Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

In this part, an introduction to semiconductors and the PN junction is presented without

going into depth. We are interested in the basis of manufacture and operation of a junction
diode while characterizing its response to different polarization methods.
1. Semiconductor Physics Basics
1.1 Intrinsic Electrical Conduction

In a material with a crystalline structure, atoms are linked together by so-called covalent
bonds. If this bond between electrons is weak, an external energy input (an electric field)
may be sufficient to mobilize these electrons: these electrons are said to be "free", free to
move in the crystal structure: this is the phenomenon of intrinsic electrical conduction.

When leaving its initial position, an electron that has become free leaves behind a "hole".
The atom is initially neutral, so a hole is positively charged. A hole can of course be filled by
another free electron from a neighboring atom. In this case, the hole moves in the opposite
direction to the electron's movement. Electrical conduction can be interpreted as a
displacement of holes as well as a displacement of electrons.

Free electrons are called negative charge carriers. The holes are the positive charge
carriers.

We model the ability of electrons to mobilize to participate in a conduction phenomenon

by Energy bands:
Energy level of an electron

Conduction Tape Mobile electrons

released by E

Tape gap

Valencia Band Fixed electrons

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

- Valence band (BV): the electron in this band participates in a covalent bond within the
crystal.

- Conduction band (BC): an electron that has acquired enough energy may be in this band; it
is then mobile and can participate in a conduction phenomenon.

- Band gap: quantum mechanics has shown that electrons cannot take on any energy levels,
but that these are quantized; Between the valence band and the conduction band there may
therefore be a band gap. To make an electron mobile, it is therefore necessary to provide
sufficient energy to cross this gap.
Depending on the arrangement of these bands, and especially the width of the band gap,
the materials can be insulating, conductive or semiconductor :

Conduction band
Conduction band

Conduction band Tape gap

Tape gap

Tape gap Valencia band Valencia band

Conductive material Insulating material Semiconductor

• A conductor: the conduction band is partially filled. The solid therefore contains mobile electrons that are
likely to participate in conduction phenomena without providing energy.

• An insulator: the conduction band is empty and the gap is large (e.g. around 10 eV). The solid then
contains no electrons capable of participating in conduction.

• A semiconductor: the conduction band is empty but the gap is smaller (around 1 to 2 eV). The solid is
therefore insulating at zero temperature (T = 0K ), but a rise in temperature allows electrons to pass from the
valence band to the conduction band. Conductivity increases with temperature.

1.2 Intrinsic Semiconductors

When a semiconductor is pure, it is said to be intrinsic. There are as many free electrons as there are
holes: let n and p be the respective numbers of negative carriers (electrons) in the conduction band and
positive carriers (holes) in the valence band per unit volume (concentrations); We show that :

n = p = ni
−∆𝐸𝑖
𝑛. 𝑝 = 𝑛𝑖2 = 𝐴𝑇 3 𝑒 𝐾𝑇

with: A: material-dependent constant,

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

T : absolute temperature in kelvins,

ΔE i : width of the bandgap in eV,
k = 1.38 × 10-23 JK-1 : constante of Boltzmann.

These n and p concentrations are called intrinsic carrier concentrations. For silicon, which is the most
widely used semiconductor, we have : ΔEi = 1.2 eV, ni = 1.5x1010 cm−3 à T =300K.

• At room temperature, kT is of the order of 0.025 eV. The electron density is then very low,
and the intrinsic conductivity is low for most semiconductors.
• The main semiconductor families are :

Primary Valence Binary compounds Ternary compounds

IV Compounds Group III-V Group II-VI Group III-V Group II-VI
Si GaAs ZnSe GaxAl1-xAs CdxMn1-xTe
Ge AlAs CdTe
GaP

1.3 Doped or extrinsic semiconductors

If we replace certain atoms in a pure crystal with atoms of another simple body, we say
that we are doping the crystal with impurities.
Example: silicon (Si) is a tetravalent material (column IV), doping can be carried out with
atoms:
- trivalent (boron (B), aluminium (Al) or Gallium (Ga) of column III). In this case, a supply
of holes will be created. The semiconductor is said to be P-doped and the impurities
introduced are electron acceptors.
Free Hole

Fixed
Charge
- pentavalent (phosphorus (P), arsenic (As) or antimony (Sb) of column V). An additional
electron supply is then created. The semiconductor is N-doped and the impurities are said to
be electron donors.
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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

Free
Electron

Fixed
charge
The concentration of doping impurities always remains very low in any case: on the order
of 1 atom of impurity for 107 silicon atoms. If the semiconductor is N-doped, there are many
more free electrons than holes. Electrons are said to be the majority charge carriers.
In the case of P doping, it is the holes that are the main carriers. In both cases we have: n ≠ p.
On the other hand, we always have: n.p = ni2
- Pour un semi-conducteur dopé N, soit ND la concentration en impureté donneuses d’électrons.
On a alors : n ND et p = 0 à T = 300 K,
- For a P-doped semiconductor, i.e. NA is the concentration of electron accepting impurities. We then have :
P  NA et n = 0 à T = 300 K,
The conduction in these materials is said to be extrinsic.

2. Junction diode
2.1. PN junction
En dopant respectivement N et P deux parties d’un même cristal semi-conducteur, on forme
un dipôle appelé « diode à jonction ». La jonction est la surface de contact située entre les
deux parties du cristal dopées différemment.

Diagram of a PN junction diode Symbol

Although initially each of the two zones is electrically neutral, the contact of the two parts
induces a phenomenon of migration of majority carriers on either side of the junction: some
holes in the P zone move towards the N zone, while some electrons in the N zone migrate
towards the P zone.

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

V = Vd Hole migration

Electron migration E

An equilibrium is established around the junction, creating an internal electric field 𝐸⃗ . The
area around the junction corresponding to this electric field is called the depletion zone.
The presence of this electric field also translates into the presence of a potential difference.
This d.d.p. d V is called the potential barrier (of the order of 0.7 V). The depletion zone
behaves like an insulator and it becomes very difficult for a free electron to cross this zone.

2.2. Polarization of the diode

• The application of a directed voltage V as shown in the following figure (P→ N) (reverse
polarization), creates an electric field that is added to the internal electric field, thus pushing
the electrons of the N zone and the holes of the P zone a away from the junction: the
depletion zone widens; the junction becomes practically insulating. The diode is said to be
blocked.

Enlarged depletion zone

Blocked diode

• If a voltage V oriented from N to P (N →P) (forward polarization) is applied, an external

electric field is created that opposes the internal field. The potential barrier d V is thus
reduced: electrons can cross the depletion zone (from N to P) which thus becomes
conductive; The diode is said to be passing.

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

Through-pass diode

- The flow of electrons through the junction takes place from the N zone to the P zone (from
the cathode to the anode), this is the direct polarization of the diode.
• Let V be the voltage across the diode and I the current flowing through it. As the current
flows from the anode to the cathode (opposite direction of the electrons), voltage and current
will be represented as shown in the following figure:

- The flow of electrons through the junction takes place from the N zone to the P zone (from
the cathode to the anode), this is the direct polarization of the diode.

• Let V be the voltage across the diode and I the current flowing through it. As the current
flows from the anode to the cathode (opposite direction of the electrons), voltage and current
will be represented as shown in the following figure:

Direct
direction
Reverse

Avalanche
effect

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

Is = 10-12A.

- In the direct direction:

𝑉
If V > 0 and V >> V0 (e.g. for V > 0.1V), then I = 𝐼𝑠 𝑒 𝑉0

The current is growing exponentially. The diode is said to be pass-through or directly

polarized. For large values of I, the voltage V varies little and is of the order of 0.6 to 0.7 V
for silicon diodes (0.2 V for a germanium diode). This voltage is called threshold voltage and
is denoted by VS.

- In the opposite direction:

If V < 0 and if V >> V0 (e.g. for V > 0.1V ), then I  -Is

In this case, the diode is said to be inversely polarized.

For large reverse voltages (a few tens of volts), a forced conduction effect through the
junction (avalanche effect) is observed, which is generally destructive.

• In general, the following operation of the diode is accepted:

- Directly polarized diode: V = 0.7V,  I; The diode is said to be passing.

- opposite-biased diode: I = 0,  V; The diode is said to be blocked.

This model of a so-called perfect diode is shown in figure (a)

Slope

(a) Perfect Diode (b) Ideal diode (c) Dynamic model

• If we consider that the voltage of 0.7 V is negligible compared to the other voltages in the
circuit, we then obtains the model of the so-called ideal diode, the characteristic of which is
schematized in the figure (b).

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

• If we want a model closer to the characteristic of the real diode, we can adopt the model
known as the dynamic model shown in figure (c): this characteristic is considered to be is
formed by two line segments:
V < 0,7 volt ⇔ I= 0 (diode bloquée).
V > 0,7 volt ⇔ 𝐼=(𝑉−0.7)/𝑅𝑑 avec Rd résistance dynamique de la diode passante.
2.3. Special diodes
2.3.1. Rectifier diodes
One of the main applications of the diode is the rectification of alternating voltage to make
direct voltage generators intended to supply electronic assemblies.

2.3.2. Zener Diodes

Symbol :

When the diode is "polarized in the opposite direction" and the voltage at its terminals is
too strong, we witness the avalanche phenomenon. The reverse current flowing through the
diode suddenly increases. This is called the Zener effect and such diodes are called Zener
diodes.
Whatever the current that passes through it, the Zener diode has at its terminals, an almost
constant voltage called the Zener voltage and denoted Vz (Vz= qq V to qq 0.1 kV). This
property is widely used in voltage regulator assemblies (assembly protection).

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 Chap 4 : Semiconductor diodes

Direct
direction
Reverse

Zener
effect

2.3.3. Schottky diodes

The Schottky diode is used in high frequency. It is made up of a metallic zone (gold, silver
or platinum) and an N zone. Free electrons are the only majority carriers in the junction. This
heterogeneous junction is widely used in fast logic circuits.

2.3.4. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

The LED (Light Emitting Diode), also known as a light-emitting diode, is a diode
designed to operate in direct polarization, in order to emit invisible (infrared) or visible (red,
orange, yellow, green or blue) light radiation.
These components have interesting features such as an almost unlimited lifespan (100,000
hours) and a small size. They are found everywhere: traffic lights, electronic billboards
(time, temperature, etc.). Infrared diodes are used a lot in remote controls for TV sets...

2.3.5. Varicap diodes

Symbol:

A diode has a (very low) capacitance. The capacitance of a reverse-polarized diode

decreases as the reverse voltage increases. Thus we have a variable capacitor which is
controlled by a voltage.
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