FUNDAMENTALS of

CONTROL SYSTEMS
WEEK 2 - Mathematical Modeling of Control Systems-Transfer Functions and Block
Diagrams
• In studying control systems, the designer must be able to model dynamic systems in
mathematical terms and analyze their dynamic characteristics.
• A mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of equations that
represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or at least fairly well.
• A mathematical model is not unique to a given system.
• A system may be represented in many different ways and, therefore, may have many
mathematical models, depending on one’s perspective.
• The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical, thermal,
economic, biological, and so on, may be described in terms of differential equations.
• Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws governing a
particular system—for example, Newton’s laws for mechanical systems and
Kirchhoff’s laws for electrical systems.
• We must always keep in mind that deriving reasonable mathematical models is the
most important part of the entire analysis of control systems.
Mathematical Models:
• Mathematical models may assume many different forms.
• Depending on the particular system and the particular circumstances,
one mathematical model may be better suited than other models.
• For example, in optimal control problems, it is advantageous to use
state-space representations.
• On the other hand, for the transient-response or frequency-response
analysis of single-input, single-output, linear, time-invariant systems, the
transfer-function representation may be more convenient than any other.
• Once a mathematical model of a system is obtained, various analytical
and computer tools can be used for analysis and synthesis purposes.
TRANSFER FUNCTION
• In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used
to characterize the input-output relationships of components or systems
that can be described by linear, time-invariant, differential equations.

• The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation

system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output
(response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving
function) under the assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
Consider the linear time-invariant system defined by the following
differential equation:

where y is the output of the system and x is the

input.
• The transfer function of this system is the ratio of the Laplace
transformed output to the Laplace transformed input when all initial
conditions are zero, or

• By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system dynamics by algebraic equations in
s.

• If the highest power of s in the denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an nth-
order system.

• The applicability of the concept of the transfer function is limited to linear, time-invariant, differential equation
systems.

• The transfer function approach, however, is extensively used in the analysis and design of such systems.
• Linear, Time-Invariant (LTI) System examples:

• Linear Time-Varying (LTV) Systems examples:

[Link] transfer function of a system is a mathematical model in that it is an
operational method of expressing the differential equation that relates the output
variable to the input variable.
2. The transfer function is a property of a system itself, independent of the magnitude
and nature of the input or driving function.
3. The transfer function includes the units necessary to relate the input to the output;
however, it does not provide any information concerning the physical structure of the
system. (The transfer functions of many physically different systems can be identical.)
4. If the transfer function of a system is known, the output or response can be studied
for various forms of inputs with a view toward understanding the nature of the
system.
5. I f the transfer func tion of a system is unknown, it may be established
experimentally by introducing known inputs and studying the output of the system.
Once established, a transfer function gives a full description of the dynamic
characteristics of the system, as distinct from its physical description.
Convolution Integral:
• For a linear, time-invariant system, the transfer function G(s) is

where X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input to the system and Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output of
the system, where we assume that all initial conditions involved are zero.

It follows that the output Y(s) can be written as the product of G(s) and X(s),or

Note that multiplication in the complex domain is equivalent to convolution in the time domain, so the inverse
Laplace transform of product is given by the following convolution integral:

y(t)=(x*g)(t)

where both g(t) and x(t) are 0 for t<0.

Open-Loop Transfer Function and Feedforward Transfer Function:
• The ratio of the feedback signal B(s) to the actuating error
signal E(s) is called the open-loop transfer function. That is,

• The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called
the feed forward transfer function, so that

• If the feedback transfer function H(s) is unity, then the open-loop

transfer function and the feedforward transfer function are the same.
Closed-Loop Transfer Function:
• The output C(s) and input R(s) are related as follows: since

eliminating E(s) from these equations gives;

or

• The transfer function relating C(s) to R(s) is called the closed-loop transfer function.
• It relates the closed-loop system dynamics to the dynamics of the feedforward elements and feedback elements.
• C(s) is given by

Thus, the output of the closed-loop system clearly depends on both the closed-loop transfer function and the nature of
the input.
Closed-Loop System Subjected to a Disturbance:
• When two inputs (the reference input and disturbance) are present in a
linear time-invariant system, each input can be treated independently of
the other; and the outputs corresponding to each input alone can be
added to give the complete output.
• The way each input is introduced into the system is shown at the
summing point by either a plus or minus sign.
 • On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s
), we may assume that the disturbance is zero.
• Then the response CR(s) to the reference input R(s) can be obtained from

• The response to the simultaneous application of the reference input and disturbance can be obtained by adding the
two individual responses.
• In other words, the response C(s) due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s) and disturbance
D(s) is given by
 Transfer Function (Multivariable
System)
The definition of transfer function can be extended to a system with a multiple number of inputs and outputs
(multivariable system). Consider a system with two inputs and two outputs as shown in Figure

When dealing with the relationship between one input and one output, it is assumed that all other inputs are set to
zero, e.g.,

Since the principle of superposition is valid for linear

system, the total effect on any output variable due to all the
inputs acting simultaneously is obtained by adding up the
outputs due to each input acting alone.
Block Diagrams:
• A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions performed by each
component and of the flow of signals.
• Such a diagram depicts the interrelationships that exist among the various components.
• Differing from a purely abstract mathematical representation, a block diagram has the
advantage of indicating more realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
• In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional blocks.
• The functional block or simply block is a symbol for the mathematical operation on the input
signal to the block that produces the output.
• The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks,
which are connected by arrows to indicate the direction of the flow of signals.
• Note that the signal can pass only in the direction of the arrows.
• Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral property.
• The arrowhead pointing toward the block indicates the input, and the arrowhead leading away
from the block represents the output.
• Such arrows are referred to as signals.
• Note that the dimension of the output signal from the block is the dimension
of the input signal multiplied by the dimension of the transfer function in the
block.
• The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system are that it is
easy to form the overall block diagram for the entire system by merely
connecting the blocks of the components according to the signal f low and
that it is possible to evaluate the contribution of each component to the
overall performance of the system.
• In general, the functional operation of the system can be visualized more
readily by examining the block diagram than by examining the physical system
itself.
• A block diagram contains information concerning dynamic behavior, but it
does not include any information on the physical construction of the system.
• Consequently, many dissimilar and unrelated systems can be represented by
the same block diagram.
• It should be noted that in a block diagram the main source of energy is not
explicitly shown and that the block diagram of a given system is not unique.
• A number of different block diagrams can be drawn for a system, depending
on the point of view of the analysis.
Summing Point:
• A circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a summing operation.
• The plus or minus sign at each arrowhead indicates whether that signal is
to be added or subtracted. It is important that the quantities being added
or subtracted have the same dimensions and the same units.

Branch Point:
• A branch point is a point from which the signal from a block goes
concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
Block Diagram of a Closed-Loop System:
• The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with the reference input R(s).
• The output of the block, C(s) in this case, is obtained by multiplying the transfer function G(s) by the input to the
block, E(s).
• Any linear control system may be represented by a block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points, and
branch points.
• When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is necessary to convert the
form of the output signal to that of the input signal.
• For example, in a temperature control system, the output signal is usually the controlled temperature.
• The output signal, which has the dimension of temperature, must be converted to a force or position or voltage
before it can be compared with the input signal.
• The role of the feedback element is to modify the output before it is compared with the input.(In most cases the
feedback element is a sensor that measures the output of the plant.)
• The output of the sensor is compared with the system input, and the actuating error signal is generated.
• In the present example, the feedback signal that is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input is
B(s) = H(s)C(s).
Procedures for Drawing a Block Diagram:
• To draw a block diagram for a system, first write the equations that
describe the dynamic behavior of each component.
• Then take the Laplace transforms of these equations, assuming zero
initial conditions, and represent each Laplace-transformed equation
individually in block form.
• Finally, assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.

The Laplace transforms of Equations with zero initial

condition, become
Example:

The above feedback system where , is called a unity

feedback system.

Block Diagram Representation

Transfer Function
Block Diagram Reduction:
• It is important to note that blocks can be connected in series only if the output of one block is not
affected by the next following block.
• If there are any loading effects between the components, it is necessary to combine these
components into a single block.
• Any number of cascaded blocks representing nonloading components can be replaced by a single
block, the transfer function of which is simply the product of the individual transfer functions.
• A complicated block diagram involving many feedback loops can be simplified by a step-by-step
rearrangement. Simplification of the block diagram by rearrangements considerably reduces the
labor needed for subsequent mathematical analysis.
• It should be noted, however, that as the block diagram is simplified, the transfer functions in new
blocks become more complex because new poles and new zeros are generated.
Consider the block diagram shown in Figure

The equation describing the above block diagram is (Write

one equation for the output of each summing point)

Method 1 Back substitution

Block Diagram Transformation Rules
Block diagrams of
c om p lic ated c ontrol
systems may be
simplified using easily
derivable transformations
Block Diagram Transformation Rules
 Obtaining Cascaded, Parallel, and
Feedback (Closed-Loop) Transfer
Functions with MATLAB:
• In control-systems analysis, we
frequently need to calculate the
cascaded transfer functions, parallel
-connected transfer functions, and
feedback-connected(closed-loop)
transfer functions.
• MATLAB has convenient commands
to obtain the cascaded, parallel, and
feedback (closed-loop) transfer
functions.

To obtain the transfer functions of the cascaded system, parallel system, or

feedback
(closed-loop) system, the following commands may be used:

[num, den] = series(num1,den1,num2,den2)

[num, den] = parallel(num1,den1,num2,den2)
As an example, consider the case where

• M AT L A B Pr o g ra m g iv e s C ( s ) /R ( s ) = n u m /d e n f o r e a ch
arrangement of G1(s) and G2(s).

• Note that the command printsys(num,den) displays the num/den

[that is,the transfer function C(s)/R(s)] of the system considered.