UNIT - II
Actuators and Sensors & Kinematics of Robots
Motion
Actuator Type Energy Source Key Features Common Applications
Produced
High precision,
Electrical Linear / Robotics, CNC
Electrical Actuator clean, easy
power Rotary machines, automation
control
Fast response,
Linear / Packaging, assembly
Pneumatic Actuator Compressed air low cost, simple
Rotary lines
design
Pressurized Linear / Very high force, Heavy machinery,
Hydraulic Actuator
fluid Rotary robust aircraft, construction
Heat /
Thermostats, safety
Thermal Actuator Temperature Linear Simple, low cost
devices
change
Electromagnetic Electrical Linear /
Fast actuation Relays, solenoids
Actuator (magnetic field) Rotary
Shape Memory Alloy Thermal /
Linear Compact, silent Medical devices, robotics
(SMA) Actuator Electrical
Electrostatic Electrical Low power,
Linear MEMS devices
Actuator charge micro-scale
Soft robotics, biomedical
Pneumatic / Flexible Lightweight, devices
Soft Actuator
Electrical motion compliant
Stepper Motor
A stepper motor converts electrical pulses into discrete mechanical steps. Each pulse
rotates the motor shaft by a fixed angle called the step angle (e.g., 1.8° per step). It
works on the principle of electromagnetic attraction and repulsion between stator
windings and the rotor.
Key Characteristics
Operates in open-loop control (no feedback required)
Shaft position is determined by the number of input pulses
High holding torque at standstill
Loses torque at high speeds
Advantages
Accurate positioning without sensors
Simple control and interface
Good low-speed torque
DC Motor (Brushed DC Motor)
Working Principle
A DC motor works on Lorentz force principle, where a current-carrying conductor
placed in a magnetic field experiences a force. The commutator and brushes reverse
current direction, enabling continuous rotation.
Key Characteristics
Speed is proportional to applied voltage
Torque is proportional to current
Requires brushes and commutator
Advantages
Simple design and control
Low cost
Easy speed control
Types of transmissions:
Common
Transmission Type Medium Used Main Features
Applications
High efficiency, precise Gearboxes,
Gear Transmission Gears
speed ratio machines
Simple, flexible, shock
Belt Transmission Belts Fans, conveyors
absorbing
Bicycles,
Chain Transmission Chains No slip, high efficiency
motorcycles
Rope Transmission Ropes Suitable for long distances Cranes, elevators
Hydraulic
Liquid Very high power, smooth Excavators, presses
Transmission
Pneumatic Automation
Air Fast, clean
Transmission systems
Electrical Easy control, flexible
Electricity Electric vehicles
Transmission layout
Mechanical +
Hybrid Transmission High efficiency Hybrid vehicles
Electrical
Internal Sensors
Internal sensors are built into a system or device and measure internal variables of that
system.
Characteristics
Measure internal states such as position, speed, temperature, or current
Usually part of a feedback control system
Not directly exposed to the environment
Examples
Encoder in a motor (position/speed)
Tachometer
Internal temperature sensor in electronics
Current sensor in motor drives
Applications
Motor control systems
Robotics and automation
Machine condition monitoring
External Sensors
External sensors measure conditions outside the system or in the surrounding
environment.
Characteristics
Sense environmental or external physical quantities
Directly interact with surroundings
Often used for monitoring or triggering actions
Examples
Proximity sensors
Pressure sensors
Light sensors (LDR, photodiode)
Gas sensors
Ultrasonic sensors
Applications
Environmental monitoring
Safety systems
Industrial automation
Smart devices