Transmission media
Transmission media are the physical infrastructure components, which carry data from one computer to
another. They are the basis of data communications. Examples of simple forms of transmission media
are telephone wires that connect telephones to the central offi ces (i.e., telephone exchanges), and
coaxial cables that carry cable television transmission to homes.
Broadly, all transmission media can be divided into the following two main categories: Guided and
Unguided. Fig6.1
GUIDED MEDIA
Guided Media can be further subdivided into three main types fig 6.2
Guided media are typically based on some physical cable. Twisted pair wires and coaxial cables carry
signals in the form of electrical current, whereas optical fi bers carry signals in the form of light.
1. Twisted Pair Wire:
Two insulated conductors twisted together.
One of the conductors is used to carry the signal and the other is used as a ground reference.
Applications of Twisted pair cables :
Twisted Pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide data and voice channels.
Local Area Networks (LAN) also make use of twisted pair cables.
There are two classes of twisted pair wires:
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
[Link] Twisted Pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP)
This is the most commonly used medium today, due to its usage in the telephone
system. This cable can carry both voice as well as data. It consists of two conductors
(usually copper). Fig6.4
It results in the reduction of noise to a great extent, although it is not eliminated completely. The
copper conductors are covered by PVC or some other insulator.
Advantages:
UTP is Cheap
Installation is easy
It can be used for high speed LANs
Disadvantages:
It can be used only for short distances.
Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP.
Categories of UTP:
Category
1- This is the basic cable used in a telephone system. This is suitable for voice communication, but
unsuitable for data communication, except for very low speed.
2- Suitable for voice and data communication up to the speed of 4 Mbps.
3- Can carry voice and data up to 10 Mbps. Today, these are more regularly used in telephone networks.
4- These are similar to Category 3, but can handle data up to 16 Mbps.
5- Can handle data speed of 100 Mbps
Shielded Twisted pair(STP)
The twisted pair wire itself is carried by a metal shield, and fi nally
by a plastic cover. Fig6.6
The metal shield prevents penetration of electromagnetic noise.
It also helps eliminate crosstalk, an effect wherein one wire picks up some of the signals
travelling on the other wire. This effect can be felt during telephone conversations sometimes,
when we hear other conversations in the background during our call.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP
Eliminates crosstalk
Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair
Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture
More expensive
Bulky
2. Coaxial Cable :
Fig 6.7
Coaxial cable (also called coax) has an inner central conductor surrounded by an insulating
sheath, which in turn is enclosed in an outer conductor (shield).
This acts not only as a second conductor for completing the circuit but also acts as a shield
against noise.
This outer conductor is covered by a plastic cover.
Various coaxial cable standards are RG-8, RG-9, RG-11, RG-58 and RG-59.
Cable TVs and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.
Advantages:
It is easy to install.
Coaxial cables has high bandwidth
Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
Disadvantages:
Coaxial cables are expensive
Fault in the cable can cause failure in the entire network.
[Link] Fiber:
1. Optical fibre structure:
In case of optical fibers, light is used as a means of signal propagation, instead of electrical
signals.
Optical fibers are made up of glass fibers that are enclosed in a plastic jacket. This allows
fibers to bend and not break.
A transmitter at the sender’s end of the optical fi ber sends a light emitting diode (LED) or
laser to send pulses of light across the fi ber. A receiver at the other end makes use of a
light-sensitive transistor to detect the absence or presence of light to indicate a 0 or a 1.
Fig6.8
The fiber is covered by a buffer layer, which protects it from [Link] outer jacket can be
made of Teflon. Finally, an outer jacket surrounds the entire cable.
2. Light Source for fiber:
For data transmission to occur, the sending device must be capable of inducing data bits 0 to 1
into the light source and the receiving device must have a photosensitive cell called photodiode.
There are two types of light sources: Light Emitting Diode (LED) and Injection Laser Diode (ILD).
LED is cheaper but it provides unfocussed light that hits the boundaries of the core at different
angles and diffuses over distance. This is why LED is used only for a short distance.
A laser diode is like a light-emitting diode that emits a high-powered light through a glass lens to
reduce signal loss.
Bending of Light:
Light travels at a speed of 300,000 km/second or 186,000 miles/second in a straight direction
as long as it moves through a uniform substance.
However, when the medium through which the light passes changes, its speed and therefore,
the direction, also changes suddenly.
A spoon half-immersed in a glass of water appears bent due to the same reason. This
phenomenon is called refraction. Fig7.9e
. If we change the direction of the incoming light, the direction of the refracted light also
changes. Finally, we reach a stage, where the refracted light becomes horizontal as shown in
Figs 6.9(a) and (b). After this stage, if the angle still changes, the light is not refracted; instead, it
is reflected.
[Link] Modes:
There are different modes of propagation, depending upon the physical characteristics of the fiber and
the light source. Fig7.10
Multimode:
In this case, LED is mostly used as a light source. Therefore, multiple beams pass through the core in
different paths. The structure of the core decides the way they travel.
[Link] Index:
Fig 7.11
The core has one density and the cladding has another. Therefore, at the interface, there is
a sudden change. That is why it is called step index. Multiple beams take different paths on
reflection .
The beam, which strikes the core at a smaller angle, has to be refl ected many more times
than the beam which shifted the core at a larger angle to reach the other end. This means
that at the destination, all beams do not reach simultaneously.
This creates diffusion and confusion in terms of interpretation. Due to this, this scheme is
used only for a shorter distance.
2. Graded Index:
In this case, the core itself is made of a material of varying densities. The density is highest at the
core and gradually decreases towards the edge.
Therefore, a beam goes through gradual refraction giving rise to a curve .
The different beams result in different curves or waveforms, but the geometry suggests that
they increase at regular intervals Fig 7.12
Single Mode:
Single-mode fiber allows only one transmission mode.
It can transmit higher bandwidth than multimode fiber but requires a light source with a limited
spectral [Link] of light can only propagate through single-mode fiber optic cables due to
their small core diameters.
As a result, the amount of light reflection that occurs as light passes through the core is reduced,
reducing attenuation and allowing the signal to propagate further. Fig 7.13
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable:
Resistance to noise
Huge bandwidth
Higher signal carrying capacity
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable:
Fragility
Cost
Maintenance overhead
UNGUIDED MEDIA
Unguided media also called wireless communication transport electromagnetic waves without
using a physical conductor. The signals propagate through air (or sometimes water). Fig 7.14
Very Low Frequency (VLF) waves propagate as surface waves, usually through air, but
sometimes also through water. VLF waves do not suffer attenuation, but are affected
byatmospheric noise. VLF waves are usually used for long-range radio navigation and submarine
communication.
Low Frequency (LF) waves also propagate as surface waves. Attenuation is higher during the
daytime. These waves are used for long-range radio navigation or navigation locators.
Middle Frequency (MF) waves rely on line-of-sight antennas to increase and control absorption
problems. These waves are used for AM radio, radio direction finding and emergency
frequencies.
High Frequency (HF) waves are used for amateur radio, citizen’s band radio, international
broadcasting, military communication, telephone, telegraph and facsimile communication.
Very High Frequency (VHF) waves use line-of-sight propagation, and are used for VHF television,
FM radio, aircraft AM radio and aircraft navigation.
Ultra High Frequency (UHF) waves use line-of-sight propagation. They are used for television,
mobile phone, cellular radio, paging and microwave links.
Super High Frequency (SHF) waves are transmitted as either line-of-sight or into the space. They
are used for terrestrial and satellite microwave and radar communication.
Extremely High Frequency (EHF) waves are transmitted into space and are used for scientific
applications such as radar, satellite and experimental communication.
Microwave Communication:
Fig 7.15
Microwaves use the line-of-sight method of propagation, as the signals do not travel along the
surface of the earth.
Therefore, the two antennas must be in a straight line, able to look at each other without any
obstacle in between.
The taller the antenna, the more is the distance that these waves travel. Usually, the antennas
are positioned on mountains to avoid obstacles.
Microwave signals travel only in one direction at a time. This means that for two-way
communication such as in telephony, two frequencies need to be allocated. At both ends, a
transceiver is used which is a combination of a transmitter and a receiver, operating at the two
respective frequencies.
Therefore, only one antenna can serve both the functions and cover both the frequencies.
Repeaters are used along with the antennas to enhance the signal. The data rates offered are 1
Mbps to 10 Gbps.
Advantages:
Supports larger Bandwidth so more information is transmitted.
They are used for point-to-point communication.
Cheaper as compared to Radio waves.
Disadvantages:
The cost of equipment or installation cost is high.
Susceptible to weather conditions.
Applications of Microwaves:
Bluetooth: In Bluetooth, Communication is done through Ultra high frequency (UHF) radio
waves.
Wi-Fi: In Wi-fi , data is transferred using microwave.
GPS: In order to locate the positions, microwaves are used.