ELECTRONICS

Stands for ELECTROMECHANICS

Is the field of science and engineering which deals with the motion of electrons under the influence of
applied electric and/or magnetic field.

1. ACTIVE COMPONENTS – are those that require an external power source to function and amplify, control and
generate signals.
2. PASSIVE COMPONENTS – are those that do not require an external power source and do not amplify signal.

Active Components
a. tube type devices b. semiconductor devices
a.1 vacuum tube b.1 junction diode
a.1.1 diode b.2 BJT
a.1.2 triode b.3 UJT
a.1.3 tetrode b.4 SCR
a.1.4 pentode b.5 tunnel diode
a.2 gas tube b.6 zener diode
a.2.1 gas diode
a.2.2 thyratron

Passive Components
a. store electrical energy
a.1 inductor- stores energy by virtue of a current passing through it
a.2 capacitor – stores energy by virtue of a voltage existing across it

b. Dissipates electrical energy

b.1 resistor – to reduce voltages by dissipating power, to measure currents, and to discharge
capacitors after supply is removed

ELECTRON TUBE – an electron device in which conduction of electricity is provided by electrons moving thru a vacuum
or gaseous medium within a gas light envelop

FREE ELECTRONS – maybe produced from a metal electrode called emitter. The process is called emission.

KINETIC ENERGY – energy called by the electrons to escape from the surface of an emitter, to overcome the surface
barrier.

4 Methods of Obtaining Electron Emission

THERMIONIC EMISSION – whose electrons are called from an emitter by supplying heat energy.

PHOTOELECTRIC EMISSION – in this process light energy falling upon the metal surface is transferred to free electrons
and ejects them from the surface.

SECONDARY EMISSION – result when primary electrons strike a metal surface at high speed resulting to collision of
some electrons with the metal surface that causes them to be the projected upward like a billiard ball.

FIELD EMISSION – the electronic field set-up by a high positive voltage yanks free electrons from the emitter.
Types of Vacuum Tube

1. DIODE – a two element electron tube that consist of cathode serving as electron emitter and an anode or plate
acting as electron collector.

SPACE CHARGE – the cloud of electrons formed on the space between cathode and plate.

Current flow in VT diode

A. FORWARD CONDITION – plate current flows in a diode only when the plate is made more positive with
respect to the cathode.
B. REVERSE CONDITION – no current flows when the plate is negative with respect to the cathode.

2. TRIODE – is a three element electron tube whose main function is to amplify signal.

CONTROL GRID – is used to eliminate space charged and is usually provided with a dc bias that is less negative
with respect to the cathode voltage.

INTERELECTRODE CAPACITANCE – exist because of the electric field present between the charged electrodes
of a triode.

GRID TO PLATE CAPACITANCE – feeds back energy from the output circuit to the input circuit may lead to
instability and oscillators at radio frequency.

3. TETRODE – a four electron tube.

SCREEN GRID – is provided with a dc bias that is less positive with respect to the plate potential in order to
eliminate feedback at signal.

4. PENTODE – a free electron vacuum tube.

SUPPRESSOR GRID – is used to repel secondary emitted electrons back to plate.

5. BEAM POWER TUBE – is a hybrid between a tetrode and pentode.

MATTER – anything that occupy space and has a weight

ELEMENT – is the basic building block of nature

- is a substance that cannot be reduced to a simpler substance by chemical means.

COMPOUND – combination of two or more elements.

MOLECULE – the smallest part of the compound that still retains the properties of the compound.

MIXTURE – the physical combinations of elements and compounds.

ATOM – the smallest particle of an element that retains the characteristics of the element.

Atom structures
Electron – negatively charged particle
-0.16 x 10-18 coulomb
9.108 x 10-18 g
Proton – positively charged particle
 +0.16 x 10-18 coulomb
1.672 x 10-24 g
Neutron – uncharged particle
no charged
1.675 x 10-24 g
1 coulomb equal to 6.25 x 1018 electrons

Problems
Ex. A neutral dielectric has added to it 12.5 x 1018 electrons. What is its charge in coulombs?
Ex. A dielectric has a positive charge of 12.5 x 1018 protons. What is its charge in coulombs?
Ex. A dielectric with +Q of 2 C has 12.5 x 1018 electrons added. What is its charge then?
Ex. A neutral dielectric has 12.5 x 1018 electrons removed. What is its charge?

ATOMIC NUMBER – the sum of the electrons in the shell surrounding the nucleus.

ATOMIC WEIGHT – the total number of proton and neutron in the nucleus

VALENCE BAND – the outermost shell

VALENCE ELECTRON – electron in the outermost shell. The number of electrons in an incomplete outermost shell of
an atom.

FREE ELECTRON- an electron that can move freely from one atom to the next.

IONIZATION POTENTIAL – the energy required by an electron in order to free itself from the attraction of the nucleus.

ION – unbalanced atom. An atom that has either gained or lost one or more valence electrons to become electrically
charged.

INERT – elements which cannot combine with other elements because their energy level are all filled up.

Type of ion
Positive Ion – more protons than electrons in an atom (loses an electron)
Negative Ion – more electrons than protons in an atom (gains an electron)

Structure of the Atom

Our present planetary model of the atom was proposed by Neils Bohr in 1913. His contribution was joining the new
ideas of a nuclear atom developed by Lord Rutherford with the quantum theory of radiation developed by Max Planck
and Albert Einstein.

Orbital Rings
The planetary electrons are in successive shells called K,L,M,N,O,P and Q. The maximum number of electrons in a filled
inner shell equals 2n2, where n is the shell number in sequential order outward from the nucleus.

CONVENTIONAL CURRENT – the direction of current flow associated with positive charges in motion. The current flow
direction is from a positive to a negative potential, which is in the opposite direction of electron flow.

ELECTRON FLOW – the movement of electrons that provides current in a circuit. The current flow direction is from a
negative to a positive potential.
Electron Flow Theory

Conventional current flow theory – positive to negative.

Electron flow theory – negative to positive.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OR VOLTAGE – is an electrical pressure or force that exists between two points. The unit of
potential difference is the volt. V=(J/C)

CURRENT – is the rate of movement of electric charge. The symbol for current is I, and the basic unit of measure is the
ampere. A=(C/S)

Problems
Ex. What is the output voltage of a battery that expands 3.6 J of energy in moving 0.5 C of charge?
Ex. The charge of 12 C moves past a given point every second. How much is the intensity of charge flow?

ELECTRICAL CLASSIFICATIONS OF MATERIALS

CONDUCTOR – a substance, body or material . . .
… which has more electrons that are free to move
… which supports charge carriers flow
… which supports the flow of electricity
… which has a very low electrical resistance
… with less than four valence electrons
Examples: metals, electrolytes and ionized gases

INSULATOR – material with more than four valence electrons. An insulator has a characteristic that is extremely
opposite to that of a conductor.
- is a material that does not conduct electrical current under normal conditions.
- valence electrons are tightly bound to the atoms.
Examples: glass, mica, and hard rubber

SEMICONDUCTOR – with exactly four valence electrons. Semiconductors have electrical characteristics in between
conductors and insulators.
- is a material that is between conductors and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
Examples:
Elementary Semiconductors (Group IV A) - Silicon, Germanium
Compound Semiconductors (IIIA – VA) - Gallium Arsenide, Aluminum Arsenide, Gallium Phosphide

Charged Atom and Charged Body

Atoms are electrically neutral, which means the number of negatively charged electrons and the number of positively
charged protons are equal.
This is called uncharged atom, and the material whose atoms are uncharged is called uncharged body.

When an atom loses or gain electron, it becomes electrically unbalanced, and is said to be a charged atom, the material
where this atom belongs becomes also a charged body.

Atom that loses electron lacks negative charge and the atom becomes positively charged ion, called CATION.

ELECTROPOSITIVE ELEMENTS – elements that give up electrons in chemical reactions to produce positive ions. These
elements are metallic in nature.

Atom that gains electron will have more negative charge and the atom becomes negatively charge ion, called ANION.
ELECTRONEGATIVE ELEMENTS – elements that accept electrons in chemical reactions to produce negative ions. These
elements are nonmetallic in nature.

Energy Bands
Before a valence electron can escape from its shell and becomes free, it must gain energy of at least equal to the energy
gap.

ENERGY GAP – the energy difference between the valence band and conduction band. Its unit is electron volt (eV).
Conductors ≈ 0 eV
Insulators > 5 eV
Semiconductors ≈ 1 eV

ELECTRON VOLT – A unit of energy equal to the energy gained by an electron in passing from a point of low potential
to a point one volt higher in potential.

VALENCE BAND – the region where the valence shell and valence electrons are occupying. It is the higher energy level
before conduction band.

CONDUCTION BAND – the region where free electrons are said to be present. Electrons at this band have higher energy
level than those electrons at the valence band.

FORBIDDEN BAND – the region in an atom where no electrons exist. It is between two allowed band, such as between
valence and conduction bands.

Electric Field and Electric Force

When the body is electrically charged, it is said to have electric field in its surroundings, This field interacts with other
charged bodies and will produce an electric force that may cause them to move.

ELECTRIC FIELD – is the area or region surrounding an electrically charged particle or body.

ELECTRIC FORCE – the force produced due to the electric field of a charged particle or body.

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL – the ability of a charged body to do work on charged particles such as electrons.

ELECTRICAL POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE OR VOLTAGE – the difference between the capacities of two charges to do work.

VOLT (V) – the unit of potential difference. A potential of one Volt (1V) has the capacity to do one joule (1J) of work in
moving one coulomb (1C) of charge. (V=J/C)

ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF) – The electrical force that moves the charged particles such as electrons.

Electric Current
Current in gases and Liquids , generally consists of a flow of positive ions in one direction together with a flow of
negative ions in the opposite direction.

Current in solids, consists of the flow of electrons, and is a measure of the quantity of charge passing any point of the
wire per unit of time. (I=C/S)

AMPERE – the unit of electric. Current of one Ampere is equal to one coulomb of charge flows a given point in one
second.
Direct Current – charges flow in one direction only.
Alternating Current – the motion of electric charges is periodically reversed.
Bonding of Atoms
IONIC BOND OR ELECTROVALENT OR ELECTROSTATIC BOND – results from attractive forces between positive and
negative ions or between pairs of oppositely charged ions.

METALLIC BOND – results from attractive forces between a group of positive ions and a sea of electrons that are free
to move about among its ions.

COVALENT BOND – results when atoms share their valence electrons with other atoms. The shared electrons are
attracted simultaneously to two atoms resulting in a force the holds them together.

HOLE – simply represents the absence of an electron.

- Is created when an electron breaks its covalent bond.

Types Semiconductor
1. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – semiconductor and as such is a good insulator. The number of holes is equal to the
number of electrons.
- semiconductor that is free from impurities, such as pure silicon and germanium

2. EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR – a semiconductor that has been doped with impurity atoms to alter the
characteristics of the material, mainly its conductivity.
- semiconductor with some impurities added to change its electrical properties.

DOPING – the process of adding impurity atoms to a pure semiconductor material such as silicon.
- the process of creating N and P type materials

Types of Extrinsic semiconductor

N-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR – a semiconductor that has been doped with pentavalent impurity atoms. The result is a
large number of free electrons throughout the material. Since the electron is the basic particle of negative charge, the
material is called n-type semiconductor material.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR – a semiconductor that has been doped with trivalent impurity atoms. The result is a large
number of holes in the material. Since a hole exhibits a positive charge, the material is called p-type semiconductor
material.

Types of Impurity
DONOR IMPURITY – donates electrons to the materials making the semiconductor material an N-type.
ACCEPTOR IMPURITY – accepts an electron from the material making the semiconductor material P type

MAJORITY CURRENT CARRIER – the dominant type of charge carrier in a doped semiconductor material. In an n-type
semiconductor, free electrons are the majority current carriers, whereas in p-type semiconductor, holes are the
majority current carriers.

MINORITY CURRENT CARRIERS – the type of charge carrier that appears sparsely throughout a doped semiconductor
material. In an n-type semiconductor, holes are the minority current carriers, whereas free electrons are the minority
current carriers in a p-type semiconductor.

The P-N Junction Diode

A popular semiconductor device called a diode is made by joining p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. Diodes
are unidirectional devices that allow current to flow through them only in one direction.
DEPLETION ZONE / DEPLETION REGION– the area at the p-n junction of a diode that is void or depleted of all charge
carriers.

BARRIER POTENTIAL – the potential difference at the p-n junction of a diode. VB exists between the wall of positive
and negative ions that are created as a result of free electrons diffusing from the n side of the diode to the p side.
- this potential difference cannot be measured with a voltmeter but it will cause a small voltage drop.

VB for Si = 0.7V
VB for Ge = 0.3V

BIAS – is direct current ( DC ) deliberately made to flow, or DC voltage deliberately applied, between two points for the
purpose of controlling a circuit .

BIASING - refers to a fixed DC voltage or current applied to a terminal of an electronic component such as a diode,
transistor or vacuum tube in a circuit in which AC signals are also present, in order to establish proper operating
conditions for the component.

FORWARD BIAS – the polarity of voltage across a diode that permits current to flow through it easily.
- Bias must be greater than 0.3V for Ge or 0.7V for Silicon diodes.
- The depletion region narrows

REVERSE BIAS – the polarity of voltage across a diode that prevents the diode from conducting any current.
- Bias must be less than the breakdown voltage and the depletion region widens.

AVALANCHE EFFECT – the effect that causes a sharp increase in reverse current when the reverse bias voltage across
a diode becomes excessive.

BULK RESISTANCE – the resistance of the p and n regions in a diode.

THRESHOLD VOLTAGE – is the required voltage across the junction of the diode before forward current can flow
significantly.

LEAKAGE CURRENT – the very small current that flows when a diode is reverse biased. The leakage current is mainly
due to the thermally generated minority carriers in both sections of the diode.

PEAK INVERSE VOLTAGE – the maximum instantaneous reverse bias voltage across a diode.