G03 – Counter clockwise circular movement

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M-codes (Machine functions)

They control machine actions:

 M03 – Spindle ON (clockwise)

 M05 – Spindle OFF
 M08 – Coolant ON
 M30 – End of program

Example of a Simple CNC Program

G00 X0 Y0 Z5
G01 Z-2 F100
G01 X50 Y0
G00 Z5
M30
This program:
1. Moves the tool to a starting position
2. Lowers the tool to cut
3. Moves in a straight line
4. Lifts the tool
5. Ends the program

Coordinate System

 CNC machines use a work coordinate system.

 The starting reference point is called the origin (0,0,0).
 All movements are based on this point.

Tools and Tool Offsets

 Each cutting tool has a number (e.g., T01)

 Tool offsets help the machine know the exact length and diameter of each tool

Safety Basics (Very Important)

 Always simulate the program before running it

 Keep hands away from moving parts
 Double-check coordinates and tool paths
 Use proper safety gear

Where CNC Programming Is Used

 Manufacturing
 Automotive and aerospace
 Electronics
 Furniture and sign making

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2. Fundamentals of Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)
I. Computer-Aided Design (CAD)

Computer-Aided Design (CAD) is the use of computer software to create, modify, analyze,
and optimize designs

Fundamentals of CAD

 Geometric Modeling: Creation of 2D drawings and 3D models (wireframe, surface,

and solid models).
 Parametric Design: Dimensions and features are defined by parameters, allowing
easy modification.
 Constraints: Geometric and dimensional rules that control shape and size.
 Drafting and Detailing: Producing technical drawings with dimensions, tolerances,
and annotations.
 Visualization: Viewing designs in 3D to check form, fit, and function.

Importance of CAD

 Improves design accuracy

 Reduces design time
 Enables easy design changes
 Enhances communication through clear drawings and models

Common CAD Outputs

 2D drawings (plans, elevations, sections)

 3D solid or surface models
 Assembly models
 Technical drawings with dimensions and tolerances

Examples of CAD Software

 AutoCAD
 SolidWorks
 Fusion 360
 CATIA
 Creo

II. Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM)

Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) uses computer software to plan, control, and

automate manufacturing processes by converting CAD designs into machine-readable
instructions.

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Fundamentals of CAM

 Toolpath Generation: Defining the path followed by cutting tools.

 Machining Operations: Milling, turning, drilling, grinding, etc.
 Feeds and Speeds: Control of cutting speed and tool movement.
 CNC Programming: Generation of G-codes for CNC machines.
 Simulation: Virtual testing of machining processes to detect errors.

Importance of CAM

 Ensures high precision and consistency

 Reduces material waste
 Increases productivity
 Minimizes human error in manufacturing

Common CAM Outputs

 Toolpaths
 G-code (machine instructions)
 Simulation of machining processes

Machines Controlled by CAM

 CNC milling machines

 CNC lathes
 Laser cutters
 Plasma cutters
 3D printers (often considered part of CAM)

Relationship between CAD and CAM:

CAD and CAM work together in a digital workflow:

1. A component is designed using CAD.

2. The design is exported to CAM software.
3. CAM software creates toolpaths and CNC codes.
4. The part is manufactured automatically using machines such as CNC mills or lathes.

CAD focuses on “design,” while CAM focuses on “production.”

Concepts in CAD

 Geometric modeling (2D & 3D)

 Parametric design (dimensions can be changed easily)
 Constraints (control shape and size)
 Assemblies (multiple parts working together)
 Tolerances & dimensions

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Concepts in CAM

 Toolpaths (paths followed by cutting tools)

 Cutting tools (end mills, drills, etc.)
 Feeds and speeds
 Stock material
 Machining operations (milling, turning, drilling)
 Simulation (checking errors before machining)

Advantages of CAD/CAM

 High accuracy and repeatability

 Faster product development
 Reduced production cost
 Better quality control
 Easy design modifications

Applications of CAD/CAM

 Mechanical engineering and industrial engineering

 Automotive and aerospace industries
 Architecture and construction
 Product design and development
 Electronics
 Medical devices manufacturing
 Manufacturing and robotics

3. Basics of CNC Programming Language

(G-Code and M-Code)

Introduction to CNC Programming

CNC (Computer Numerical Control) programming involves creating a set of coded

instructions that control the motion and operation of machine tools such as CNC lathes,
milling machines, and machining centers.

The most widely used CNC language is ISO G-code, which consists mainly of G-codes and M-
codes.

Structure of a CNC Program

A CNC program is composed of blocks (lines).

Each block contains one or more words, where a word consists of a letter address followed
by a numerical value.

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Common Word Meanings

Letter Meaning

G Motion or machining command

M Machine control command
X, Y, Z Axis positions
F Feed rate
S Spindle speed
T Tool number
N Line (sequence) number
Example:

G01 X50 Y30 F200

Where:

 G01 → Linear interpola on

 X50 Y30 → Target coordinates
 F200 → Feed rate

G-Codes (Preparatory Functions)

G-codes are used to control the motion of the cutting tool and coordinate system. They
prepare the machine to perform a specific type of movement.

Commonly Used G-Codes

G-Code Function

G00 Rapid positioning (non-cutting move)

G01 Linear interpolation (cutting move)

G02 Circular interpolation – clockwise

G03 Circular interpolation – counter-clockwise

G20 Programming in inches

G21 Programming in millimeters

G28 Return to machine home position

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G-Code Function

G90 Absolute positioning mode

G91 Incremental positioning mode

Example:

G90
G01 X40 Y20 F150

Tool moves to X = 40, Y = 20 from the origin using absolute coordinates.

M-Codes (Miscellaneous Functions)

M-codes control the auxiliary functions of the machine, such as spindle operation, coolant
control, and program flow.

Commonly Used M-Codes

M-Code Function

M03 Spindle ON (clockwise)

M04 Spindle ON (counter-clockwise)

M05 Spindle OFF

M06 Tool change

M08 Coolant ON

M09 Coolant OFF

M30 End of program and reset

Example:

M03 S1200

Starts the spindle rotating clockwise at 1200 rpm.

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Coordinate System and Axes

CNC machines operate using a Cartesian coordinate system:

 X, Y → Horizontal movements
 Z → Ver cal movement

Positions are defined relative to:

 Machine Zero
 Workpiece Zero (Program Zero)

Absolute vs Incremental Programming

G90: Absolute positioning (coordinates measured from program zero)

G91: Incremental positioning (coordinates measured from current position)

Absolute (G90)

Positions are measured from one fixed origin (zero point).

G90
G01 X50

Incremental (G91)

Each move is measured from the current position.

G91
G01 X10

Example:

G90 X50
G91 X10

 First move goes to X = 50

 Second move advances 10 units from the current position

G01 X50 Y30 F200 means the following:

 G01 → Linear interpolation

The tool moves in a straight line while cutting.
 X50 Y30 → Target position
The cutting tool moves to X = 50 and Y = 30 in the selected coordinate system
(absolute if G90 is active, incremental if G91 is active).

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 F200 → Feed rate

The tool moves at a feed rate of 200 units per minute (mm/min or inch/min,
depending on G21 or G20).

4. CNC Machining Operations

4.1 CNC Milling Operations

 Face milling – Flat surfaces

 Plain (slab) milling – Parallel surface machining
 End milling – Slots, pockets, profiles
 Slot milling – Keyways, T-slots
 Profile milling – Contours
 Pocket milling – Enclosed cavities
 Drilling – Holes
 Boring – Enlarging holes
 Tapping – Internal threads

4.2 CNC Turning Operations

 Facing – End surface machining

 Plain turning – Diameter reduction
 Taper turning – Conical shapes
 Grooving – Narrow cuts
 Parting-off – Cutting finished part
 Thread cutting – Internal/external threads
 Drilling (lathe) – Axial holes
 Knurling – Surface grip pattern

4.3 CNC Drilling Operations

 Center Drilling- Creates accurate starting point

 Peck Drilling - Drills deep holes by intermittent cutting
-Prevents chip clogging
 Reaming- Improves hole accuracy and surface finish
 Counterboring- Enlarges hole opening with flat bottom
 Countersinking- Creates conical recess for screw heads

4.4 Special CNC

 Grinding – High accuracy and finish

 EDM – Spark erosion
 Laser machining – Precision cutting
 Water jet machining – Cold cutting process

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4.5 Roughing and Finishing Operations

Roughing

 High material removal

 Large depth of cut
 Higher feed rate

Finishing

 Final size and surface finish

 Low feed and shallow cuts

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[Link] programming: Turning operations

Figure ( a ) shows the final profile to be generated on a bar stock by using a CNC turning center.

Figure (a) A component to be turned.

After studying the required part geometry and features, the main program can
be written as follows.

Block 1 %
2 O0004
3 N10 G21
4 N20 G40 G90
5 N30 G54 X… Z…
6 N40 T0100 M42
7 N50 G96 S450 M03
8 N60 G00 G41 X72 Z0 T0101 M08
9 N70 G01 X0
10 N80 G00 Z5
11 N90 G42 X72
12 N100 G71 U1 R3
13 N110 G71 P120 Q190 U1 W1 F0.05
14 N120 G00 X0
15 N130 G01 Z0
16 N140 G03 X20 Z-20
17 N150 G01 Z-45
18 N160 X40 Z-80
19 N170 Z-105
20 N180 G02 X70 Z-120
21 N190 G01 X75
22 N200 G00 X100 Z20
23 N210 G70 P120 Q190 F0.03
24 N220 G00 G40 X100 Z20 T0100
25 N230 M09

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26 N240 M30
27 %

II. CNC programming: Drilling operations

Write an efficient CNC part program to drill 35 holes of diameter of 0.5 inch each in a
machine component as shown in the figure 7.2.1. The raw material to be employed is mild
steel plate of 0.4 inch thickness. Explain the important functions used in the CNC code.

Figure A component to be machined (drilled)

Solution:

Based on the G and M code discussed in the last lecture, the CNC part program for
FANUC controller can be written as follows:
Block 1 %
2 O0001
3 N10 G20
4 N20 G17 G40 G80 G49 G90
5 N30 G92 X… Y… Z…
6 N40 M06 T01
7 N50 G00 X1.7 Y2.4 S900 M03

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8 N60 G43 Z1.0 H01 M08

9 N70 G99 G81 R0.1 Z-0.4 F3.0
10 N80 G91 Y2.1 K6 (L6)
11 N90 X1.8
12 N100 Y-2.1 K6 (L6)
13 N110 X1.8
14 N120 Y2.1 K6 (L6)
15 N130 X1.8
16 N140 Y-2.1 K6 (L6)
17 N150 X1.8
18 N160 Y2.1 K6 (L6)
19 N170 G90 G80 M09
20 N180 G28 Z10 M05
21 N190 G28 X0 Y0
22 N200 M30
23 %

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III. CNC programming: Milling operations

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Unit-2 Machining strategies and tool selection for specific

operations
Machining strategy is the planned method used to remove material efficiently, safely, and
accurately. Tool selection involves choosing the correct cutting tool based on the operation,
material, and required finish.

1. General Factors Affecting Machining Strategy & Tool Selection

Material of Workpiece

 Soft materials (aluminum) → High speed, sharp tools

 Hard materials (steel, alloys) → Lower speed, coated tools

Operation Type

 Roughing or finishing
 Continuous or interrupted cutting

Machine Capability

 Spindle speed
 Power
 Number of axes

Accuracy & Surface Finish Required

 Finishing needs precise tools and low feed rates

2. Machining Strategies and Tools for Turning Operations

(a) Rough Turning

Strategy

 High depth of cut

 High feed rate
 Remove maximum material quickly

Tool Selection

 Carbide insert tools

 Strong tool holder
 Large nose radius

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(b) Finish Turning

Strategy

 Shallow depth of cut

 Low feed rate
 Smooth tool path

Tool Selection

 Sharp carbide or coated inserts

 Small nose radius
 Wiper inserts for better finish

(c) Thread Cutting

Strategy

 Multiple light passes

 Accurate synchronization

Tool Selection

 Single-point threading tool

 Thread profile insert (metric/UNC)

(d) Parting and Grooving

Strategy

 Steady feed
 Coolant use to avoid tool breakage

Tool Selection

 Narrow parting blade

 Carbide grooving insert

3. Machining Strategies and Tools for Milling Operations

(a) Face Milling

Strategy

 Overlap tool passes

 Moderate depth of cut

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Tool Selection

 Face mill cutter

 Indexable carbide inserts

(b) Rough Pocket Milling

Strategy

 Zig-zag or trochoidal tool paths

 Constant chip load

Tool Selection

 Flat end mill

 Carbide roughing end mill

(c) Finish Pocket / Profile Milling

Strategy

 Contour-following path
 Small step-over

Tool Selection

 Sharp end mill

 Ball nose end mill (for 3D surfaces)

(d) Slot Milling

Strategy

 Multiple passes for deep slots

 Controlled feed rate

Tool Selection

 Slot drill or end mill

 Coated carbide tools

(e) High-Speed Milling

Strategy

 Shallow cuts
 High spindle speed

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Tool Selection

 Solid carbide end mills

 TiAlN coated tools

4. Machining Strategies and Tools for Drilling Operations

(a) Standard Drilling

Strategy

 Continuous feed
 Proper peck depth

Tool Selection

 Twist drill
 HSS or carbide drill

(b) Deep Hole Drilling

Strategy

 Peck drilling
 Coolant through tool

Tool Selection

 Carbide drill
 Gun drill (for very deep holes)

(c) Finishing Holes

Strategy

 Light cuts
 Slow feed

Tool Selection

 Reamer
 Boring bar

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2.1 Troubleshooting Common Issues in CNC Machining

Troubleshooting in CNC machining involves identifying problems that affect accuracy,

surface finish, tool life, and productivity, then applying corrective actions.

1. Poor Surface Finish

Possible Causes

 Worn or damaged cutting tool

 Incorrect feed rate or spindle speed
 Excessive tool vibration (chatter)
 Insufficient coolant or lubrication

Remedies

 Replace or re-sharpen the tool

 Reduce feed rate or adjust spindle speed
 Improve workpiece clamping and tool rigidity
 Apply proper coolant flow

2. Tool Wear or Tool Breakage

Possible Causes

 Excessive cutting speed or feed

 Incorrect tool material or coating
 Hard or abrasive workpiece material
 Sudden tool engagement

Remedies

 Optimize cutting parameters

 Use suitable tool material (e.g., carbide for hard materials)
 Apply gradual tool entry (ramping)
 Use coolant where appropriate

3. Dimensional Inaccuracy

Possible Causes

 Tool wear or incorrect tool offset

 Thermal expansion of machine or workpiece
 Loose fixtures or improper zero setting

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Remedies

 Update tool offsets regularly

 Allow machine warm-up time
 Improve fixturing and re-set work zero

4. Chatter and Vibration

Possible Causes

 Long tool overhang

 Low machine or fixture rigidity
 Improper cutting parameters

Remedies

 Reduce tool overhang

 Use rigid tool holders and fixtures
 Adjust spindle speed and depth of cut

5. Incorrect Tool Path or Program Errors

Possible Causes

 Wrong G-code selection

 Incorrect coordinate system
 Missing or incorrect offsets

Remedies

 Verify program syntax before running

 Simulate the program using CAM software
 Double-check coordinate mode (G90/G91)

6. Poor Chip Evacuation

Possible Causes

 Deep pockets or holes

 Inadequate coolant pressure
 Incorrect tool design

Remedies

 Use peck drilling cycles

 Improve coolant delivery
 Select tools with proper flute design

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7. Overheating of Tool or Workpiece

Possible Causes

 High cutting speed

 Lack of coolant
 Continuous heavy cutting

Remedies

 Reduce spindle speed

 Use proper coolant or air blast
 Break machining into stages

8. Machine Alarm or Sudden Stop

Possible Causes

 Axis overload
 Limit switch activation
 Power fluctuations

Remedies

 Reduce cutting load

 Check program limits
 Inspect machine and reset alarms safely

9. Workpiece Slippage or Movement

Possible Causes

 Improper clamping
 Excessive cutting force

Remedies

 Improve fixturing method

 Reduce depth of cut
 Use appropriate clamps or fixtures

10. Excessive Noise During Machining

Possible Causes

 Worn bearings or tools

 Incorrect cutting parameters

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Remedies

 Inspect and maintain machine components

 Optimize speed and feed

2.2 CNC Machining of Robotic Components

Robotic systems require components with high precision, strength, and reliability. CNC
machining is widely used to manufacture robotic parts because it provides tight tolerances,
repeatability, and complex geometries.

1. Importance of CNC Machining in Robotics

 High dimensional accuracy (micron-level tolerances)

 Consistent quality for mass production
 Ability to machine complex shapes
 Suitable for metals and engineering plastics

2. Common Robotic Components Manufactured by CNC Machining

(a) Robot Arm Links

 Structural components connecting joints
 Require high strength-to-weight ratio

(b) Joint Housings

 Hold bearings, motors, and gears

 Require precise bore alignment

(c) End Effectors

 Grippers, clamps, tool holders

 Custom-designed for specific tasks

(d) Gearboxes and Gear Housings

 Used for torque transmission

 High accuracy required to reduce backlash

(e) Base Frames and Mounting Plates

 Provide stability and alignment

 Must withstand vibration and load

(f) Sensor Mounts and Brackets

 Require precise positioning for accurate sensing

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Best CNC Machined Parts for Robotics

Modular Tooling

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2.3 Programming of Simple Robotic Parts (CNC Turning Example)

Example Part: Robot Joint Shaft

(a) Facing and Turning

O1001 identifies this specific program in the CNC memory

G21 G90 G17

G21 → Sets units to millimeters

G90 → Absolute posi oning (all coordinates are measured from the program origin)

G17 → Selects the XY plane for circular interpolation

T1 M06

T1 → Selects tool number 1

M06 → Executes a tool change to the selected tool

S1500 M03

S1500 → Spindle speed of 1500 RPM

M03 → Spindle rota on clockwise (typical for milling)

G00 X0 Y0 Z50

G00 → Rapid move (non-cutting)

Moves the tool to X=0, Y=0, Z=50 quickly

Usually used to position the tool safely above the workpiece before cutting

(b) Parting-Off

T2 M06

T2 → Selects Tool #2

M06 → Performs a tool change to Tool #2

In turning, this is often a parting tool or grooving tool for cutting off the finished
piece

G01 X0 F100

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G01 → Linear interpola on (cu ng move)

X0 → Move to X = 0, typically the centerline of the workpiece

F100 → Feed rate = 100 mm/min (controls the cu ng speed)

This command usually part-offs the component from the bar stock

2.4 Machining Strategies for Simple Robotic Parts

Roughing Strategy

 High feed rate

 Larger depth of cut
 Rapid material removal

Finishing Strategy

 Low feed rate

 Shallow depth of cut
 High dimensional accuracy

2.5 Precision Requirements and Dimensional Tolerances in Robotic

Component Fabrication

Robotic systems depend on high precision and accurate dimensions to ensure smooth
motion, correct alignment, and reliable performance. Even small dimensional errors can
lead to misalignment, vibration, wear, or control errors.

1. Meaning of Precision and Tolerance

Precision

 The ability to produce parts with very close accuracy and repeatability
 Ensures that all manufactured parts are identical in size and shape

Dimensional Tolerance

 The permissible variation in a part’s dimension

 Expressed as:
o ± value (e.g., ±0.01 mm)
o Limit dimensions (e.g., 20.00–20.02 mm)

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2. High Precision Is Critical in Robotic Components

 Proper joint alignment

 Smooth rotational and linear motion
 Reduced friction and backlash
 Accurate positioning and repeatability
 Longer service life of parts

3. Typical Tolerance Requirements in Robotic Parts

Robotic Component Typical Tolerance

Joint shafts ±0.005 to ±0.01 mm

Bearing seats ±0.002 to ±0.005 mm

Gear housings ±0.01 mm

Mounting holes ±0.02 mm

Structural parts ±0.05 mm

Note: Tolerances depend on function and material.

4. Precision Requirements for Robotic Components

(a) Robot Joints

 Require tight tolerances

 Poor accuracy causes misalignment and jerky motion

(b) Bearings and Shafts

 Accurate fits (clearance or interference)

 Incorrect size leads to overheating or looseness

(c) Gearboxes

 High precision to reduce backlash

 Correct center distance is essential

(d) End Effectors

 Accurate dimensions ensure proper gripping

 Misalignment affects task accuracy

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5. Types of Fits Used in Robotics

Clearance Fit

 Allows free movement

 Used in rotating parts

Transition Fit

 Limited movement
 Used in alignment applications

Interference Fit

 Tight fit
 Used where rigidity is required

6. Factors Affecting Precision in CNC Machining

 Machine accuracy and rigidity

 Tool wear and tool offsets
 Thermal expansion
 Cutting parameters (speed, feed, depth)
 Fixturing and clamping quality

7. Methods to Achieve High Precision

 Use CNC machines with high repeatability

 Perform roughing and finishing operations separately
 Use proper tool compensation
 Maintain constant temperature
 Apply quality inspection during and after machining

8. Measurement and Inspection Techniques

 Vernier calipers (general dimensions)

 Micrometers (high precision)
 Bore gauges (holes)
 Coordinate Measuring Machines (CMM)

9. Surface Finish and Precision

 Smooth surface reduces friction and wear

 Important for sliding and rotating parts
 Typical surface roughness: Ra 0.4–1.6 µm

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CNC Programming and Machining & Machining strategies and tool selection for specific operations

2.6 Inspection and Quality Control Techniques for CNC-

Machined Parts
Inspection and quality control ensure that CNC-machined parts meet design specifications,
dimensional tolerances, and functional requirements. Effective QC reduces defects,
rework, and failures in assembly.

1. Objectives of Inspection and Quality Control

 Verify dimensional accuracy
 Ensure compliance with drawings and tolerances
 Check surface finish and geometry
 Maintain consistency and reliability
 Prevent defective parts from reaching assembly

2. Types of Inspection in CNC Machining

(a) Incoming Inspection

 Inspection of raw materials before machining

 Confirms material grade and dimensions

(b) In-Process Inspection

 Performed during machining

 Helps detect errors early and reduce scrap

(c) Final Inspection

 Conducted after machining is complete

 Confirms part meets all specifications

3. Dimensional Inspection Techniques

(a) Vernier Calipers

 Measure external, internal, and depth dimensions

 Accuracy: up to ±0.02 mm
 Used for general inspection

(b) Micrometers

 Measure small and precise dimensions

 Accuracy: up to ±0.001 mm
 Used for shafts, thickness, and diameters

(c) Height Gauges

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CNC Programming and Machining & Machining strategies and tool selection for specific operations

 Measure vertical dimensions

 Used with surface plates

(d) Bore Gauges

 Measure internal diameters and roundness

 Used for bearing seats and holes

4. Surface Finish Inspection

(a) Surface Roughness Tester

 Measures surface roughness value (Ra)

 Important for sliding and rotating parts

(b) Visual Inspection

 Detects scratches, burrs, or tool marks

5. Geometrical Inspection
 Flatness – Surface plate and dial indicator
 Roundness – Roundness tester or V-block setup
 Parallelism and perpendicularity – Dial indicators and gauges

6. Statistical Quality Control (SQC)

Control Charts

 Monitor machining process stability

 Detect trends and variations

Process Capability

 Measures ability of process to meet tolerances

7. Non-Destructive Testing (When Required)

 Dye penetrant testing
 Ultrasonic testing
 Used for detecting surface or internal defects

8. Documentation and Quality Records

 Inspection reports
 Tool wear records
 Calibration logs
 Helps in traceability and continuous improvement

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