Module 2

Temperature measurement

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• There are a number of other temperature scales, all based on the ideal thermodynamic
scale but using different units. The most important industrially are: Fahrenheit,
centigrade, Kelvin, Rankine, and Reaumur.
• The Fahrenheit scale, abbreviated °F, was introduced about 1665 and is used in most
English-speaking countries. This scale assigns 0°F to the lowest temperature of a certain
salt-and-ice mixture, 32°F to the ice point, and 212 °F to the steam point.
• The Centigrade scale, abbreviated was introduced about 1740 and is commonly used in
European countries, where it is called the Celsius scale. It is also commonly used in
technical scientific literature. This scale assigns 0°C to the ice point and l00 °C to the
steam point.
• The Kelvin scale, abbreviated °K, is also called the centigrade absolute scale. It is much
used in technical literature. This scale assigns 273.16°K to the ice point and 373.16°K
to the steam point.
• The Rankine scale, abbreviated °R' and also called the Fahrenheit absolute scale, is
commonly used in engineering literature. It assigns 491.69°R' to the ice point and
671.69°R' to the steam point.
• The Reaumur scale, abbreviated °R, was introduced about 1731 and is used in a few
European countries. It assigns 0°R to the ice point and 80°R to the steam point. This
scale is often used in the alcohol industries.

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Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer

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Mercury-in-Glass Thermometer
• The mercury-in-glass thermometer, widely used in both
laboratory and industry, is one of the simplest temperature-
measuring devices.
• It utilizes the volumetric expansion of mercury with temperature
as a means of indicating the temperature.
• As heat is transferred through the well and metal stem and into
the mercury, the mercury expands, pushing the column of
mercury higher in the capillary above.
• The typical industrial thermometer has a bulb formed by a glass
envelope, which contains mercury, enclosed in a thermal metal
well.
• A metal scale is mounted behind the upper end of the
thermometer, and a glass covers the scale. This provides
complete protection for the thermometer itself, making a rugged
and compact instrument.
• The stem is generally protected and insulated by packing.
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• The thermal well is provided for the purposes of preventing breakage
and providing a sealing means at the point of installation.
• It is generally of brass or steel, although cast iron, Monel, stainless steel,
and aluminum are sometimes used.
• For use in ovens and air ducts, perforated metal guards are employed for
protection against breakage.
• The glass of the thermometer stem is generally shaped so as to magnify
the apparent width of the thread of mercury.
• The industrial thermometer can be obtained in many shapes suited to
particular applications: some with the thermometer bulb at an angle to
the scale, some with the scale rotated to any desired angle.
• The temperature range in which the industrial mercury-in- glass
thermometer is used is —38 to 950°F.

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• For overrange protection, that is, when the
thermometer is subjected to temperatures
higher than the highest calibrated point, a
small reservoir is formed at the top of the
thermometer bore.
• As the mercury expands past the highest
calibrated point, it slowly fills the reservoir,
and the thermometer can be subjected to
higher temperatures without breakage.
• The accuracy of the industrial thermometer,
when properly installed and used, is about ±1
% per cent of span.
• The speed of response will vary considerably,
depending mainly on the characteristics of
the fluid medium in which it is inserted and
on the size of the thermometer, particularly
the size of the thermal well.
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Applications
• Open tanks containing liquids
• Cooking kettles
• Certain molten-metal baths, steam lines, pipe lines for fluid flow, and
air ducts.

• It should not be employed when rapidly fluctuating temperatures are to

be measured with high accuracy or where fluctuating ambient
temperature conditions are encountered.
• In some instances filling media other than mercury are used, in order to
extend the range of the mercury thermometer. Other media such as
ethyl alcohol, pentane, toluene, or a hydro carbon compound are used.

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Bimetallic Thermometer
• The bimetallic thermometer is commonly used wherever the industrial
mercury-in-glass thermometer is employed.
• The construction of a bimetallic-strip element provides a rugged yet
accurate and simple device for the indication of temperature.
• A bimetal is composed of two strips of metal welded together, each strip
made from a metal having a different coefficient of thermal expansion.
• For a bimetal in the form of a straight cantilever beam, temperature
changes cause the free end to deflect, and this deflection can be related
quantitatively to the temperature change. The deflection with temperature
is nearly linear, depending mainly on the coefficients of linear thermal
expansion.

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• Invar is universally employed as the low-expansion metal. Invar is an
iron-nickel alloy containing about 36 % nickel.
• Its temperature coefficient of expansion is about 1/20 that of ordinary
metals.
• As the high-expansion metal, brass is used at lower temperatures and
nickel alloys at higher temperatures.
• The bimetal is wound in the form of a helix, with one end fastened
permanently to the outer casing and the other end connected to the
pointer stem.
• A pointer is attached to the upper end of the stem and sweeps over a
circular dial to indicate the temperature.
• When the temperature surrounding the whole stem changes, the
bimetal expands and the helical bimetal rotates at its free end, thus
turning the inside stem and pointer to a new position on the dial.

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• A thermal well may be used with the thermometer for protection against corrosion and
breakage.
• The material of the thermal well may be brass, steel, stainless steel, or other alloys,
depending on the requirements of the installation. Otherwise, the thermometer may be
used with a bare stem. The shape of the thermometer can be selected to suit
particular needs with the scale and stem at different angles.
• The temperature range covered by the industrial bimetallic thermometer is —40 to
800°F.
• Practical limits to the temperature range are encountered at low and high
temperatures, because either the stress of the bimetal during deflection must be
limited to reasonable values, or the materials used in constructing the thermometer are
subject to creep at high temperatures.
• A bimetallic thermometer will, in general, withstand about 50 percent overrange in
temperature, depending on the ability of the bimetal to be overstressed.
• The accuracy of this thermometer, when properly installed, is about ±1 per cent of
span.

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• As with the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the stem should be inserted
in the medium far enough to minimize immersion error.
• The speed of the flowing medium should be high enough to insure rapid
heat transfer.
• Changes in ambient temperature at the head of the instrument do not
seriously affect the accuracy, so long as the stem is immersed to a depth
that will cover the bimetallic element inside the stem.
• The speed of response of a bimetallic thermometer depends greatly on
the conditions under which it is installed and is comparable to a
mercury-in-glass thermometer.

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• The electrical resistance of many
materials changes with temperature
in a reproducible manner.
• The change in resistance can be easily
measured by a bridge circuit and thus
can be related to temperature.

• Two types of materials are commonly

used:
• Conductors (metals): RTD
• Semiconductors: Thermistor

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• The resistance of a metallic resistance element changes with
temperature in a specific manner.
• So the temperature can be measured by measuring the change in
resistance of the element.
• The industrial resistance thermometer nearly always employs
platinum, copper, or nickel.
• The resistance measurement may be performed by a bridge circuit.

• R – Resistance at T,Ω
• R0 – Resistance at T0, Ω
• α - Experimentally determined constants
• In a narrow range of operation,

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Advantages
• Very accurate measurement.
• Lot of flexibility with regard to choice of measuring equipment.
• Possible to operate indicators, recorders or controllers.
• The temperature sensitive resistance element can be easily installed
or replaced.
• Resistance element can be used to measure differential temperature.
• Resistance element response time is the order of 2 to 10 s.

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Thermistor

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NTC thermistors

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PTC thermistors

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Characteristics of Thermistors

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• Since electrical power dissipated within a thermistor will heat
it above its ambient temperature and thereby reduce its
resistance, it is necessary to test for resistance with a small
amount of power so that there will be no measurable increase
in thermistor temperature.
• The resistance so measured is called R0, which means
resistance essentially at zero power.

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(ii) Voltage current characteristics
• When the voltage applied to a thermistor is small enough not
to cause any rise in heat, it follows ohms law.
• If voltage is gradually increased, the current will increase and
the heat generated in the thermistor will finally begin to raise
temperature above that of surroundings.
• As the result the resistance will be lowered and more current
will flow than if the resistance had remained constant.
• The curve showing the characteristic of voltage – current is
usually plotted in terms of the logarithm of the voltage vs the
logarithm of the current.
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Dissipation constant
• The dissipation constant of a thermistor is a key thermal parameter
that describes how effectively it can release heat into its
surroundings.

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Thermoelectric sensors - Thermocouple

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• A thermocouple is composed of two dissimilar wires joined together
so as to produce a thermal emf.
• A simple thermoelectric circuit composed of two wires of different
metals, A and B, is shown in Fig. 3-1.

• Assume that the left-hand junction of the wires is the point of

measurement.
• Then the left-hand junction is called the measuring junction. The
right-hand junction is called the reference junction, and it is
frequently maintained at either 32 °F (O °C) or 68 °F (20 °C).
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