CO2

SIGNALS and SYSTEMS: Introduction to signals & Systems. Signal representation, Classification
of signals – continuous & discrete
Periodic & aperiodic signals, periodicity, Sinusoidal and complex exponential signals Power &
Energy Signals
 Signals and Systems
• Signals: anything with information
(Temperature, images, market price etc.)

• Systems: Anything that can process the signal information

(Radio tuning to a freq, photo editing software, fingerprint log-in etc.)

Input System Output

Signal Signal

• Act of processing the signals using systems is Signal Processing.

 Signal Representation
• For a function f , in the expression f (t1, t2, . . . , tn),
• each of the {tk} is called an independent variable,
• while the function value itself is referred to as a dependent variable.

• CT signal is called a function.

• The nth element of a function ‘ f ’ is denoted as either f(n)

 Signal Classification – number of independent variables
• Signal is function of one or more variables the gives information of physical
phenomenon

• 1D signals – signal due to one variable.

(speech signal – amplitude varies with
time depends on spoken word)

• Multi-D signal – signal due to 2 or more variable

(image : horizontal and vertical coordinates,
3D video frames)
 Signal Classification – continuous and Discrete

CT signals - Values defined for all values of t DT signals- Values defined at discrete
instances of time
Eg: Voltage waveform Eg: Digital Audio

*Sampling continuous time signals at uniform rate gives discrete time signals
 Dependent-Variable Transformations
• Operations performed on dependent variables:
1. Amplitude scaling:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝒙(𝒕)
𝛼 is scaling factor such that.

If 𝛼 < 1 → attenuation of signal &

If 𝛼 > 1 → amplification of signal
Eg: Electronic Amplifiers

2. Addition/Subtraction of Signals:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 ± 𝒙𝟐 𝒕
Eg: Audio mixer
3. Multiplication of Signals
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 ∗ 𝑥2 𝑡
Eg: AM radio signal → Audio signal * Sinusoidal carrier wave

4. Differentiation: derivative of 𝑥 𝑡
𝑑 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑖(𝑡)
Eg: Inductor voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿
𝑑𝑥

5. Integration: integral of 𝑥 𝑡

𝑦 𝑡 = න 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
1
Eg: capacitor voltage 𝑣 𝑡 = ‫ )𝑡(𝑖 ׬‬dt
𝐶
 Independent-Variable Transformations
1. Time Shifting (Translation)
Time shifting (also called translation) maps the input signal x to the output signal y as given by

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑡0
Where 𝑡0 is the time shift

• Such a transformation shifts the signal (to the left or right) along the time axis.

• If 𝑡0 > 0, y is shifted to the right by | 𝑡0 |, relative to x (i.e., delayed in time).

• If 𝑡0 < 0, y is shifted to the left by | 𝑡0 |, relative to x (i.e., advanced in time).

Time Shifting
2. Time Reversal (Reflection)/ Time folding
• Time reversal (also known as reflection) maps the input signal x to the output
signal y as given by
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑡
• Geometrically, the output signal y is a reflection of the input signal x about the
(vertical) line t = 0.
3. Time Scaling (Compression/Expansion (Dilation)):
• Time scaling maps the input signal x to the output signal y as given by

𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑎𝑡
where a is a nonzero real number → scaling factor

• If |a| > 1, the signal is compressed along the time axis (divide by |a|).
• If |a| < 1, the signal is expanded (i.e., stretched) along the time axis (divide by |a|)
• If |a| = 1, the signal is neither expanded nor compressed.
• If a < 0, the signal is also time reversed.
• Time Scaling
Precedence rules for operation on independent variables
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 ± 𝑏

Rule: Time shifting → Time Scaling → Time reversal

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑥 𝑡±𝑏 → 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 ± 𝑏 → 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 ± 𝑏

Given x(t) as shown below, find x(2t −1).

 Dependent-Variable Transformations - revisit
1. Amplitude Scaling
• Amplitude scaling maps the input signal x to
the output signal y as given by
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝜶 𝒙(𝒕)
• Amplitude Shifting
• Amplitude shifting maps the input signal x to the output signal y as
given by
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 +𝒃
Geometrically, amplitude shifting adds a vertical displacement to x.
 Precedence in combination of all operation
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑐 ∗ 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 + 𝑑

Rule: Time shifting → Time Scaling → Time reversal → Amplitude Scaling → Amplitude shifting

𝑥 𝑡 → 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏 → 𝑥 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 → 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 → 𝑐 ∗ 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 →

𝑐 ∗ 𝑥 −𝑎𝑡 + 𝑏 + 𝑑
For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the following signals
𝑥(𝑡)

-2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
𝑥(3𝑡)
1. 𝑥(3𝑡)
1

-2 -1 -1/3 0 1/3 1 2 𝑡
 For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the following signals 𝑥(𝑡)

𝑥(3𝑡 + 2)

-2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡

𝑥(𝑡+2) 𝑥(3𝑡+2)

1 1

-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡 -2 -1 -1/3 0 1 2 𝑡
 For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the following signals 𝑥(𝑡-1)
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥(−2𝑡 − 1) 1
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡
-2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡

𝑥(2𝑡-1) 𝑥(-2𝑡-1)
1 1

-2 -1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
𝑡
 For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the following signals
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑥{2(𝑡 + 2)}
1
𝑥 2 𝑡+2 = 𝑥(2𝑡 + 4)

-2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
𝑥(𝑡+4) 𝑥(2𝑡+4)
1 1

-5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡 -3 -2.5 -2 -1.5 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
𝒆𝒙𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒆 𝒒𝒖𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔: 𝟏. 𝒙{𝟐(𝒕 − 𝟐)} 2. 𝒙 𝟑𝒕 + 𝒙(𝟑𝒕 + 𝟐)
 𝑥(t)
For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the signal 2𝑥 −2𝑡 + 3 + 3
1

𝑥(t+3) 𝑥(2t+3)

1 1 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡

2𝑥(-2t+3)
𝑥(-2t+3)
2

1
1

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡
 𝑡 𝑥(t)
For the signal 𝑥(𝑡) shown, sketch the signal 2𝑥 −1
2
1
𝑥(t-1)
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡
2𝑥(0.5t-1)
𝑥(0.5t-1)
2
1
1

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 𝑡
 Practice Questions
𝑡
𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑡 − 𝑥( 1)
3
𝑥(𝑡)
1
Given 𝑥 𝑡 and 𝑦 𝑡 , sketch the following
1. 𝑥 𝑡 𝑦 𝑡 − 1
-2 -1 0 1 𝑡 2. 𝑥 𝑡 − 1 𝑦 −𝑡
-1 3. 𝑥 𝑡 + 1 𝑦 𝑡 − 2
𝑥(𝑡) y(𝑡)
1 1

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 𝑡 -2 -1 0 1 2 𝑡
-1 -1
 Properties of CT Signals
• Even and Odd Signals
• Periodic and Non-Periodic Signals
• Energy and Power Signals
 Even Signals
• A function/signal 𝑥 is said to be even if it satisfies
𝑥(−𝑡) = 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡.

Geometrically, the graph of an even signal is symmetric about the y axis. Time reversal gives
same result
Odd Signals
• A function/signal 𝑥 is said to be odd if it satisfies
𝑥 −𝑡 = −𝑥(𝑡) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡.

Geometrically, the graph of an odd signal is symmetric about the origin (opposite
Quadrent).
An odd signal x must be such that x(0) = 0.
• Signal is sum of even and odd component

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 …..(1)

𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 −𝑡

𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 − 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 …..(2)

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥𝑒 𝑡 =
2
𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑜𝑑𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑥𝑜 𝑡 =
2
Find the even and odd component of the signals
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑥 −𝑡 = cos 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 − sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = = cos 𝑡
2

𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = = sin 𝑡 + sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡
2
Find the even and odd component of the signals
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑡 + 3𝑡 2 + 5𝑡 3 +9𝑡 4

𝑥 −𝑡 = 1 − 𝑡 + 3𝑡 2 − 5𝑡 3 +9𝑡 4

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = = 1 + 3𝑡 2 + 9𝑡 4
2

𝑥 𝑡 − 𝑥 −𝑡
𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = = 𝑡 + 5𝑡 3
2
Find the even and odd component of the signals
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 1 + t cos 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡 + 𝑡 3 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑥 −𝑡 = 1 − t cos 𝑡 − 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡 + 𝑡 3 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑥𝑒 𝑡 = 1 + 𝑡 3 sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡

𝑥𝑜 𝑡 = t cos 𝑡 + 𝑡 2 sin 𝑡
• Find the even and odd component of the signal x(t)
x(t) x(-t)
1 1

-1 t
1 t
Xo(t)
Xe(t) 0.5 -x(-t)

0.5
-1
-1 t
1 t
-1
-0.5
-1 1 t
• Find the even and odd component of the signal x(t) -x(-t)
x(t) x(-t)
2 -3 -2
2 t
1 -1
1
t -2
-3 -2
2 3 Xo(t)
1
Xe(t) 0.5
1
-2
0.5 2 3
-0.5

-3 -2 2 3 t -1
• Find the even and odd component of the signal x(t) -x(-t)
x(t) x(-t)
1 1 0.5
0.5 1
0.5
-1
-0.5
-1 1 t -1 1 t
-0.5 -1
-0.5 xo(t)
xe(t) 0.5

0.5
1
0.25 -1 t

-1 1 t -0.5
Practice Questions :Find the even and odd component of the signal x(t)

f(t)
4
x(t)
3
2
1 2
1
-1 1 2 3 t -2 -1
-0.5 1 2 t

-2
 Periodic Signals

• A function/signal 𝑥 𝑡 is said to be periodic with period T if, for some strictly-positive

real constant T, the following condition holds:

𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡, 𝑏 𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟

1
• A T-periodic function 𝑥 is said to have frequency
𝑇
 Periodic Signals

The smallest period with which a signal is periodic is called the fundamental period
and its corresponding frequency is called the fundamental frequency.

Aperiodic Signals are signals that are not periodic or signals with relationship
𝑥 𝑡 ≠ 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑏𝑇
• Say 𝑥(𝑡) is a sinusoidal signal expressed as 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙

• For 𝑥(𝑡) to be periodic 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑥(𝑡)

• Equation for 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 is ,

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝐴 sin{𝜔(𝑡 + 𝑇) + 𝜙}

= 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜔𝑇 + 𝜙)
2𝜋
= 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋 + 𝜙 𝜔=
𝑇
= 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙
2𝜋
Hence: 𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑥(𝑡) ; fundamental period = 𝑇 =
𝜔
 Common periodicity
• Sum of two periodic signals 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 is 𝑥 𝑡
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡

Periods of signals 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 be 𝑇1 and 𝑇2

𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑇1 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑇1
𝑥2 𝑡 = 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑇2 = 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇2

If 𝑥 𝑡 has period of T then,

𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑇 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑚𝑇1 + 𝑥2 𝑡 + 𝑛𝑇2

Implies: 𝑇 = 𝑚𝑇1 = 𝑛𝑇2

𝑇1 𝑛
Thus, T exists 𝑓𝑜𝑟 = should be a rational number
𝑇2 𝑚
Sum of Periodic Signals
• Sum of two periodic signals 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 is periodic iff the ratio of
𝑇1
their respective time periods is a rational number.
𝑇2

𝑇1
𝑥3 𝑡 = 𝑥1 𝑡 + 𝑥2 𝑡 𝑖𝑓𝑓 → 𝑎 , 𝑎 → 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑇2

• The fundamental period/common periodicity is given by

𝑇3 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 (𝑇1 , 𝑇2 )
Find the fundamental period of the following signals
1. 𝑥 𝑡 = 7 sin 3𝑡
2𝜋
𝜔0 = 3 ; 𝑇0 =
3
2. 𝑥 𝑡 = sin(8𝑡 + 30)
2𝜋 𝜋
𝜔0 = 8 ; 𝑇0 = =
8 4
3. 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 𝑗2𝑡
2𝜋
𝑒 𝑗2𝑡
= cos 2𝑡 + 𝑗 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 ; 𝜔0 = 2 ; 𝑇0 = =𝜋
2
4. 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝑡 + sin 2𝑡
𝜔1 = 1 → 𝑇1 = 2𝜋 ; 𝜔2 = 2 → 𝑇2 = 𝜋

𝑇1
= 2 → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐
𝑇2
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇𝑜 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 = 2𝜋
Find the fundamental period of the following signals
5. 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 𝜋𝑡 + sin 𝑡
𝑇1 = 2; 𝑇2 = 2𝜋
𝑇1 1
= → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑎 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑜 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐
𝑇2 𝜋

6. 𝑥 𝑡 = cos 6𝜋𝑡 + sin 30𝜋𝑡

1 1
𝑇1 = ; 𝑇2 =
3 15
𝑇1
= 5 → 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐
𝑇2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑇𝑜 = 𝐿𝐶𝑀 𝑇1 , 𝑇2 =
3
6𝜋 6𝜋
7. 𝑥 𝑡 = sin 7
𝑡 + 3sin 4𝜋 𝑡 + 2sin 5
𝑡

7 1 5
𝑇1 = ; 𝑇2 = ; 𝑇3 =
3 2 3
𝑇1 14 𝑇1 7
= → 3𝑇1 = 14𝑇2 ; = → 5𝑇1 = 7𝑇2
𝑇2 3 𝑇3 5

To get common factors, 5 ∗ 3𝑇1 = 14𝑇2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 ∗ 5𝑇1 = 7𝑇2 𝒈𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒔 15𝑇1 = 70𝑇2 = 21𝑇3

7 1 5
Common periodicity 𝑇𝑜 = 15𝑇1 = 15* = 35 ; 70𝑇2 = 70∗ = 35; 21𝑇3 = 21∗ = 35
3 2 3
Energy and Power of Signal– to measure the strength of signals
The energy E contained in the signal 𝑥(𝑡) is given by
∞
𝐸 = න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
−∞
A signal with finite energy is said to be an energy signal.

The average power P contained in the signal 𝑥(𝑡) is given by

1 𝑇𝑜
P = න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙
𝑇𝑜
𝑇
1 2
𝑃 = lim න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 , 𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑇 𝑖𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
A signal with (nonzero) finite average power is said to be a power signal
Energy and Power of Signals i(t)

+
𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 𝑡 = R
𝑅
-
𝑣2 𝑡
Instantaneous power: 𝑝 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑡 × 𝑖 𝑡 = = 𝑖2 𝑡 × 𝑅
𝑅

Now, say 𝑣 𝑡 and 𝑖 𝑡 are the signals 𝑥 𝑡 , thus

𝑝 𝑡 = singal2 = 𝑥 𝑡 2

Instantaneous Energy 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑝 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡

Total energy over time 𝑡1 to 𝑡2 is

𝑡2
𝐸 = ‫|)𝑡(𝑥| 𝑡׬‬2 𝑑𝑡
1
• Average over time 𝑇1 to 𝑇2 is
𝑡2
1
𝑃 = න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 𝑡1

• Energy over infinite time durations

𝑇
∞
𝐸∞ = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 𝐸∞ = lim ‫|)𝑡(𝑥| ׬‬2 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑇
𝑇→ ∞ −2

• Average Power over infinite time durations

𝑇
𝐸∞ 1 2
𝑃∞ = lim 𝑃∞ = lim න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→ ∞ 𝑇 𝑇→∞ 𝑇 −𝑇
2
Classify the signal below as energy or power signals.
𝑡 ; 0≤𝑡≤1
𝑥 𝑡 = ቐ2 − 𝑡; 1 ≤ 𝑡 ≤ 2
0 ; 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑤𝑖𝑠𝑒

∞ 1 2
2
𝐸 =න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 + න (2 − 𝑡)2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐽
−∞ 0 1 3
→ Energy signal

1 𝑇 2
2
𝑃 = lim න |𝑥(𝑡)| 𝑑𝑡 = lim =0
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 0 𝑇→∞ 3𝑇

→not a power signal

Classify the signal below as energy or power signals.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑒 −𝑗2𝜋𝑡

𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = cos 𝜃 − 𝑗 sin 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑒 −𝑗𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 = 1

∞ ∞
𝐸 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 1 𝑑𝑡 =∞
→Not an energy signal

1 𝑇
𝑃 = lim න 1 𝑑𝑡 = lim 1 = 1
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 0 𝑇→∞

→Power signal
Classify the signal below as energy or power signals.
𝑡; 𝑡 ≥ 0
𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ
0; 𝑡 < 0

∞ 1
𝐸 =න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = න 𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 = ∞
−∞ 0
→Not an energy signal

1 𝑇 𝑡 3
𝑃 = lim න |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = lim =∞
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 0 𝑇→∞ 3𝑇

→Not a power signal

Classify the signal below as energy or power signals.
𝑥 𝑡 = cos 𝑡

∞ ∞
𝐸 = ‫׬‬−∞ |𝑥(𝑡)|2 𝑑𝑡 = ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ∞
→Not an energy signal

𝜔 = 1 ; 𝑇 = 2𝜋

1 𝜋 2
1
𝑃 = lim න 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
𝑇→∞ 𝑇 − 𝜋 2
→Power signal
 Practice Questions
Calculate the energy of the signals given below
𝑥(𝑡)
4 𝐸 = 96 𝐽
0 2 4 6
𝑡 𝑡
-4

𝑥(𝑡)
4
32
𝐸 = 𝐽
3
0 2 𝑡
 Elementary Signals – Unit Step Functionu(t)
The unit-step function, denoted u, is defined as
1; 𝑡 > 0 1
𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0; 𝑡 < 0 ...

At t=0, u(t) is discontinuous / not defined t

u(t-to) u(t+t1)
1
1
1; 𝑡 > t1
... 𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
1; 𝑡 > to ... 𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0; 𝑡 < t1
0; 𝑡 < to

to t t1 t
 Representing a Rectangular Pulse Using Unit-Step Functions
𝑥(𝑡)
1

a b t

𝑥(𝑡-a) 𝑥(𝑡-b)
1 1

a b t a b t
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏)
 Elementary Signals – Unit Ramp Function
r(t)
The unit-ramp function, denoted u, is defined as
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑡 ...

r(t)*u(t) t

...
𝑡; 𝑡 > 0
𝑟 𝑡 ∗𝑢 𝑡 =ቊ
0; 𝑡 < 0 u(t)
1
...
Delayed Ramp signal
r(t-a)*u(t-a)
t

a
 x(t)
• Represent x(t) using unit step 𝑥 𝑡 =ቊ
−𝑡 + 1; 0 ≤ 𝑡 < 1 1
𝑡 + 1; −1 ≤ 𝑡 < 0

x(t) x(t) x(t)

-1 1 t
1
X 1
= 1

𝑥1 𝑡 = 𝑡 + 1 ∗ {𝑢 𝑡 + 1 − 𝑢 𝑡 }

-1 1 t -1 1 t -1 1 t
x(t) x(t) x(t)

1
X 1
= 1
𝑥2 𝑡 = −𝑡 + 1 ∗ {𝑢 𝑡 − 𝑢 𝑡 − 1 }

1 t -1 1 t -1 1 t

𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒙𝟐(𝒕) = 𝒕 + 𝟏 ∗ 𝒖 𝒕 + 𝟏 − 𝒖 𝒕 + −𝒕 + 𝟏 ∗ {𝒖 𝒕 − 𝒖 𝒕 − 𝟏 }
Represent x(t) using unit step

y(t)
2
t−2 4−𝑡

1 2 3 4 t
𝒚 𝒕 =𝒖 𝒕 −𝒖 𝒕−𝟏 + 𝐭−𝟐 𝟐 ∗ 𝒖 𝒕−𝟏 −𝒖 𝒕−𝟑 + 𝟒 − 𝒕 ∗ {𝒖 𝒕 − 𝟑 − 𝒖 𝒕 − 𝟒 }
 unit Impulse signal
• The unit-impulse function (delta function), denoted δ, is defined by the following two properties:

0; 𝑡 ≠ 0
𝛿 𝑡 =ቊ
∞; 𝑡 = 0

∞
න 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 1
−∞
𝛿 𝑡 is the derivative if step function

Graphically, the delta function is represented as shown below

δ can be viewed as a limiting case of a rectangular pulse
where the pulse width becomes infinitely small and the
pulse height becomes infinitely large in such a way that
the integral of the resulting function remains unity.
∞
න 𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏
Properties of the Unit-Impulse Function
Equivalence property: For any continuous function 𝑥 and any real constant 𝑡0

𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 = 𝑥 𝑡0 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0
NOTE: 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 ≠ 𝑥 𝑡0
Sifting property. For any continuous function x and any real constant

∞
න 𝑥 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − 𝑡0 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡0
−∞

The 𝛿 function also has the following properties:

1
𝛿 𝑎𝑡 = 𝛿 𝑡
𝑎
where 𝑎 is a nonzero real constant.
Integration

𝛽>0
• ‫<𝛼׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 = 𝑓 0 = 1 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑓 𝑡 = 1;

• If 𝛼 < 0, 𝛽 < 0 or 𝛼 > 0, 𝛽 > 0

𝛽>0
• ‫<𝛼׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 =0

Differentiation
𝛽>0
• ‫<𝛼׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 𝑛 𝑡 = −1 𝑛 𝑓 𝑛 (0)

𝛽>0
• ‫<𝛼׬‬0 𝑓 𝑡 𝛿 ′ 𝑡 = −𝑓 ′ (0)
Evaluate
𝜋
1. y(t)=sin 𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 − )
6
𝜋 𝜋 1 𝜋
Sol: y(t)=sin 𝛿 𝑡− = 𝛿 𝑡− using equivalence property
6 6 2 6

∞
2. y(t)= ‫׬‬−∞ cos(2𝑡)𝛿(𝑡 − 1)
Sol: y(t)=cos(2) using sifting property

𝑇
3. y(t)= ‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
0; 𝑡 < 0
Sol: y(t)= ቊ =𝑢 𝑡
1; 𝑡 ≥ 0
Evaluate
𝑇
4. y(t)=‫׬‬−∞(𝑡 2 + 1) 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 dt

Sol:
Using equivalence property
𝑇
y(t) = ‫׬‬−∞(22 + 1) 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 dt
𝑇
=5‫׬‬−∞ 𝛿 𝑡 − 2 dt
Using sifting property

0; 𝑡 < 2
y(t) = ቊ =𝑢 𝑡−2
1; 𝑡 ≥ 2
Evaluate
∞ 𝜋
5. ‫׬‬−∞ 𝑒 −𝑡 cos 𝑡 𝛿(𝑡 + sin 2𝑡 𝛿 𝑡 − ]𝑑𝑡
4

2𝜋
Sol: 1 + sin =2
4

∞ 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
6. ‫׬‬−∞ sin 𝑡 𝛿 𝑡− + 𝛿′ 𝑡 − + 𝛿 ′′ 𝑡 − 𝑑𝑡
4 2 2

𝜋 ′ 𝜋 2 ′′ 1
Sol: sin( ) + (−1)𝑠𝑖𝑛 ( ) +(−1) 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (𝜋) =
4 2 2