Unit 3: Biochemical Molecules

3.1 Biochemical Molecules

➢ Biochemical molecules are chemical substances found in living organisms that are
essential for cell structure, metabolism, and life processes.
Classification of Biochemical Molecules
➢ Biochemical molecules are divided into two main categories:
1. Inorganic Biochemical Molecules
✓ Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen
✓ Some may contain carbon (e.g. CO₂, carbonates)
✓ Essential for maintaining homeostasis
Examples:
Water (H₂O)
Carbon dioxide (CO₂)
Acids (HCl)
Inorganic ions (minerals)
2. Organic Biochemical Molecules
✓ Contain both carbon and hydrogen
✓ Formed mainly by covalent bonds
✓ Carbon and hydrogen are abundant in the body
Examples
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
Importance of Biochemical Molecules
✓ Form cell structures
✓ Regulate metabolism
✓ Enable growth, repair, and energy production
✓ Maintain cellular functions

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3.1.1 Inorganic Molecules: Water
Water
✓ Chemical formula: H₂O
✓ One oxygen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms
✓ Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen
Polarity of Water
✓ Unequal sharing of electrons
✓ Oxygen: partial negative (δ⁻)
✓ Hydrogen: partial positive (δ⁺)
✓ Makes water a polar molecule
Hydrogen Bonding
• Attraction between:
o Hydrogen of one water molecule
o Oxygen of another water molecule
• Responsible for water’s unique properties
Properties of Water
1. Water as a Solvent
✓ Dissolves:
o Ions
o Polar molecules (e.g. sugars)
✓ Allows biochemical reactions to occur
✓ Non-polar molecules (lipids) are insoluble
2. High Specific Heat Capacity
✓ Requires much heat to raise temperature
✓ Due to hydrogen bonding
✓ Prevents sudden temperature changes
✓ Stabilizes:
o Body temperature
o Aquatic environments

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3. High Latent Heat of Vaporization
✓ Large amount of heat needed to change water into vapor
✓ Allows:
o Cooling through sweating
o Temperature regulation
4. Density and Freezing Properties
✓ Ice is less dense than liquid water
✓ Ice floats and insulates water below
✓ Prevents complete freezing of water bodies
✓ Supports survival of aquatic life
5. High Cohesion and Adhesion
✓ Cohesion: water molecules stick together
✓ Adhesion: water sticks to other surfaces
✓ Enables:
o Capillary action
o Water transport in plants
✓ Causes high surface tension
6. High Boiling and Freezing Points
✓ Boiling point: 100°C
✓ Due to hydrogen bonding
✓ Essential for stable aquatic ecosystems
✓ Prevents rapid environmental temperature changes
3.1.2 Inorganic Ions
✓ Charged atoms or molecules
✓ Present as:
o Free ions in fluids
o Bound to organic molecules
✓ Required in small amounts but essential

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Classification of Inorganic Ions
A. Macro-nutrients: Required in Large Amounts
✓ Sodium (Na⁺)
✓ Potassium (K⁺)
✓ Calcium (Ca²⁺)
✓ Phosphorus (PO₄³⁻)
✓ Magnesium (Mg²⁺)
✓ Chloride (Cl⁻)
✓ Sulfur (S)
B. Micro-nutrients: Trace Elements
✓ Iron (Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺)
✓ Copper (Cu²⁺)
✓ Iodine (I⁻)
✓ Manganese
Functions of Inorganic Ions
a. Hydrogen Ions (H⁺)
✓ Control pH
✓ pH range: 1–14
✓ High H⁺ → low pH
✓ Important for enzyme activity
b. Sodium Ions (Na⁺)
✓ Major extracellular cation
✓ Maintains:
o Blood pressure
o Osmotic balance
✓ Daily requirement: 3–6 g

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c. Potassium Ions (K⁺)
✓ Major intracellular cation
✓ Essential for:
o Nerve impulse transmission
o Muscle contraction
✓ Daily requirement: 3–4 g
d. Calcium Ions (Ca²⁺)
✓ Found in bones and teeth (99%)
✓ Functions:
o Muscle contraction
o Blood clotting
o Nerve transmission
✓ Daily requirement: 800 mg
e. Phosphate Ions (PO₄³⁻)
✓ Component of:
o Bones and teeth
o ATP
o Nucleic acids
✓ Daily requirement: 800 mg
f. Chloride Ions (Cl⁻)
✓ Major extracellular anion
✓ Functions:
o Osmotic balance
o Acid-base balance
o Formation of gastric HCl
✓ Activates salivary amylase

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g. Iron Ions (Fe²⁺ / Fe³⁺)
✓ Component of:
o Haemoglobin
o Myoglobin
o Cytochromes
✓ Role:
o Oxygen transport
✓ Disorders:
o Iron-deficiency anemia
o Hemosiderosis
o Hemochromatosis
h. Copper Ions (Cu²⁺)
✓ Required for:
o Haemoglobin synthesis
o Collagen and elastin formation
o Nervous system development
✓ Disorder:
o Wilson disease
i. Iodine Ions (I⁻)
✓ Needed for thyroid hormone synthesis
✓ Regulates metabolism
✓ Deficiency causes:
o Goiter
o Hypothyroidism
✓ Daily requirement: 150 µg/day

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3.1.3 Organic Molecules
➢ Organic molecules are carbon-containing compounds found in living organisms.
➢ Carbon forms the basis of life because it can form large, complex molecules through
covalent bonding.
Major Groups of Organic Molecules
✓ There are four principal groups of organic molecules that form the structure and control
the function of living organisms:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic acids
Monomers and Polymers
➢ Monomers: Small single molecular units
➢ Polymers:
✓ Long chains formed by many monomers joined by covalent bonds
✓ Formation occurs through condensation reactions

Organic
Elements Monomer
molecule

Monosaccharides (glucose,
Carbohydrates C, H, O
fructose, galactose)

Lipids C, H, O Glycerol + fatty acids

C, H, O, N
Proteins Amino acids
(sometimes S)

Nucleic acids C, H, O, N, P Nucleotides

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A. Carbohydrates
General Characteristics
✓ Composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
✓ Hydrogen: Oxygen ratio = 2: 1
✓ Main source of energy
Types of Carbohydrates
a. Monosaccharides
✓ Single sugar units
✓ General formula: (CH₂O)ₙ
✓ Sweet, soluble in water
✓ based on carbon number: Trioses (3C), Pentoses (5C) & Hexoses (6C)
Examples:
✓ Glucose
✓ Galactose
✓ Fructose
➢ (They are isomers)
Functions:
✓ Immediate energy source (respiration)
✓ Building blocks of polysaccharides
✓ Ribose → RNA and ATP
✓ Deoxyribose → DNA

b. Disaccharides (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)

✓ Formed from two monosaccharides

Disaccharide Components Importance

Maltose Glucose + Glucose Product of starch digestion

Lactose Glucose + Galactose Milk sugar

Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Transport sugar in plants

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c. Polysaccharides [–(C₆H₁₀O₅)–]ₙ
✓ Polymers of glucose
✓ Insoluble and compact
✓ Storage and structural roles
Starch
✓ Storage carbohydrate in plants
✓ Found in seeds and roots
Glycogen
✓ Storage carbohydrate in animals
✓ Stored in liver and muscles
✓ Highly branched
Cellulose
✓ Structural carbohydrate in plant cell walls
✓ Strong, rigid fibers
✓ Indigestible to humans
✓ Digested by herbivores with cellulase-producing bacteria
Functions of Carbohydrates
✓ Primary source of energy
✓ Energy storage (starch, glycogen)
✓ Structural components (cell walls, exoskeletons)
✓ Cell membrane components
✓ Intercellular communication
B. Lipids
General Characteristics
✓ Insoluble in water
✓ Soluble in non-polar solvents
✓ Made of C, H, O
✓ Include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, steroids

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Fatty Acids
✓ General formula: CH₃(CH₂)ₙCOOH
✓ Contain carboxyl (–COOH) group
Types of Fatty Acids
✓ Saturated: No double bonds, solid, animal fats
✓ Unsaturated: One or more double bonds, oils, plant origin
Phospholipids
✓ One fatty acid replaced by phosphate group
✓ Hydrophilic head + hydrophobic tails
✓ Form cell membranes
Functions of Lipids
✓ Long-term energy storage
✓ Thermal insulation
✓ Cell membrane structure
✓ Hormone synthesis (steroids)
✓ Protective coatings (waxes)
C. Proteins
General Characteristics
✓ Made of C, H, O, N (sometimes S)
✓ Polymers of amino acids
✓ More than 50% of cell dry mass
✓ Perform the widest range of functions
Amino Acids
✓ General formula: RCH(NH₂)COOH
✓ Contain:
o Amino group (–NH₂)
o Carboxyl group (–COOH)
o Hydrogen
o R group (variable)
✓ 20 different amino acids

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Peptide Bond Formation
✓ Formed by condensation reaction
✓ –OH and –H removed → water released
✓ Creates dipeptides → polypeptides → proteins
Types of Proteins
Globular Proteins
✓ Compact, soluble
✓ Metabolic roles
✓ Examples: enzymes, Haemoglobin, antibodies
Fibrous Proteins
✓ Long, insoluble
✓ Structural roles
✓ Examples: collagen, keratin
Functions of Proteins
✓ Structural support
✓ Enzymes (biological catalysts)
✓ Hormones
✓ Respiratory pigments
✓ Transport proteins
✓ Motor proteins
✓ Storage proteins
✓ Toxins
D. Nucleic Acids
General Characteristics
✓ Made of C, H, O, N, P
✓ Information-carrying molecules
✓ Types: DNA and RNA

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Nucleotides: Monomers
Each nucleotide contains:
✓ Nitrogenous base
✓ Pentose sugar
✓ Phosphate group

Feature DNA RNA

Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Bases A, T, G, C A, U, G, C

Strands Double Single

Stability Very stable Less stable

Size Large Smaller

Functions of DNA
✓ Stores genetic information
✓ Replicates during cell division
✓ Controls protein synthesis
✓ Determines inherited traits
Functions of RNA
✓ mRNA: carries genetic code
✓ tRNA: transports amino acids
✓ rRNA: forms ribosomes
✓ Acts as genetic material in some viruses

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UNIT REVIEW
1. Water
✓ Water is composed of hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
✓ It forms a large proportion of the mass of plant and animal cells.
✓ Extensive hydrogen bonding gives water its unique properties.
✓ Water remains liquid at most temperatures on Earth, making life possible.
✓ Water has a high specific heat capacity, so it resists rapid temperature changes.
✓ Water acts as a solvent for ionic and polar substances.
✓ Non-polar molecules tend to group together in water.
✓ Water has a high latent heat of vaporization, so evaporation causes strong cooling.
✓ Water shows cohesion and surface tension, allowing:
o Movement through narrow tubes like xylem
o Some organisms to live on the water surface
2. Molecules of Living Organisms
✓ Cells are composed of organic and inorganic molecules.
✓ All molecules are made of atoms.
Inorganic Molecules
✓ Include water and mineral salts
✓ Often do not contain carbon
Organic Molecules
✓ Contain carbon and hydrogen
✓ Are large and complex
✓ Include:
o Carbohydrates
o Lipids
o Proteins
o Nucleic acids
3. Polymers and Monomers
✓ Most biological macromolecules are polymers.
✓ Polymers are formed by joining smaller units called monomers.
✓ The process of joining monomers is called polymerization.

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4. Carbohydrates
✓ Carbohydrates are made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
✓ Their monomers are simple sugars, such as glucose.
✓ Monomers are the quickest and simplest source of energy.
Functions of Carbohydrates
✓ Provide immediate energy
✓ Store energy:
o Starch in plants
o Glycogen in animals and humans (liver and muscles)
✓ Form structural components:
o Plant cell wall
o Parts of cell membranes and protoplasm
5. Lipids
✓ Lipids are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
✓ They include: Fats, Oils, Waxes, Phospholipids & Steroids
✓ Lipids are:
o Insoluble in water
o Soluble in non-polar solvents (e.g., benzene)
✓ Lipids provide more energy than carbohydrates per unit mass.
✓ Lipids make up about 5% of the organic content of cells.
Functions of Lipids
✓ Long-term energy storage
✓ Cell membrane structure
✓ Thermal insulation in animals and humans
✓ Protective coatings on plant and animal surfaces
✓ Some lipids act as hormones

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6. Proteins
✓ Proteins are made of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes sulfur.
✓ They are the main structural components of living organisms.
✓ Proteins make up the largest proportion of organic matter in cells.
Functions of Proteins
✓ Structural support (muscles, ligaments, tendons, hair, nails)
✓ Required for bone growth
✓ Form vital fluids such as blood and lymph
✓ Act as:
o Enzymes (biological catalysts)
o Hormones (regulate body processes)
✓ Control and maintain biochemical processes essential for life
7. Nucleic Acids
✓ Nucleic acids contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and phosphorus.
✓ Two main types:
o DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)
o RNA (Ribonucleic acid)
✓ They are made of repeating units called nucleotides.
✓ Nucleotides join by covalent bonds to form polynucleotides.
Functions of Nucleic Acids
✓ Store and transmit genetic information
✓ Control inheritance during cell division
✓ DNA:
o Carries genetic instructions
o Controls cell activities
✓ RNA:
o Is transcribed from DNA
o Is translated into proteins
o Helps express genetic traits

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