Creative Thinking and
Creative Problem Solving
in the 21st Century
Gerard J. Puccio, Ph.D.
Marie Mance, M.S., [Link].
Laura Barbero Switalski, M.S.
Paul D. Reali, M.S., M.B.A.
Creative Thinking and
Creative Problem Solving
in the 21st Century
Gerard J. Puccio, Ph.D.
Marie Mance, M.S., [Link].
Laura Barbero Switalski, M.S.
Paul D. Reali, M.S., M.B.A.
ICSC Press • International Center for Studies in Creativity, Buffalo, NY, U.S.A.
Table of Contents
A Message to the Reader. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
PART 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF CREATIVITY
Chapter 1 Welcome to the World of Change: Life in the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Change, Accelerating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Problems and Approaches to Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Chapter 2 Skills for Living and Working in the 21st Century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
21st Century Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Formal Education: Pro- or Anti-Creative? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Chapter 3 Creativity: Separating Fact from Fiction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Chapter 4 A Systems Approach to Creativity: It’s Not Just About the Creative Person. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Creative Change Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
PART 2: CREATIVE THINKING
Chapter 5 Introduction to Creative Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
What is Thinking?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Chapter 6 Divergent and Convergent Thinking: The Heart of Creative Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
The Natural Balance of Generating and Evaluating. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Chapter 7 Principles for Divergent and Convergent Thinking: Becoming a Better Creative Thinker . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Principles for Divergent Thinking. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Principles for Convergent Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
The Wild Card Principle: Allow for Incubation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Tools for Deliberate Divergent and Convergent Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
PART 3: CREATIVE PROBLEM SOLVING: THE THINKING SKILLS MODEL
Chapter 8 Creative Problem Solving: A Deliberate Creative Process. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
CPS: The Thinking Skills Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
CPS in Brief: “Toy City” Case Study. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
CPS in Brief, Debrief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6
Chapter 9 Applying Creative Problem Solving in Your Life. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Allowing for Incubation: The Wildcard Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1. Assessing the Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2. Clarification Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3. Transformation Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4. Implementation Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Debriefing Your Experience. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Chapter 10 Digging Deeper: Thinking Skills and Tools for CPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Thinking and Affective Skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Exploring the Vision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Formulating the Challenges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Exploring Ideas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Formulating Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Exploring Acceptance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Formulating a Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Digging Deeper: Three More Affective Skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Chapter 11 Thinking About Thinking: Using Diagnostic Thinking to Navigate the CPS Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Diagnostic Thinking: A Closer Look. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Gathering Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Diagnostic Thinking: GPS for CPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Affective Skills: Mindfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
PART 4: CREATIVITY RISING
Chapter 12 Creativity: A Life Skill and a Way of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
About the Authors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
About the International Center for Studies in Creativity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
About ICSC Press . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Also by the Authors/About the Book Designer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Table of Contents 7
CHAPTER 1
Welcome to the World of Change:
Life in the 21st Century
merican author and satirist Mark Twain was credited with saying, “Everyone grumbles about the
weather—but nothing is done about it.”
This strikes us as analogous to the way in which many people approach change. Everyone grumbles
about change—“change is inevitable,” “change is accelerating”—but no one does anything about it.
Or, more to the point, few seem to know what, if anything, they can do about change. Just deal with it, we are
told. Put up an umbrella. Wear a heavy coat.
Whatever your attitude is about change, there is no denying the force it has on our lives. Consider:
• If you are older than 20: when you were growing up, if you were going to be late coming home, you
had to go and fi nd a telephone, and maybe have change in your pocket to make a call. Today, you reach
into your pocket and pull out a phone instead of a quarter.
• If you are older than 30: you grew up going to the library to get answers and do research, with a
pocketful of dimes for the photocopy machine. Today, you stay at home and open a web browser.
• If you are older than 40: you wrote college papers longhand and then carefully typed them. The arrival
of white-out was a kind of miracle. Today, you press the delete key.
• If you are older than 50: you grew up with a black-and-white television (if you had a television), and
you had to walk over to the set to change the channel, of which there were only three. You watched
programs when they were broadcast. Today, you choose from a hundred channels, and you watch
whenever you want. And you may watch on something that’s not a TV.
• If you are older than 60: you heard the world’s news on the radio, or when the newspaper hit your
porch the next morning. Today, you can get the news instantly through your computer, or even on
your telephone, the one that’s in your pocket.
Part 1: Introduction to the Study of Creativity 13
Change, like the weather, is a natural part of life. In fact, we would argue that change is not just inevitable,
it is essential to us as humans. The current thinking is that the primary reason the Cro-Magnon species survived,
while the Neanderthals did not, was their superior ability to adapt to change.1 And it remains true today.
Just as we can prepare for the weather—wear the right clothes, erect a tent for that outdoor wedding, install
central air conditioning—so too can we prepare for change. Preparation requires awareness, which suggests that
we need to recognize the distinctive feature of change in the 21st century: the increased rate of change.
Change, Accelerating
Here are some recent trends that highlight the accelerating nature of change.
From industrial age, to knowledge age, to innovation age
According to business writer Daniel Pink, the affluence of the developed nations, combined with the
movement of much analytical work to automated methods and low-cost global workers, means that we have
arrived in an age where we must become “a society of creators.”2 Economist Richard Florida, who coined the
name “Creative Class” for the workers “whose economic function is to create new ideas, new technology and/
or creative content,” provides the numbers: today, more than 30% of the U.S. population works in creative jobs;
from 1900 through the 1950s, it was less than 10%.3
This is not a new or temporary phenomenon. As early as 1991, U.S. expenditures related to information
and communications technologies—the tools of the innovation age—surpassed those for the industrial economy,
$112 billion to $107 billion.4
More frequent job changes
Children who are in school today can expect to have more than 11 different jobs between the ages of 18
and 42.5 What kinds of jobs? How’s this for an indication of change: no one knows.
When Forbes looked at jobs of the future, the magazine proclaimed that in two decades, “your job prob-
ably won’t exist, at least not in the same form.”6 Trend-analyzer Faith Popcorn predicted in 2001 that, in the
foreseeable future, more than half of us will work in jobs that do not exist yet.7
14
Shorter and shorter product life-cycles
Product obsolescence comes in many forms, including planned (“it died”), perceived (“my interest died”),
or practical (“if it goes any slower, I’m going to die”). Whatever the cause, products today are replaced more
rapidly than ever, and industrial redesign, whether for competitive advantage or because of rapidly changing
technologies, occurs at a much faster pace. According to two studies, products go through fundamental redesign
every 5 to 10 years, while in the technology realm the rate of change is much faster, with products undergoing
redesign every 6 to 12 months.8
Consider the difference between the fi rst digital cameras released in 1991 and today’s models—1.3 mega-
pixels and few features, versus more than 10 megapixels and loaded. Not to mention that before 1990 all cameras
used film. Twenty years later, film cameras have all but disappeared. And in the future, phones might replace
the standard amateur camera altogether.
Greater technological power, smaller size
In 1964, the year in which the last Baby Boomers were born, a computer chip could hold five transistors.
As Gordon Moore predicted (in what is now known as “Moore’s Law”), this capacity doubles about every two
years. Today, a chip can hold more than a billion transistors.9 The guidance computer onboard Apollo 11 in
1969 weighed 70 pounds10 and had less computing power than your current mobile phone, which weighs about
four ounces.
Small size leads to ubiquity. Mobile telephone subscriptions in the U.S. increased from 109 million in 2000
to 279 million ten years later—or 90 phones per 100 people. Worldwide, the increase was from 738 million to
5.3 billion.11 And mobile telephones are no longer just telephones. Most can take photographs and send text
messages; many can send and receive email; and a rapidly growing number are “smartphones” that run applica-
tions from GPS tracking to games, from e-book readers to restaurant reviews. (As of 2011, more Americans
own smartphones than have a bachelor’s degree.12 We’re not sure what this says, but it might have something
to do with how we’re outsourcing some of our memory to the Internet.)13
Entertainment production and consumption are more democratic
In the entertainment industry, control is shifting. Previously, large corporations determined what was
created, how it was distributed, and where and how it could be consumed. For instance, consider
movies. For the most part, the same corporations that decided which films to fund also carefully controlled the
movement of the film, from first run in a theater, then onward to the rental market, home sales, and television.
Rare was the independent film that could thrive in that environment. Today, digital technology allows low-cost
production, and the Internet (e.g., YouTube and Hulu) provides the ability to immediately distribute.
The same applies to music, where once the large labels controlled everything, including the copyrights to
the recordings. Today, an independent artist can have an inexpensive home recording studio, and, without the
hand of a record label, have her work available on iTunes, right next to Beyoncé and Bruce Springsteen—and
while retaining all rights to her work.
In book publishing, where the industry gatekeepers had a monopoly on what was published, print-on-
demand technology allows anyone to produce a high-quality book in just a few days.
These and similar technological and societal changes are not impressive curiosities (such as space travel)
that do not seem to affect us individually. These changes have great impact on our day-to-day lives. (And pretty
soon, you’ll be able to go into space as well. Virgin Galactic is now booking seats for sub-orbital space flights.)14
In the face of change we have these options: ignore it, grow with it, or drive it. We certainly do not rec-
ommend you stick your head in the sand; the weather is changing, and you’re bound to get wet, wind-blown,
possibly struck by lightning. So, no: ignoring is not really an option. That leaves the choice to grow with change
or to drive change—and the good news is, it’s both of those. In some arenas, you will roll with the changes, and
in others, you will be the driving force.
Here’s an example. Climate change (our weather metaphor writ large) is not something that most of us
have the power to address on a global scale, but we can choose to get involved by, for instance, voting for can-
didates who see things our way. But on a personal and local level, we can take initiative, perhaps by forming an
organization that takes action in our community, and by changing our own habits.
To live a healthy, productive life in the 21st century requires an attitude and skill set that opens us up to
change. We believe that creativity and creative thinking, specifically, are the adaptive skills that will enable us
to grow with change, as well as to drive it.
Problems and Approaches to Problems
The 21st century calls on us to participate. To get a feel for the participation level required, let’s look
through a particular lens: the types of problems we might be called on to address, and the ways in which we
might respond.
16
Problems can be sorted into two basic categories:
• algorithmic: problems with a known solution, or an established process that leads to a single right answer
• heuristic: problems without a known solution
We can approach these problems in two ways:
• proactive: before a problem arises
• reactive: after a problem occurs
Figure 1:
Types of Problems
Source: © 2005
Puccio, Murdock &
Mance. Reprinted with
permission.
By crossing the nature of the problem (algorithmic or heuristic) with the approach to the problem (proactive
or reactive), we end up with four different situations: formulaic problems, maintenance issues, predicaments,
and opportunities (see Figure 1). Two of these situations can be resolved through known solutions, and therefore
might be considered straightforward, while two are more complex, and therefore calling for creative thinking.
Formulaic problems (Algorithmic, Reactive)
When reacting to a change that has a known solution, we simply implement it; there is no need
for creative thinking. If you get a flat tire, you replace it with your spare or call your automobile club.
If you are on the golf course and it begins to rain, you pull out the umbrella and waterproof pullover
you keep in your bag. In an operating room, a surgeon uses a known method for removing a gall
bladder, and if a problem arises, there is a known method for responding to it.
Part 1: Introduction to the Study of Creativity 17
For formulaic problems, there is no need to invent a solution, especially when the existing approach works
perfectly well. (Which, perhaps, explains the popularity of duct tape.)
Maintenance issues (Algorithmic, Proactive)
There are changes we can anticipate, and we respond proactively to prevent them. The solution is known,
and we need only to implement it. To protect the engine in your car, you change the oil every 5,000 miles. To
keep your feet dry when it rains on the golf course, you apply waterproofi ng spray to your shoes at the beginning
of the season. Relationships deteriorate if we do not tend to them, but we don’t need to re-imagine the rules: we
buy gifts for our significant others, listen to them, and share meaningful time—all well-known approaches.
For maintenance issues we merely need to stay alert and anticipate the appropriate time to implement known
procedures that have proven effective in the past. And if we do not know the proactive steps we can take, we
have only to seek out the answers from a reliable source. (Which, perhaps, explains the popularity of Dr. Phil.)
Predicaments (Heuristic, Reactive)
Change sometimes occurs for which we do not have a ready answer, and known solutions do not seem to
fit. Your competitor introduces a breakthrough product that makes yours obsolete. Your child’s performance in
school suddenly falls, but you’re not sure why. You lose your job without warning. The newness of the situation
and its unique conditions render any known approaches ineffective.
What is the solution when there is no solution? We’re glad you asked: you apply creative thinking, which
helps you to create a new solution path.
Opportunities (Heuristic, Proactive)
With change comes opportunity. Not all problems are negative; we consider a problem to be any puzzle
in search of a solution. The “problem” in this instance is to identify a future opportunity, and to fi nd a way to
get there.
Opportunities sometimes present themselves to us. “Look! Here I am! Now what?” We can take this
stimulus and imagine what might be—or not. An adhesive that wouldn’t adhere led to an opportunity known
as the Post-it note. A chocolate bar that melted in a scientist’s pocket led to the microwave oven. Boredom while
playing Scrabble led to the invention of a new, fast-paced word game called Bananagrams that has sold millions.15
18
(Don’t get us wrong, we love Scrabble. But imagine how many snail-paced Scrabble sessions did not lead to the
invention of an award-winning word game.)
Other opportunities are not so forthcoming. They require that an individual or organization seek: under-
standing the present situation and trends as a launching point for new opportunities. The existence of cassette
tapes—music in a small format—led to the creation of the Sony Walkman. Same industry, years later, the exis-
tence of digital data—music in an electronic format—led to the creation of MP3 players such as the Apple iPod.
All creative-thinking efforts start as a response to a situation. In some cases, you are reacting to a predica-
ment that has presented itself, such as the newspaper companies that are trying to survive in a world in which
people are increasingly getting their news through the Internet. In other cases, you see an opportunity emerging,
such as when [Link] recognized a future in digital books and released the Kindle e-book reader. Note
that Amazon did not release the fi rst e-book reader, nor did they choose to simply sell e-books; instead, they
did something unprecedented for the company: they created their own product.
We intentionally chose to look at how the digital world is impacting newspapers and booksellers to make
this point: that the same general circumstances can serve as a predicament for some, an opportunity for others.
In this instance, the movement to digital sources seems to be helping some while harming others. But is that
a matter of fact or a matter of perception? Consider: people are reading more digital content
and less printed content. In the book world, that translates to people buying more e-books
and fewer printed books. In the newspaper world, it means that more people are reading
the news online, and fewer are paying to subscribe to the printed paper. Here’s the point:
Amazon chose to see this as an opportunity, while the newspaper industry chose to see this
as a predicament. Is it not good news that more people are reading the news?
When facing a predicament or an opportunity, it is an awareness of the situation that
serves as a catalyst to creative thinking. In the case of predicaments, lack of awareness may
result in a catastrophic situation; eventually the problem cannot be ignored. In the case of
opportunities, lack of awareness means missing out. How many times have the leaders of
one company, after seeing what another had done, said, “Why didn’t we think of that!”
Amazon’s primary bookselling competitor, Barnes & Noble, now has its own e-book reader,
but they were reactive, not proactive, and they are now far behind in that race. (But hold
on: if you need another example of the pace of change, consider that the Kindle’s near-
monopoly was short-lived: the dedicated e-book reader was quickly challenged by tablets
such as the Apple iPad, which are e-book readers and much more.) What did Amazon do
next? It released its own tablet. And this time, Barnes & Noble was right behind them.
Part 1: Introduction to the Study of Creativity 19
Creating change is proactively looking for places to bring about new solutions and approaches. For ex-
ample, climate change (since we can’t seem to resist talking about the weather) is an unknown realm—we don’t
know enough about what’s coming to provide an algorithmic response—but that means it is an extraordinary
creative opportunity. And there are many more. Face the fronts that are approaching—an aging population, a
future oil shortage, ubiquitous high-speed live video streaming, an always-connected society, and others—and
ask: what opportunities do they create? Again, creative thinking is the way to exploit these opportunities.
Moving Forward
When we consider the rapidly changing 21st century, we fi nd ourselves on the border between two worlds:
one we recognize, and one we do not. Certainly, much of what is to come is within our experience. For those
issues, we know the correct responses; we know what will work. But there is much ahead that is new and un-
knowable. For those many situations, there is one common denominator: human creativity.
Change originates in creative thought. Creativity is a unique human characteristic that allows us to better
respond to external changes, such as technological advances and social developments. Further, creativity allows
us to imagine and then to create the kind of world we will live and work in—that is, to initiate change. To make
our own weather.
1
[Link] Economic and social implications. Psychology, Public Policy, and Law,
creative-than-humans 2, 447-472; Williams, W. M., & Yang, L. T. (1999). Organizational
2
Pink, D. H. (2006). A whole new mind. New York: Riverhead Books, creativity. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Handbook of creativity (pp. 226-250).
p. 50. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3
Florida, R. L. (2002). The rise of the creative class. New York: Basic 9
[Link]
Books, p. 8, p. 74. [Link]
4
Trilling, B. & Fadel, C. (2009). 21st century skills: Learning for life 10
[Link]
in our times. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, p. 3. 19750004273_1975004273.pdf
5
Trilling & Fadel, p. 10. 11
[Link]
6
Clark, H. (2006). “Jobs of the future.” [Link], [Link] 12
[Link]
com/2006/05/20/jobs-future-work_cx_hc_06work_0523jobs.html, para. smartphone
4. 13
[Link]
7
Popcorn, F. & Hanft, A. (2001). Dictionary of the future. New York: 14
[Link]
Hyperion. 15
[Link]
8
Hunter, J. E., & Schmidt, F. L. (1996). Intelligence an job performance:
20