8 Definitions

Chemical Reaction: It is responsible for chemical change, where one or more

substances react with each other to form new products.
 Example:
Sodium + Water →Sodium Hydroxide + Hydrogen
2Na+ 2H2O→ 2NaOH +H2
Reactants → Products

Chemical Equation: The representation of reactants, products, and their

physical states in a chemical reaction using symbolic notation is a chemical
equation.
A chemical equation in which the number of atoms of each element
participating in the chemical reaction is equal in both the reactants and the
products is called a balanced chemical equation.
 Example: H2 + O2→ H2O
1. Chemical Combination
The reaction where two or more reactants combine to form a single new
product is called a chemical combination reaction.
Example:
CaO + H2O→ Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2 + Heat
(Slaked Lime)
2. Chemical Decomposition Reaction:
It is a reaction in which a single compound breaks down to form two or more
products.
Thermal Decomposition: The decomposition reaction that occurs with the help
of heat.
 Example:
Calcium Carbonate → Calcium Oxide + Carbon Dioxide
Electrolytic Decomposition: The decomposition reaction that occurs with the
help of an electric current.
 Example:
Water → Hydrogen + Oxygen
Photolytic Decomposition: The decomposition reaction that occurs with the
help of light energy.
 Example:
Silver Bromide → Silver (Greyish White + Bromine (Reddish Brown
Fumes)

Chemical Displacement Reaction: It is a reaction in which a more reactive

metal displaces a less reactive metal from its compound.
 Example:
Iron + Copper Sulfate → Ferrous Sulfate + Copper

Chemical Double Displacement Reaction: It is a chemical reaction in which

the exchange of ions takes place between the reactants.
 Example:
Sodium Sulfate + Barium Chloride → Barium Sulfate + Sodium Chloride
Oxidation Reaction:
Oxidation is a reaction where a substance gains oxygen or loses hydrogen or
loses electrons.
Example: Copper + Oxygen → Copper (II) Oxide (Copper gained oxygen)
Cu + O2 → 2CuO
Reduction Reaction:
Reduction is a reaction where a substance loses oxygen or gains hydrogen or
gains electrons.
Example: Potassium Chloride → Potassium Chloride + Oxygen (Here,
Potassium Chloride lost its oxygen)
KClO3 →KCl + O2
Redox Reaction:
Redox reaction is a reaction in which one reactant is oxidized and another
reactant is reduced simultaneously.
 Example:
Copper Oxide + Hydrogen → Copper + Water
CuO + H2 →Cu + H2O
In this reaction, CuO is reduced to Cu, and H2 is oxidized to H 2O
7. Exothermic Reaction :
It is a chemical reaction in which heat is released along with the formation
of products.
 Example:
Magnesium + Oxygen → Magnesium Oxide + Heat
Mg + O2 →2MgO + Heat
8. Endothermic Reaction
It is a chemical reaction in which heat is absorbed along with the formation of
products.
Rancidity and Corrosion.
Rancidity:
Definition: It is the reaction where fats or oils get oxidized (become stale).
Steps to Prevent Rancidity
 Storing objects containing fats or oils in containers that prevent
contact with air.
 Storing at low temperatures (refrigeration).
 Filling packages of food items with nitrogen gas.
Corrosion:
Definition: The process in which a metal is attacked by substances around it,
such as moisture and gas.
Examples:
1. Rusting of iron
2. Tarnishing of silver.
3. Formation of a green layer on copper

Natural Indicators and Acids

Natural Indicators:
Definition: Substances obtained from nature that are used to test the presence of
acids and bases (distinguish between acids and bases) are called natural indicators.
 Examples: Beetroot, Litmus solution, Hibiscus , Turmeric, etc.

Natural Source Acid Natural Source Acid

Vinegar Acetic Acid Curd Lactic Acid

Citrus Fruit Citric Acid Lemon Citric Acid

Tamarind Tartaric Acid Ant Sting Methanoic Acid

Tomato Oxalic Acid Nettle Leaf Sting Methanoic Acid

Synthetic Indicators:
Definition: Synthetic indicators are man-made substances used to test the
presence of acids and bases.
 Examples: Phenolphthalein, Methyl Orange, etc.

Color in Acidic
Sl. No. Synthetic Indicator Color in Basic Medium
Medium
1 Methyl Orange Red Yellow
2 Phenolphthalein Colorless Pink

Sl.
Olfactory Indicator Smell in Acidic Medium Smell in Basic Medium
No
1 Onion Retains Onion Smell Loses Onion Smell
2 Clove Oil Retains Clove Smell Loses Clove Smell
3 Vanilla Extract Retains Vanilla Smell Loses Vanilla Smell

Universal Indicators
This is a mixture of several indicators. It shows different colors
corresponding to the pH value of the solution. Based on the color and the
corresponding pH value, substances can be identified as acidic, basic, or
neutral.

Definitions related to Carbon

1. Catenation : A unique property of the carbon atom to form bonds with
other carbon atoms, resulting in long chains, branches, or rings.
2. Tetravalency: The valency of carbon is generally 4. This property of the
carbon compound is called tetravalency.
3. Covalent Compounds : Compounds formed covalent bonds are known
as
Covalent Compounds
Covalent Bond :
A bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms is called a
covalent bond. Isomers and Isomerism :
1. Compounds that have the same molecular formula but different
structural formulas are called isomers and this phenomenon is called
isomerism.
2. An example of isomers is n-Butane and iso-Butane.
Homologous Series
A series of compounds having the same general formula and same
chemical properties, where the difference between any two consecutive
members in the series is a CH2 unit, is called a homologous series.
Esterification Reaction:
The reaction of an alcohol with ethanoic acid to form esters is called the
esterification reaction.
Soap:
The sodium or potassium salts of long-chain carboxylic acids are called
soaps.
Respiration:
The respiration reaction is the process where the organic compound glucose is
oxidized to release energy.
 Biological Definitions
Photosynthesis
The process by which plants prepare their food in the leaves with the help of
sunlight (solar energy).
 Chemical Equation: Sunlight
CO2 + 12H2O Chlorophyll C6H12}O6 + 6O2 + 6H2O

Blood Pressure
The pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the arteries is called Blood
Pressure.
 Systolic Blood Pressure The blood pressure in the arteries that results
from the contraction of the heart ventricles (systole).

 Diastolic Blood Pressure : The pressure in the arteries that results from
the relaxation of the heart ventricles (diastole).

Double Circulation
In the human body, the blood passes through the heart twice to complete one
full cycle of circulation. This is called Double Circulation.
Neuron
The structural and functional unit of the brain (nervous system).
Reflex Action
A sudden response given to a stimulus is called a reflex action. The pathway
taken by the nerve impulse during this action is called the reflex arc.
Sensory Neuron
The nerve that carries the impulse from the receptor organ to the brain or
spinal cord.
Motor Neuron
The nerve that carries the impulse from the brain or spinal cord to the
effector organ (muscle or gland) to produce a response.
Environment
The sum total of all the physical and biological components present around
us is called the Environment.
Ecosystem
The defined part of the environment that consists of the interaction between
biotic and abiotic components is called an Ecosystem.
Biotic Components
Biotic components are all the living organisms.
 Examples: Plants, animals, microorganisms.
Abiotic Components
Abiotic components are all the non-living things in the environment.
 Examples: Water, soil, air, light.
Producers
Organisms that prepare their own food through photosynthesis.
 Example: Plants.
Consumers
Organisms that depend on others for food.
 Example: Animals.
Food Chain
A sequence of organisms where one organism depends on the next for food.
 Example: Grass → Grasshopper → Frog → Snake → Eagle.
Energy Transfer Energy Transfer : is the process by which energy is
transferred from one trophic level to another through the food chain.
Food Web Food Web is formed when several food chains are interconnected
through their trophic levels.
Types of Asexual Reproduction
1. Fission :
It is generally found in unicellular organisms. Fission includes binary
fission and multiple fission. In binary fission, a single organism divides
into two new daughter organisms.
 Example (Binary Fission): Amoeba
 In multiple fission, a single organism divides into several new organisms.
 Example (Multiple Fission): Plasmodium, Leishmania
2. Fragmentation:
The organism breaks up into small fragments (small pieces), and then each
fragment grows into a new organism.
 Example: Spirogyra
3. Regeneration:
For example, in an organism like Planaria, if the body is cut into pieces,
each piece grows into a new organism.
 Example: Planaria
4. Budding:
In this process, a bud grows outwardly due to repeated mitotic cell
division, and this bud develops into a new organism. * Example: Hydra
5. Vegetative Propagation:
Vegetative Propagation is when a new organism grows from the vegetative
parts of the plant, such as the stem, leaf , or root.
 Plants that grow from Roots: Carrot, Dahlia
 Plants that grow from Stems: Turmeric, Potato, Rose
 Plants that grow from Leaves: Bryophyllum
6. By Spore Formation
 Example: Fungi. They produce tiny spores. These spores grow into new
organisms.
Plant Reproductive Parts
 Stamen : Male reproductive part
 Pistil/Carpel: Female reproductive part
Biological Magnification
Biological Magnification is the process by which the concentration of a
poisonous chemical substance increases at each successive trophic level in
a food chain.
Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Diseases caused by Bacteria through unsafe sexual contact:
 Gonorrhea
 Syphilis
Diseases caused by Viruses through unsafe sexual contact:
 Warts/Genital Warts
 Hepatitis
 AIDS
1. Range of Vision
The range of vision is the distance between the near point and the far
point that a normal human eye can see. The near point is 25 cm and the far
point is at infinity.
2. Tyndall Effect
The phenomenon of scattering of light by the colloidal particles is called
the Tyndall Effect.
 3. Dispersion of Light
Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting of white light into its constituent
colours. This occurs naturally in the rainbow.
4. Light Wave Theory
The phenomenon in which light splits and then re-divides after passing
through an obstacle or aperture is called the light wave
division (or diffraction).
Heredity
Heredity is the mechanism by which traits and characteristics
are transmitted from the parent generation to the next generation.

Measuring
No Term Definition Formula Unit
Instrument

1 Electric Current The rate of flow of electric charges Ammeter I=Q/T Ampere

The amount of work done to move

Potential
2 a unit charge from one point to Voltmeter V=W/Q Volt
Difference
another point.

The property of a conductor to

Electric
3 oppose the flow of electric Ohmmeter R=V/I Ohm
Resistance
current.

The rate at which energy is

4 Electric Power Wattmeter P=VI Watt
consumed in an electric circuit.

The resistance offered by a

5 Resistivity conductor of unit length and unit Ohmmeter ρ=RA/L Ohm-meter
cross-sectional area