3/17/25, 9:14 AM NoSQL Database: The Definitive Guide to NoSQL Databases

a a
NoSQL Databases: The ultimate
Guide a U
a
by Ahinóam Rodríguez | Last updated Mar 18, 2024 | Pandora FMS

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Today, many companies generate and store huge amounts of data. To give
you an idea, decades ago, the size of the Internet was measured in
Terabytes (TB) and now it is measured in Zettabytes (ZB).

Relational databases were designed to meet the storage and information

management needs of the time. Today we have a new scenario where
social networks, IoT devices and Edge Computing generate millions of
unstructured and highly variable data. Many modern applications require
high performance to provide quick responses to user queries.

In relational DBMSs, an increase in data volume must be accompanied by

improvements in hardware capacity. This technological challenge forced
companies to look for more flexible and scalable solutions.

NoSQL
NoSQL databases
databases have a distributed architecture that allows them to
scale horizontally and handle continuous and fast data flows. This makes

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them a viable option in high-demand environments such as streaming

a
platforms where data processing takes place in real time. a
a
Given the interest in NoSQL databases in the current context, we believe
a
it is essential to develop a user guide that helps developers understand
and effectively use this technology. In this article we aim to clarify some

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basics about NoSQL, giving practical examples and providing

 recommendations on implementation and optimization to make the most

of its advantages.



Content:


 NoSQL data modeling

NoSQL data storage and partitioning
Replication in NoSQL databases
CAP theorem and consistency of NoSQL databases
BASIS and eventual consistency model in NoSQL
Tree indexing in NoSQL databases. What are the best-
known structures?
Comparison between NoSQL database management
systems
Challenges in managing NoSQL databases. How does
Pandora FMS help?

NoSQL data modeling

One of the biggest differences between relational and non-relational

bases lies in the approach we took to data
data modeling
modeling.

NoSQL databases do not follow a rigid and predefined scheme. This

allows developers to freely choose the data model based on the features
of the project.

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The fundamental goal is to improve query performance, getting rid of the

a
need to structure information in complex tables. Thus, NoSQL supports a a
wide variety of denormalized data such as JSON documents, key values,
columns, and graph relationships. a a
Each NoSQL
NoSQL database
database type
type is optimized for easy access, query, and

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modification of a specific class of data. The main ones are:


Key-value:
Key-value: Redis, Riak or DyamoDB. These are the simplest NoSQL
databases. They store the information as if it were a dictionary
 based on key-value pairs, where each value is associated with a
 unique key. They were designed to scale quickly ensuring system
performance and data availability.

Documentary:
Documentary: MongoDB, Couchbase. Data is stored in documents

such as JSON, BSON or XML. Some consider them an upper
echelon of key-value systems since they allow encapsulating key-
value pairs in more complex structures for advanced queries.

Column-oriented:
Column-oriented: BigTable, Cassandra, HBase. Instead of storing
data in rows like relational databases do, they do it in columns.
These in turn are organized into logically ordered column families in
the database. The system is optimized to work with large datasets
and distributed workloads.

Graph-oriented:
Graph-oriented: Neo4J, InfiniteGraph. They save data as entities
and relationships between entities. The entities are called “nodes”
and the relationships that bind the nodes are the “edges”. They are
perfect for managing data with complex relationships, such as
social networks or applications with geospatial location.

NoSQL data storage and partitioning

Instead of making use of a monolithic and expensive architecture where
all data is stored on a single server, NoSQL distributes the information on
different servers known as “nodes
nodes” that join in a network called “cluster
cluster“.

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This feature allows NoSQL DBMSs to scale horizontally and manage large
volumes of data using partitioning techniques. a a
What is NoSQL databasea
partitioning? a

It is a process of breaking up a large database into smaller, easier-to-

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manage chunks.

It is necessary to clarify that data partitioning is not exclusive to NoSQL.

SQL databases also support partitioning, but NoSQL systems have a

native function called “auto-sharding
auto-sharding” that automatically splits data,

balancing the load between servers.


 When to partition a NoSQL database?

There are several situations in which it is necessary to partition a NoSQL

database:

When the server is at the limit of its storage capacity or RAM.

When you need to reduce latency. In this case you get to balance
the workload on different cluster nodes to improve performance.

When you wish to ensure data availability by initiating a replication

procedure.

Although partitioning is used in large databases, you should not wait for
the data volume to become excessive because in that case it could cause
system overload.
Many programmers use AWS or Azure to simplify the process. These
platforms offer a wide variety of cloud services that allow developers to
skip the tasks related to database administration and focus on writing the
code of their applications.

Partitioning techniques
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There are different techniques for partitioning a distributed architecture

database. a a
Clustering
Clustering a a
It consists of grouping several servers so that they work together as
if they were one. In a clustering environment, all nodes in the
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cluster share the workload to increase system throughput and fault
tolerance.

Separation
Separation of
of Reads
Reads and
and Writes
Writes

It consists of directing read and write operations to different nodes
 in the cluster. For example, read operations can be directed to
 replica servers acting as children to ease the load on the parent
node.

Sharding
Sharding

Data is divided horizontally into smaller chunks called “shards” and
distributed across different nodes in the cluster.
It is the most widely used partitioning technique in databases with
distributed architecture due to its scalability and ability to self-
balance the system load, avoiding bottlenecks.

Consistent
Consistent Hashing
Hashing
It is an algorithm that is used to efficiently allocate data to nodes in
a distributed environment.
The idea of consistent hashes was introduced by David Karger in a
research paper published in 1997 and entitled “Consistent Hashing
and Random Trees: Distributed Caching Protocols for Relieving
Hot Spots on the World Wide Web“.
In this academic work, the “Consistent Hashing” algorithm was
proposed for the first time as a solution to balance the workload of
servers with distributed databases.
It is a technique that is
is used
used in
in both
both partitioning
partitioning and
and data
data
replication
replication, since it allows to solve problems common to both
processes such as the redistribution of keys and resources when
adding or removing nodes in a cluster.

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Nodes are represented in a circular ring and each data is assigned

to a node using a hash function. When a new node is added to the
system, the data is redistributed between the existing nodes and
the new node.
The hash works as a unique identifier so that when you make a
query, you just have to locate that point on the ring.
An example of a NoSQL database that uses “Consistent Hashing” is
DynamoDB, since one of its strengths is incremental scaling, and to
achieve this it needs a procedure capable of fractionating data
dynamically.

Replication in NoSQL databases

It consists of creating
creating copies
copies of
of the
the data
data on
on multiple
multiple machines
machines. This
process seeks to improve database performance by distributing queries
among different nodes. At the same time, it ensures that the information
will continue to be available, even if the hardware fails.
The two main ways to perform data replication (in addition to the

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Consistent Hashing that we already mentioned in the previous section)

are: a a
Master-slave server a a

Writing is made to the primary node and from there data is replicated to
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secondary nodes.


 Peer to peer


 All nodes in the cluster have the same hierarchical level and can accept
writing. When data is written to one node it spreads to all the others. This

ensures availability, but can also lead to inconsistencies if conflict

resolution mechanisms are not implemented (for example, if two nodes
try to write to the same location at the same time).

CAP theorem and consistency of NoSQL

databases.

The CAP theorem was introduced by Professor Eric Brewer of the

University of Berkeley in the year 2000. He explains that a distributed
database can meet two of these three qualities at the same time:

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Consistency:
Consistency: All requests after the writing operation get the same

a
value, regardless of where the queries are made.
a
Availability:
Availability: The database always responds to requests, even if a
failure takes place. a a
Partition
Partition Tolerance:
Tolerance: The system continues to operate even if
communication between some nodes is interrupted.
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Under this scheme we could choose a DBMS that is consistent and

partition tolerant (MongoDB, HBase), available and partition tolerant
(DynamoDB, Cassandra), or consistent and available (MySQL), but all
three features cannot be preserved at once.
Each development has its requirements and the CAP theorem helps us
find the DBMS that best suits your needs. Sometimes it is imperative for
data to be consistent at all times (for example, in a stock control system).
In these cases, we usually work with a relational database. In
In NoSQL
NoSQL

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databases,
databases, consistency
consistency is
is not
not one
one hundred
hundred percent
percent guaranteed
guaranteed, since

a
changes must propagate between all nodes in the cluster. a

BASIS and eventual consistency model in

a a
NoSQL
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BASE
BASE is a concept opposed to the ACID
ACID properties (atomicity,

consistency, isolation, durability) of relational databases. In this approach,

we prioritize data availability over immediate consistency, which is

especially important in applications that process data in real time.

The BASE acronym means:



Basically
Basically Available:
Available: The database always sends a response, even if it
contains errors if readings occur from nodes that did not yet receive
the last writing.

Soft
Soft state:
state: The database may be in an inconsistent state when
reading takes place, so you may get different results on different
readings.

Eventually
Eventually Consistent:
Consistent: Database consistency is reached once the
information has been propagated to all nodes. Up to that point we
talk about an eventual consistency.

Even though the BASE approach arose in response to ACID, they are not
exclusionary options. In fact, some NoSQL databases like MongoDB offer
configurable consistency.

Tree indexing in NoSQL databases. What

are the best-known structures?
So far we have seen how data is distributed and replicated in a NoSQL
database, but we need to explain how it is structured efficiently to make
its search and retrieval easier.

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Trees are the most commonly used data structures. They

They organize
organize nodes
nodes
hierarchically
hierarchically starting from a root
root node a
node, which is the first tree node; a
parent
parent nodes
nodes, which are all those nodes that have at least one child; and
child nodes, which complete the tree. a a
The number of levels of a tree determines its height
height. It is important to
consider the final size of the tree and the number of nodes it contains, as
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this can influence query performance and data recovery time.
 There are different tree indexes that you may use in NoSQL databases.


 B Trees

They are balanced trees and perfect for distributed systems for their

ability to maintain index consistency, although they can also be used in

relational databases.
The main feature of B trees is that they can have several child nodes for
each parent node, but they always keep their height balanced. This
means that they have an identical or very similar number of levels in each
tree branch, a particularity that makes it possible to handle insertions and
deletions efficiently.
They are widely used in filing systems, where large data sets need to be
accessed quickly.

T Trees

They are also balanced trees that can have a maximum of two or three
child nodes.
Unlike B-trees, which are designed to make searches on large volumes of
data easier, T-trees work best in applications where quick access to
sorted data is needed.

AVL Trees

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They are binary

binary trees
trees, which means that each parent node can have a
maximum of two child nodes. a a
Another outstanding feature of AVL trees is that they are balanced in
a
height. The self-balancing system serves to ensure that the tree does not a
grow in an uncontrolled manner, something that could harm the database
performance.
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They are a good choice for developing applications that require quick
 queries and logarithmic time insertion and deletion operations.


 KD Trees

They are binary, balanced trees that organize data into multiple

dimensions. A specific dimension is created at each tree level.

They are used in applications that work with geospatial data or scientific
data.

Merkle Trees

They represent a special case of data structures in distributed systems.

They are known for their utility in Blockchain
Blockchain to efficiently and securely
encrypt data.
A Merkle
Merkle tree
tree is a type of binary tree that offers a first-rate solution to the
data verification problem. Its creator was an American computer scientist
and cryptographer named Ralph Merkle in 1979.
Merkle trees have a mathematical structure made up by hashes of several
blocks of data that summarize all transactions in a block.

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
Data is grouped into larger datasets and related to the main nodes until all

the data within the system is gathered. As a result, the Merkle
Merkle Root
Root is

obtained.

How
How is
is the
the Merkle
Merkle Root
Root calculated?
calculated?

1. The data is divided into blocks of a fixed size.

2. Each data block is subjected to a cryptographic hash function.

3. Hashes are grouped into pairs and a function is again applied to

these pairs to generate their corresponding parent hashes until only
one hash remains, which is the Merkle root.

The Merkle root is at the top of the tree and is the value
value that
that securely
securely
represents
represents data
data integrity
integrity. This is because it is strongly related to all
datasets and the hash that identifies each of them. Any changes to the
original data will alter the Merkle Root. That way, you can make sure that
the data has not been modified at any point.
This is why Merkle trees are frequently employed to verify the integrity of
data blocks in Blockchain transactions.
NoSQL databases like Cassandra draw on these structures to validate
data without sacrificing speed and performance.

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Comparison between NoSQL database

a
management systems a
a
From what we have seen so far, NoSQL DBMSs are extraordinarily
a
complex and varied. Each of them can adopt a different data model and
present unique storage, consultation and scalability features. This range
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of options allows developers to select the most appropriate database for

their project needs.

Below, we will give as an example two of the most widely used NoSQL
 DBMSs for the development of scalable and high-performance
 applications: MongoDB and Apache Cassandra.

 MongoDB

It is a documentary
documentary DBMS
DBMS developed by 10gen in 2007. It is open source
and has been created in programming languages such as C++, C and
JavaScript.

MongoDB is one of the most popular systems for distributed databases.

Social networks such as LinkedIn, telecommunications companies such as
Telefónica or news media such as the Washington Post use MongoDB.
Here are some of its main features.

Database
Database storage
storage with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB stores data in BSON
BSON
files (binary JSON). Each database consists of a collection of
documents. Once MongoDB is installed and Shell is running, you

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may create the DB just by indicating the name you wish to use. If

a
the database does not already exist, MongoDB will automatically
create it when adding the first collection. Similarly, a collection is
a
a
created automatically when you store a file in it. You just have to
add the first document and execute the “insert” statement and
a
MongoDB will create an ID field assigning it an ObjectID value that
is unique for each machine at the time the operation is executed.
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DB
DB Partitioning
Partitioning with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB makes it easy to
 distribute data across multiple servers using the automatic sharding
 feature. Data fragmentation takes place at the collection level,
distributing documents among the different cluster nodes. To carry

out this distribution, a “partition key” defined as a field is used in all
 collection documents. Data is fragmented into “chunks”, which have
a default size of 64 MB and are stored in different shards within the

cluster, ensuring that there is a balance. MongoBD monitors
 continuously chunk distribution among the shard nodes and, if
necessary, performs automatic rebalancing to ensure that the
workload supported by these nodes is balanced.

DB
DB Replication
Replication with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB uses a replication system
based on the master-slave
master-slave architecture. The master server can
perform writing and reading operations, but slave nodes only
perform reads (replica
replica set
set). Updates are communicated to slave
nodes via an operation log called oplog
oplog.

Database
Database Queries
Queries with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB has a powerful API
that allows you to access and analyze data in real time, as well as
perform ad-hoc
ad-hoc queries
queries, that is, direct queries on a database that
are not predefined. This gives users the ability to perform custom
searches, filter documents, and sort results by specific fields. To
carry out these queries, MongoDB uses the “find
find” method on the
desired collection or “findAndModify
findAndModify” to query and update the
values of one or more fields simultaneously.

DB
DB Consistency
Consistency with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: From version 4.0 (the most recent
one is 6.0), MongoDB supports ACID transactions at document
level. The “snapshot isolation” function provides a consistent view
of the data and allows atomic operations to be performed on
multiple documents within a single transaction. This feature is
especially relevant for NoSQL databases, as it poses solutions to
different consistency-related issues, such as concurrent writes or

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queries that return outdated file versions. In this respect, MongoDB

a
comes very close to the stability of RDMSs.
a
Database
Database indexing
indexing with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB uses B trees to index
a
the data stored in its collections. This is a variant of the B trees with a
index nodes that contain keys and pointers to other nodes. These
indexes store the value of a specific field, allowing data recovery
and deletion operations to be more efficient.
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DB
DB Security
Security with
with MongoDB:
MongoDB: MongoDB has a high level of security

to ensure the confidentiality of stored data. It has several
 authentication mechanisms, role-based access configuration, data
 encryption at rest and the possibility of restricting access to certain
IP addresses. In addition, it allows you to audit the activity of the

system and keep a record of the operations carried out in the
 database.

Apache Cassandra

It is a column-oriented DBMS that was developed by Facebook to

optimize searches within its platform. One of the creators of Cassandra is
computer scientist Avinash Lakshman, who previously worked for
Amazon, as part of the group of engineers who developed DynamoDB.
For that reason, it does not come as a surprise that it shares some
features with this other system.
In 2008 it was launched as an open source project, and in 2010 it became
a top-level project of the Apache Foundation. Since then, Cassandra
continued to grow to become one of the most popular NoSQL DBMSs.
Although Meta uses other technologies today, Cassandra is still part of its
data infrastructure. Other companies that use it are Netflix, Apple or
Ebay. In terms of scalability, it is considered one of the best NoSQL
databases.

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
Let’s take a look at some of its key properties:


Database
Database storage
storage with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: Cassandra uses a
“Column Family” data model, which is similar to relational
databases, but more flexible. It does not refer to a hierarchical
structure of columns that contain other columns, but rather to a
collection of key-value pairs, where the key identifies a row and the
value is a set of columns. It is designed to store large amounts of
data and perform more efficient writing and reading operations.

DB
DB Partitioning
Partitioning with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: For data distribution,
Cassandra uses a partitioner that distributes data to different
cluster nodes. This partitioner uses the algorithm “consistent
hashing” to assign a unique partition key to each data row. Data
possessing the same partition key will stay together on the same
nodes. It also supports virtual nodes (vnodes), which means that the
same physical node may have multiple data ranges.

DB
DB Replication
Replication with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: Cassandra proposes a
replication model based on Peer to peer in which all cluster nodes
accept reads and writes. By not relying on a master node to process
requests, the chance of a bottleneck occurring is minimal. Nodes
communicate with each other and share data using a gossiping
protocol.

DB
DB Queries
Queries with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: Like MongoDB, Cassandra also
supports ad-hoc queries, but these tend to be more efficient if they
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are based on the primary key. In addition, it has its own query

a
language called CQL (Cassandra Query Language) with a syntax
similar to that of SQL, but instead of using joins, it takes its chances
a
on data denormalization.
a a
DB
DB Indexation
Indexation with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: Cassandra uses secondary
indexes to allow efficient queries on columns that are not part of
the primary key. These indices may affect individual columns or
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multiple columns (SSTable Attached Secondary Index). They are
 created to allow complex range, prefix or text search queries in a
 large number of columns.

 DB
DB Coherence
Coherence with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: By using Peer to Peer
architecture, Cassandra plays with eventual consistency. Data is

propagated asynchronously across multiple nodes. This means that,
 for a short period of time, there may be discrepancies between the
different replicas. However, Cassandra also provides mechanisms

for setting the consistency level. When a conflict takes place (for
example, if the replicas have different versions), use the timestamp
and validate the most recent version. In addition, perform
automatic repairs to maintain data consistency and integrity if
hardware failures or other events that may cause discrepancies
between replicas take place.

DB
DB Security
Security with
with Apache
Apache Cassandra:
Cassandra: To use Cassandra in a safe
environment, it is necessary to perform configurations, since many
options are not enabled by default. For example, activate the
authentication system and set permissions for each user role. In
addition, it is critical to encrypt data in transit and at rest. For
communication between the nodes and the client, data in transit
can be encrypted using SSL/TLS.

Challenges in managing NoSQL

databases. How does Pandora FMS help?

NoSQL DBMSs offer developers the ability to manage large volumes of

data and scale horizontally by adding multiple nodes to a cluster.
To manage these distributed infrastructures, it is necessary to master
different data partitioning and replication techniques (for example, we

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have seen that MongoDB uses a master-slave architecture, while

a
Cassandra prioritizes availability with the Peer to peermodel). a
Unlike RDMS, which share many similarities, in NoSQL databases there is
a
no common paradigm and each system has its own APIs, languages and a a
different implementation, so getting used to working with each of them
can be a real challenge.
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Considering that monitoring is a fundamental component for managing
 any database, we must be pragmatic and rely on those resources that
 make our lives easier.
 Both MongoDB and Apache Cassandra have commands that return

 system status information and allow problems to be diagnosed before

they become critical failures. Another possibility is to use Pandora FMS

software to simplify the whole process.


How to do so?

If this is a database in MongoDB, download Pandora FMS plugin for

MongoDB. This plugin uses the mongostat command to collect basic
information about system performance. Once the relevant metrics are
obtained, they are sent to Pandora FMS data server for their analysis.
On the other hand, if the database works with Apache Cassandra,
download the corresponding plugin for this system. This plugin obtains
the information by internally running the tool nodetool, which is already
included in the standard Cassandra installation, and offers a wide range
of commands to monitor server status. Once the results are analyzed, the
plugin structures the data in XML format and sends it to Pandora FMS
server for further analysis and display.
For these plugins to work properly, copy the files to the plugin directory
of Pandora FMS agent, edit the configuration file and, finally, restart the
system (the linked articles explain the procedure very well).
Once the plugins are active, you will be able to monitor the activity of the
cluster nodes in a graph view and receive alerts should any failures take

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place. These and other automation options help us save considerable time
and resources in maintaining NoSQL databases. a a
a
Create a free account and discover all Pandora FMS utilities to boost
a
your digital project!

And if you have doubts about the difference between NoSQL and SQL
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you can consult our post “NoSQL vs SQL: main differences and when to

choose each of them“.


 Ahinóam Rodríguez
I studied Philology, but life circumstances led me to work in

the Marketing sector as a content writer. I am passionate
 about the world of blogging and the opportunity to learn that
comes with each new project. I invite you to follow my posts
on the Pandora FMS blog to discover the technological
trends that are transforming the business world.

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