Genetic engineering is the direct manipulation of an organism using biotechnology.
It alters
the genomes that include the insertion of genes.
> Includes cloning, gene splicing, gel electrophoresis and DNA recombinant technology
Artificial selection indirectly manipulate genes focusing on the physical traits among
organisms
Selective breeding - animals with desired characteristics are mated to produce offspring with
those desired traits
Hybridization - when two individuals with unlike characteristics are crossed to produce the
best in both organisms
Inbreeding - genetically similar to maintain desired traits found in the pure dog traits
Recombinant DNA Technology - inserting the desired gene into the genome of the host.
● Recombinant DNA is made by mixing DNA from two different sources.
● Restriction enzyme - (1968) discovered by Swiss microbiologist Werner Abe - splice,
connect, remove and add nucleotides to the DNA sequence. Used in recombinant
DNA technology.
Cloning - a technique scientists use to make exact genetic copies of living things.
Embryo Twinning - to clone a gene, researchers take DNA from a living creature and insert it
into a carrier like bacteria or yeast.
Somatic Cell - make up an organism but are not a sperm or egg cell. It contains two full sets
of chromosomes.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer - Scientists transfer the DNA from an animal's somatic cell
into an egg cell that has had its nucleus and DNA removed. The egg develops into an
embryo that contains the same genes as the cell donor. Then the embryo is implanted into an
adult female's uterus to grow.
Dolly - the first sheep Scottish scientist cloned in 1996 using an udder cell from an adult
sheep.
With genetic engineering, we will be able to increase the complexity of our DNA and improve
the human race. - Stephen Hawkings
The geologic time scale
4.6 billion years of Earth history
Geologic time scale - record of life forms and geological events by studying rock layers and
fossil
Radioactive dating - determine the absolute divisions in the time scale.
Division of geologic time
Eras > Period > Epochs
Geologic time began with Precambrian time which covers 88% of Earth's history.
Paleozoic era (Ancient life)
> The Age of Fish
Start: Cambrian Period | The age of trilobites.
> Explosion of life forms in the ocean
> Invertebrates were dominant - Trilobites
> Fish led to arrival of Amphibians
> Carboniferous period
> Appalachian mountains were formed
> Formation of Pangea
End: Permian Period
> Largest mass extinction in history that wiped out 97% of all life on earth.
Possible Causes: Lowering of sea levels, increased volcanic activity, climate change
Mesozoic era (Middle life)
> The age of Reptiles
Start: Triassic Period
> Pangea still joined together broke up
> Reptiles became most abundant because of their ability to adapt
> Dinosaurs were very active
> Small mammals and birds appeared during this era
> Main plant of the time is Gymnosperms (produce seeds but no flowers)
> Flowering plants appear during the end of this era
End: Cretaceous Period
> Era ended with a mass extinction event about 65 million years ago
Cenozoic era (Modern life)
> The age of Mammals
Start: Paleocene Period
> 65 million years ago and continuous today
Holocene Epoch of Quaternary Period
> Many mountain ranges formed
> Ice ages occurred late in this era
THEORIES OF EVOLUTION
Lamarckian vs. Darwinian
Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s theory of evolution, organisms change during their lifetime to survive
then pass these changes to their offspring.
Charles Darwin’s theory involves natural selection and struggle for existence. When an
organism is fit and can adapt to its environment, it has a better chance to survive and more
chance to reproduce.
Mechanisms of Evolutionary Changes
1. Genetic Drift - change in the gene pool of the population due to chance. Ex: Bottleneck effect
and Founder effect
● Bottleneck effect - when population change decreases due to various environmental
factors.
● Founder effect - when small population of organisms separates from a larger group to
invade new area
2. Gene Flow - the movement of genes from one population to another. Increase gene
diversity in the population.
3. Mutation - any change in DNA sequence of a cell.
4. Natural selection -
the population of living organisms adapt and change.
5. Non-random mating - increases the frequency of animals with desirable traits. It causes
evolution because it intrudes the natural pool of gene variations.
PATTERNS OF DESCENT WITH MODIFICATION
Speciation - formation of me species| occurs when some members of the population of specific
species get separated from others and when there are changes in their genetic make up. When
this happens, they can no longer mate or interbreed for they have evolved into new species
overtime. They are Reproductively Isolated
Speciation - process of formation of a new genetically independent group of organisms called
species through the course of evolution.
Species - group of living organisms consisting of similar individuals capable of exchanging
genes or interbreeding. The species is the principal natural taxonomic unit. Ranking below a
genus and denoted by a Latin binomial.
Modes of Speciation
1. Allopatric Speciation - Geographical Barrier | (allo-other, patric-place; other place)
2. Sympatric Speciation - Genetic Polymorphism | (sym-same, patric-place; same place)
3. Parapatric Speciation - Partial Spatial Isolation | (para-beside, patric-place; beside each
other)
Reproductive Isolating Mechanism
1. Pre-zygotic mechanisms - prevent fertilization and zygote formation
2. Post-zygotic mechanisms - allow fertilization but non-viable or sterile hybrids are formed
Pre-zygotic Isolation;
Geographic - potential mates occupy different areas or habitats this, they never come in
contact
Temporal - different groups may not be reproductively mature at the same season or month or
year
Behavioral - patterns of courtship are different
Mechanical - differences in reproductive organs prevent successful interbreeding
Gametic - incompatibilities between egg and sperm prevent fertilization
Post-zygotic Isolation;
Hybrid Inviability - fertilize egg fails to develop past the embryonic stages
Hybrid Sterility - hybrids are sterile because gonads develop abnormally or there is abnormal
segregation of chromosomes during meiosis
Hybrid Breakdown - F1 hybrid are normal, vigorous and viable, but F2 contains many weak or
sterile individuals
DEVELOPMENT OF EVOLUTIONARY THOUGHT
> a controversial idea during its early beginning.
(Important parts are highlighted in the pot itself ☝️☝️☝️)
EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Fossil Records
- supported the idea of evolutionary progression
- provides evidence of evolution from one species to another
- only hard tissue is preserved
Comparative Anatomy
1. Homologous Structures - similar physical features but completely different function
2. Analogous Structures - features similar in function but not necessarily in structure
3. Vestigial Structures - features that have no known function
Comparative Embryology
> The study of the similarities and differences in the embryos of different species
Biogeography
> Understanding how very closely related species ended up in completely different parts of the
world
> Support for Pangea
> Geological changes and migration
TAXONOMIC CLASSIFICATION
Taxonomy - system of classification of the biological resources that exist in the world
Three (3) Domains of Life
1. Eukaryota
2. Bacteria
3. Archaea
all bacteria were once classified into Kingdom Monera
Archaeabacteria
> Also known as extremophiles
> Cell wall does not contain peptidoglycan but is pseudopeptidoglycan
> Single-celled and simple microorganisms
> Found in unusual environments
> Asexual reproduction
> Non-pathogens
Eubacteria
> Form spores to remain dormant over years
> Cell wall contains peptidoglycan
> Single-celled and complex microorganisms
> Found almost everywhere
> Asexual reproduction and recombination
> Pathogens
Kids, Prefer, Candy, Over, Fried, Spinach
Carolus Linnaeus
> Father of Modern Taxonomy
(The rest are easy to remember once you read the ppt hehez luv u all 🫀🫀🫀)