Fundamentals of Textile Machines & Processes

Course code - TTDC-0101

by

Dr. A Mukhopadhyay
Professor, NIT Jalandhar, Punjab 144008
Department of Textile Technology
 Books Recommended
1. Rose Sinclair, Textiles and Fashion: Materials, Design and Technology,
Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, 2015
2. Gohl E P G and Vilensky L D, Textile Science, CBS Publishers and Distributors,
New Delhi.
3. Corbman Bernard P., “Textiles Fiber to Fabric”, McGraw-Hill International
Editions, Singapore, 1983.
4. “Handbook of Technical Textiles”, Ed. A R Horrocks and S C Anand,
Woodhead PublicationLtd., Cambridge, 2000.
5. Textile Design: Principles, Advances and Applications, Edited by A Briggs-
Goode and K Townsend, Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles No. 112, 2011.
6. Handbook of Nonwovens, Edited by S Russell, Woodhead Publishing Series in
Textiles No. 58, 2006, UK.
7. Morton W E and Hearle J W S, “Physical Properties of Textile Fibres”,
Woodhead Publishing Series in Textiles No. 68, 2008, UK.

2
 Assessment and Evaluation policy

Assessment Weightage (%)

Mid SEM 30

End SEM 50

Quizes + Assignments 20

Total 100

Attendance: As per Institute guidelines

3
Introduction

4
Textile Products

5
Textile Products

6
Technical Textile

7
Textile Products
 Different types of protective clothing

Fabric assemble for extreme cold

clothing Fabric assemble for ballistic
protection-Bullet proof jacket UV radiation protective
clothing

NBC/CBRN suits- for nuclear,

biological and chemical Flame retardant wear 9
Technical Textile products

10
 Non-implantable (wound dressings, bandages,
plasters)

Implantable (sutures, vascular grafts, artificial

Classification of ligaments, artificial
material based joints, etc)

on area of
Extra-corporeal (artificial kidney, liver, and lung)
application
Healthcare and hygiene products (bedding, clothing,
surgical gowns, cloths, wipes)

11
Classification of fibers

12
 History of the origin of natural textile fibers

✓ Flax is one of the oldest agricultural plants in the world. Over 5000 years ago the Egyptians named it

“woven moonlight”, due to its very singular beauty. Linen is the most ancient vegetable fabric known to

man. For centuries people have been growing flax to make fiber and weave linen. But despite its

venerable age flax remains to be as young as ever.

✓ The oldest cotton fibers and boll fragments, dated from around 5000 B.C., were discovered in Mexico.

Cotton has been worn in India and Egypt for over 5,000 years. In 1793, Eli Whitney developed the

cotton gin, which mechanically separates the seed from the lint fiber. Technology has improved over the

past centuries making cotton growth and production much more efficient
 History of the origin of natural textile fibers
Wool Fibers
✓ Over 8,000 years ago people domesticated sheep. Sheep were one of the first
animals to be herded by humans. Sheep helped provide people with food,
clothing, and shelter. As humans moved from place to place, sheep were easy to
herd and take with them.

✓ Buying and selling wool cloth was important to many areas. As early as 4,000 B.C.
woolen cloth was being used in the city of Babylon. Babylon means “land of wool.”
Fibre manufacturing

16
 Flow chart of textile manufacturing
Input Manufacturing step/division Output/ End products

Yarn manufacturing Yarns

Textile fibres
(Spinning mill)

Fabric manufacturing
Yarn Grey fabrics
(Knitting and weaving)

Wet processing Finished

Grey fabric
(Pretreatment, dyeing, printing and fabrics
finishing

Finished
Garment manufacturing Garments
fabrics

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Textile manufacturing flowchart
 Flow chart of spinning processing
Input Manufacturing steps Output

Bale of Cotton Blow room Lap

Lap Carding Carded sliver

Carded sliver Drawing Drawn sliver

Drawn sliver Simplex Roving

Roving Ring frame Yarn

Yarn on bobbin Winding (Autoconer) Output

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 Yarn spinning process : Fibre to yarn

Cotton Boll Cotton Sliver

Yarn Package (Cone) Ring Bobbins Roving 20

 Flow chart of fabric manufacturing
Fabric manufacturing

Weaving Knitting Non-weaving process

Weaving Weaving Warp knitting Weft knitting ➢ Needle punch

preparation mechanism nonwoven
➢ Spun lace
➢ Tricot ➢ Single jersey nonwovens
➢ Winding ➢ Stich ➢ Double ➢ Pulp-air laid
➢ Warping bonding Jersey nonwoven
➢ Sizing ➢ Raschel ➢ Interlock ➢ Wet
➢ Tappet ➢ Purl nonwoven
➢ Dobby ➢ Spun bond
➢ Jacquard ➢ Melt blown

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Fabric Forming Process : Yarns to Fabric

Warpin
g

Knittin
g Sizing

Knitted
fabrics Weavin
g

Woven
fabrics
22
 Flow chart of wet process

Sizing

De-sizing

Scouring
Wastewater collection,
Bleaching Mercerizing equalization and
neutralization
Dyeing

Finishing

Finished
fabric 23
Flow chart of garment manufacturing

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 Flow chart of garment manufacturing
Operations Job/Tasks
1. Design/Sketch Most of the design comes to manufacture including all measurements
2. Basic block Individual components/full garment without any allowance/design or style
3. Working pattern Individual components/full garment without any allowance/design or style
4. Sample making Make samples with allowance and other features; send to buyer for approval
5. Basic
Identify all the manufacturing difficulties; list down and propose solution while bulk
manufacturing
production
difficulties
6. Approved sample Samples having no faults buyer will give approval for bulk order, called approved sample
7. Costing Includes making cost, material cost, profit. Negotiate with buyer before bulk production
8. Production
Making pattern for bulk order with all necessary items required
pattern

9. Grading Following approved samples, different sizes samples are made i.e. S, L, M, XL, XXL

10. Marker making Marker is a thin paper contain patterns of all sizes according to the ration.
11. Fabric spreading Fabric spread according to the marker plan for suitable cutting
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 Flow chart of garment manufacturing
12. Fabric cutting Fabric cut according to the marker plan for facilitating the sewing operation

13. Sorting and

Bundle each size pattern and number to identify easily during sewing
bundling

14. Sewing Patterns are attached by stitching of required types

15. Ironing and

Ironing is done to get wanted and removing unwanted crease mark
finishing

16. Final Inspection Garments are inspected by AQL system to check whether it is similar to the approved
ones

17. Packing Garments are poly packed according to the shipping instruction of buyer

18. Cartooning It is done according to shipping instruction of buyer

19. Dispatch Garments are send to buyer for shipment

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 Textile Fibres
✓ Fibres are made of Polymers
✓ The unit of polymer is monomer

▪ Polymers forming natural or man-made fibres are long to extremely long

Estimate of length of polymer can be obtained by Degree of Polymerization (DP),

𝒂𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒓

𝑫𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 =
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒘𝒆𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒖𝒏𝒊𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒓

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 Monomers & polymers of common textile fibres
Cotton Fibre

Cellulose: polymer of cotton. Degree of

Cellobiose: Basic unit of cellulose polymerization about 5000
Viscose Cellulose in regenerated form is the polymer for
these fibres with DP

Polynosic or modal Viscose :DP= 175 : 175 Cellobiose units

Cuprammonium or cupro Polynosic :DP= 300 : 300 Cellobiose units

Cuprammonium :DP= 250 : 250 Cellobiose units

Cellobiose is basic unit (Same as
above) 28
 Monomers & polymers of common textile fibres
Flax Fibre
Cellulose with Degree of polymerization
Cellobiose: Basic unit about 18000

Silk and Wool

Silk fibroin polymer is composed of 16
different amino acids
General formula for polypeptide polymer
Wool keratin polymer is composed of 18-20
Depending upon R, R´, R´´, etc. polypeptide
different amino acids
polymer could be silk fibroin polymer or Wool
keratin polymer
where R= a radical
DP for silk and wool are not known
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 Monomers & polymers of common textile fibres
Nylon [-OC(CH2)4CONH(CH2)6NH-]n
For nylon 6,6 monomers are Polyhexamethylene diamino adipate or nylon 6,6
Adipic acid: HOOC(CH2)4COOH polymer
& Hexamethylene diamine: DP: 50 to 80 units
H2N(CH2)6NH2
[-(CH2)5CONH-]n
For Nylon 6 monomer is Caprolactum
Polycaprolactam or nylon 6 polymer
DP : 200 units

Polyester
Monomers for common Polyester are
ethylene glycol: HOCH2CH2OH Polyethyleneterephthalate or
polyester polymer
& terephthalic acid
DP: 115 to 140
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 History of fibres
Phase Year Fibres
1 1935-1950 Development of Nylon and other fibre
forming polymer

2 1950-1960 Development and commercialisation of

major man-made fibres beyond nylon

3 1960-1970 Development of second-generation

fibres

4 1970- Development of speciality fibres

present
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Properties of textile fibers

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 Dimensional properties of textile fibers
Dimensional properties of textile fibre are related to the shape and size of the fibre. Length,
Fineness, Density, Cross sectional shape are major dimensional properties of textile fibres.

Length:- An important parameter which determines the usefulness of a textile fibre. For
contribution in to yarn properties, fibre must possess a certain length with reference to
diameter. Fiber length affects many of the properties of a staple yarn, including strength,
evenness and hairiness.

Fineness:- In textiles, fineness refers to the thinness of the fibre. Thinner fibres have greater
surface-to-weight ratios and are more flexible, giving a softer drape (flexibility) and handle
than thicker fibres. Generally speaking, the thinner the fibre, yarn or fabric, the better its
quality and the higher its price. Fineness is measured in textiles in several ways, depending,
for example, on whether it is in fibre, yarn or fabric form.
Dimensional properties of textile fibers

Cotton fiber

Fig:- Longitudinal and cross-sectional view of fibers

 Dimensional properties of textile fibers
Density:- Mass per unit volume of the fiber. Fibre density plays a direct part in
affecting the weight of fabrics. The density of PP is between 0.895 and 0.93
g/cm3. Therefore, PP is the commodity plastic with the lowest density.

Cross-sectional view:- It is basically the shape of the fiber cross-section and can
be viewed by using microscope. Amongst natural fibres, cotton fibres have a
characteristic dog-bone (bean or kidney) shape, whilst silk fibres have a more
rounded, trilobal shape. Whilst there is greater flexibility in selecting and
producing a particular cross-section for synthetic fibres, some tend to have the
same basic shape (mostly round or serrated).
Fig:- Classification of staple fibers based on length

Fig:- Cross-sectional shapes of various synthetic fibers

Density of major fibers
 Mechanical properties of textile fibers
Properties which effect the ability of materials to be moulded in suitable shape Ex.-
Strength, Elongation,

Flexibility, Toughness.

Fibre strength:- Ability to resist external damage, which largely determines the durability of
the textile goods. The resistance to breaking, when a fibre is stretched, is called its ‘tensile
strength’. It is measured by exerting force, in the form of weights or springs, on the fibre or
yarn, and noting both the extension of the fibre when it reaches breaking point (this is
called ‘elongation at break’ or ‘breaking elongation’) and the force required to achieve this.
In terms of tensile strength, a complicating factor is the thickness of the fibre or yarn. To
overcome this problem, the ‘tenacity’ is calculated, by dividing the tensile strength by the
linear density or cross-sectional area of the fibre or yarn. Tenacity is expressed in Newton
per tex or sometimes in grams of force per denier or tex.
 Mechanical properties of textile fibers
Elongation:- Property of a fibre related to how much it will be stretch or lengthen before breaking. Ex:-
Climbing ropes should have extensibility so that in case of falling, impact force can be absorbed. So
material like Nylon is used. In case of marine ropes, extensibility is considered a disadvantage, so fibers
with low extensibility are used in marine ropes. Ex.- flax or hemp or sisal

Flexibility:- Property of fibres related to their ability to be bent or folded. Flexibility (stiffness) in fibres is
important because it affects the processing of the fibre into yarn, as well as the drape and handle of
fabrics. Fibre flexibility is a function of the chemical and physical structure of the fibre, and in particular
the thickness and cross-sectional shape of the fibre. For example, bast fibres (e.g. flax) are composed
principally of highly oriented crystalline cellulose molecules and are therefore rigid when compared to
cotton, where the cellulose is much more amorphous. Cotton fibres are also thinner than flax fibres, and
the net result is that cotton fibres are more flexible than bast fibers.
 Mechanical properties of textile fibers

‘Modulus’ is a way of assessing the stiffness or flexibility of a fiber by measuring the

fiber's initial resistance to a tensile force. It is measured in units of stress, i.e., force per
unit area. Units of measurement include N/tex, GPa or MPa. (GPa and MPa stand for
gigapascals and megapascals)

Toughness:- Ability of a fiber to endure large permanent deformation without rupture

and expressed in g/d.
Mechanical properties of textile fibers
 Absorption properties of textile fibers
Absorbency is a very important property, which effects many other characteristics such as skin comfort,
static build-up, shrinkage, stain removal, water repellency, and wrinkle recovery . The typical absorption
properties in textile fibre are as follows:-

Moisture regain:- The amount of water a completely dry fibre will absorb from the air at a standard
condition of 70⁰F and a relative humidity of 65%. Expressed as a % of the dry fibre weight. Higher the
amorphous regions in structure more will be moisture absorption.

Differences in moisture regain have an important effect on fibre functionality. Hydrophilic/high regain
fibres, like cotton, may, for example, be more comfortable in warm weather because they absorb
moisture, in the form of perspiration, from wearers, keeping them dry and comfortable.
Hydrophobic/low-regain fibres, like polyester, may be less comfortable, though this may be
counterbalanced by properties of adsorption and rapid rate of wicking. Since water is an excellent
conductor of electricity, its absorption also affects fibre electrical properties. The rate of absorption and
desorption of a fibre also affects properties such as drying.
 Absorption properties of textile fibers
Dimensional changes:- The change in the dimensional shape(fibre length, cross- section,
etc.) of the fibre when it absorb moisture. Fibres with high moisture absorption can also
tend to result in fabrics that change dimensions during use, because they swell and will
tend to be more easily deformed during processing and use when moist.

Wicking behaviour:- Dispersing or spreading of moisture or liquid through a given area by

capillary action in a material. Adsorption is linked to ‘wicking’, where the water travels
along the surface of the fibre. Some fibres have low absorbency but good
adsorption/wicking properties. Examples include some synthetic fibres such as
polypropylene, which wicks moisture or perspiration away from the skin and allows it to
evaporate, under certain conditions, from the surface. This can be more effective than
fibres with good absorption, which can become saturated.
Absorption properties of textile fibers
Absorption properties of textile fibers
 Chemical properties of textile fibers
Fibers get exposed to a range of chemicals during processing and use, which may substantially affect
their properties depending upon the structure of the fiber. Chemical properties include:-

Chemical resistance:- It is the ability of a polymeric material to maintain its original properties after
being exposed to an indicated chemical reagent environment for a specified time period. The main
factors affecting chemical resistance are included the molecular structure of the polymer, mechanical
load, the type of additives, concentration of the solvent and chemical reagent, exposure duration, and
temperature.

Examples:- Acid or alkali is harmful to cellulose and protein fibers. Therefore, the effect of acid and alkali
must be known during bleaching, dyeing, and finishing. Cotton and Linen are damaged when they are
subjected to concentrated Hydrochloric, Sulphuric, and Nitric acids. Also, a dilute solution of those acids
can make harm to the fibers. On the other hand, a concentrated alkaline solution is not harmful to
Cotton and Linen. Wool is not affected by a dilute solution of acid. But conc. acid and alkali damage wool
easily.
 Thermal properties of textile fibers
Properties revealed by the textile fibers when they are subjected to heat are called thermal
properties.

Thermal properties includes:-

Thermal conductivity:- Thermal conductivity is the rate of heat transfer in degree along the
body of a textile fibre by conduction. Higher thermal conductivity indicates more
conductive fibers.

Softening and melting:- A temperature at which fibre melt completely is called melting
temperature. At melting temperature fibre lose its identity and gets converted it into a
viscous liquid.

Heat of wetting or heat of absorption:- The heat evolved when 1 g of fiber is immersed in
an infinite quantity of water is called heat of wetting or heat of absorption.
Thermal properties of textile fibers
Thermal properties of textile fibers
 Electrical properties of textile fibers
The electrical properties (conduction, resistance, etc.) are used in numerous solid materials,
which are for the most part metal or metal derivative. In the textile field, these properties
are more difficult to highlight or engineer due to the various other requirements in
suppleness, handle, and care properties of such materials.

Electrical Conductivity:- Electrical conductivity or specific conductance is a measure of a

material’s ability to conduct an electric current

Electrical Resistivity:- Reciprocal of conductivity i.e. material’s ability to resist an electric

current.

Static charges:- Static electricity generated on the fiber surface or within fiber due to an
imbalance of electric charges. Fibers with lower moisture contents generally have the
problem of high static charge generation during processing.
 Essential and desirable properties of fibre
• Primary properties:
– Staple length
– Strength
– Elasticity
– Uniformity
– Spinning quality

• Secondary properties: (which is desirable not essential)

– Lustre
– Translucency
– Colour

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 Fibre properties : General considerations
Fibre Morphology
is study of size, shape & structure of fibres and relation between
these properties
Macro-structure of textile fibre & filament
Fibre length
• Fibres shorter than 15 mm: insufficient length to be twisted into a
strand of adequate cohesion, evenness to make it useful yarn
structure
• Fibres longer than 150 mm: require specialized spinning machines,
(becomes expensive)
• Filaments are long enough, can be collected together to produce
suitable yarns
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 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Fibre Morphology: Macro-structure of textile fibre & filament
Fibre thickness
➢Fibres or filaments finer than 10 µm tend to become too fragile
for spinning
➢More than 50 µm thickness tends to give yarn which is too
coarse and too thick for comfort (for apparel applications)
Fibre length to thickness ratio
➢Determines whether fibre is suitable for spinning into yarn or not
➢The smallest suitable ratio is 350:1
➢Ratio of 1000:1 or more → fibres can be easily spun into useful
yarn
53
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Fibre Morphology: Macro-structure of textile fibre & filament
Colour
➢White or colorless fibres or filaments are preferred as they can
be dyed/printed with any hue of colour
➢Natural fibres or delustred man-made fibres are white to off-
white in colour
Translucency
➢Translucent fibre will transmit light but is not transparent
➢Generally, silk & bright-lustred man-made fibres are translucent
➢Cotton, flax, wool & delustred man-made fibres tend to be
opaque. In very light-weight fabrics, their fineness makes them
translucent 54
 Fibre Properties: General considerations(cont.)
Fibre Morphology: Macro-structure of textile fibre & filament
Lustre
➢ Subjective measurement of reflection of incident light from fibre, filament or
textile material
➢ More lustrous fibre, more evenly it reflects incident light
➢ Less lustrous or duller the fibre, it scatters the incident light

Cotton : convoluted
structure
Wool : serrated surface
} Scattering of
}
incident light
Dull fibres

}
Flax, mercerized cotton, &
silk: more regular & even
surface structure
Even reflection of
incident light } Distinct lustre
55
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Fibre morphology: Macro-structure of textile fibre & filament
Effect of fibre cross-section on lustre and other properties
Fibre Cross-section Effect on luster Effect on other properties

Circular Type Theoretically, this C/S should impart This C/S shape results in high
soft luster as incident light is reflected bending stiffness, rigid, least flexible
so unevenly & least pliable fibre because of its
regular diameter

But it imparts harsh, strong lustre: no Smooth regular surface of fibre

matter how fibre or filament is results in waxy, slippery handle &
twisted, it reflects same amount of causes fibre or filament to make
light despite unevenness in reflection maximum contact with the skin →
aesthetically undesirable

56
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Effect of fibre cross-section on lustre & other properties
Fibre Cross-section Effect on lustre Effect on other properties
Theoretically, these C/S should be These C/S shapes impart least bending
most lustrous, stiffness, most pliable, most flexible,
most supple, even limp as it can be
But these fibres or filaments would easily deformed across shorter dia.
be twisted upon itself in yarn &
Oval type fabric (incident light is not reflected Smooth regularity of surfaces may
as expected), resulting in softer impart waxy, slippery handle, and fibres
lustre or filaments may make more contact
with skin, making it aesthetically
displeasing
Dog-bone/ bean type
Triangular C/S due to its distinct edges
may create more friction between
fibre/filaments and skin, giving crisper,
less waxy, less slippery handle

Triangular type
57
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Effect of fibre cross-section on lustre & other properties
Fibre Cross-section Effect on lustre Effect on other properties

Theoretically, it should give dull lustre These cross-sectional shapes results

to fibres, but irregularity in reflection in not stiff, easy to bend, pliable,
gets reduced when fibres are twisted flexible with a soft handle fibres
together & ‘bursts’ of evenly reflected
lights are seen
The handle may also be crisp because
trilobal type Tri-lobal fibre possess sparkling lustre to lobes may create increased friction
greatest degree between fibre, filament & skin

As fibres become multi-lobal, incident Regularity & evenness of lobes may

light is scattered to such an extent that give smooth & slippery handle
very dull lustre can be seen

multi-lobal type
58
Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Effect of fibre cross-section on lustre & other properties
Fibre Cross-section Effect on lustre

Irregular C/S Irregular C/S shape & uneven longitudinal surfaces

(cotton, flax, wool) makes them dull, non-lustrous

Titanium dioxide Titanium dioxide is white substance. Ground to fine

powder (particle size less < 1 μm), added as delustring
agent to man-made fibre spinning solution.

Different shapes of particles reflect light at random &

display reduced lustre

59
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)

Fibre Morphology: Micro-structure of textile fibre & filament

Microscopic longitudinal & cross-sectional structure and appearance
✓ Individual characteristics of textile micro-structures have influence on their skin
contact comfort

✓ Minute surface irregularities of cotton & silk fibres make them pleasant to wear
them against skin

✓ Extremely smooth, even, regular surface structure of fibres like nylon &
polyester make them aesthetically unpleasant & uncomfortable to skin

60
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Fibre Tenacity
➢ Tenacity or strength of fibres is directly related to:
✓ length of its polymers
✓ degree of polymer orientation &
✓ type & strength of inter-polymer forces of attraction formed
between the polymers
➢ Longer the polymers, more crystalline can be their orientation, stronger inter-
polymer forces formed => fibre may be stronger & more inflexible

61
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Elastic-plastic nature of fibres
➢ Fibres with crystalline polymer system tend to be stiff & inflexible, due to
restricted polymer movement
➢ Excessive bending or stretching of such fibres causes polymers to rupture
resulting in irreparable damage, & polymer system will be weak where rupture
occurred => will cause undesirable fibre wrinkling & creasing

62
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Elastic-plastic nature of fibres
➢ More amorphous polymer system has large inter-polymer spaces into which
polymers can be displaced when bent or stretched
➢ If polymer system is held together by weak interpolymer forces of attraction,
fibre polymers can be easily displaced from bending or stretching
➢ Elastic fibres have polymers which can be strained with subsequent recovery
after removal of load

63
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Hygroscopic nature of fibres
➢ Hygroscopic nature of fibre is directly related to polarity of its polymers
& ratio of amorphous to crystalline regions
➢ Hygroscopic fibres have predominant amorphous polymer system with
polar polymers
➢ Polar polymers attract water molecules while amorphous nature allows
its entry
➢ Highly crystalline polymer system will not allow entry of water molecules
even if the polymers are polar (e.g. nylon)
➢ Hydrophobic nature of highly oriented or crystalline synthetic fibres gives
rise to static electricity, which is problematic in further processing &
wearing
64
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Thermal properties
➢ Most important thermal property of textile fibre or filament is temperature at
which it softens or begins to melts
➢ which is measure of fibre’s heat resistance
➢ This is temperature upto which fibre may be: safely heat processed (in
finishing), pressed during garment manufacture, hot laundered, ironed
and/or pressed after dry cleaning
➢ Softening & melting point are related to: crystallinity of polymer system,
length of polymers, interpolymer forces of attraction
➢ Greater the crystallinity of polymer systems  longer the polymers 
stronger will be the interpolymer forces of attraction. This results in fibres
having greater resistance to heat

65
 Fibre properties: General considerations(cont.)
Chemical properties
➢ Fibres chemical properties are directly influenced by ratio of amorphous to
crystalline regions in polymer system

➢ Generally, fibre with more crystalline (highly oriented) polymer system tend to
be chemically more resistant than fibres with more amorphous polymer
system

➢ Ions, molecules, and/or radicals of degrading agents can easily penetrate in

the amorphous areas

➢ Crystalline fibres resists entry of such molecules etc. but they also make it
difficult for the dyes to enter their polymer system to color the fibres
66
Linear density of textile materials
 Yarn count or Yarn linear density or Yarn number
Count of yarn is numerical expression which defines its fineness

Thickness or dia. is fundamental property of yarn

Measurement of diameter is difficult as yarn is soft &

compressible

Spun yarns are roughly circular & irregular in thickness

Filament yarns have small amount of twist in them, they flatten

very easily
68
 Yarn count or Yarn linear density or Yarn number
Therefore, system of denoting the fineness of yarn by weighing a
known length of yarn has evolved

Count of Yarn : A number indicating the mass per unit length or

length per unit mass of yarn

Direct system & Indirect system

Above definition contains phrases 'mass per unit length’
& 'length per unit mass', indicating two basic principles
Yarn
count
Indirect
Direct System
system 69
 Indirect System
In indirect system, yarn count is the number of units of length per
unit of weight

There are various units of length & weight (& therefore, numerous
systems)

English count (British count) is number of hanks of 840 yards in

one pound
120
yards for
yarn

Examples: 10s or 10 Ne
(Its also known as cotton count) 70
 Indirect System
System Unit of length Unit of mass
Cotton (English or British Count) 840 yards Pound
Metric 1000 meters Kg
Worsted count 560 yards Pound

Generalized formula can be given as, 𝐿×1

𝐿×𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑁𝑒 =
840 × 𝑊
𝑁= L in yards
𝑙 ×𝑊 W in pounds
Where, N = yarn number or count,
W = the weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of the system.
w= the unit of weight of the system,
L= the length of the sample, and
l= the 'unit of length' of the system.

In indirect systems the finer the yarn, the higher the count 71
 Direct System
• In direct system, yarn number or count is weight of a unit
length of yarn

• Main systems of use in direct system are

➢Tex - weight in grams of 1000 metres
➢Decitex - weight in grams of 10,000 metres
➢Denier - weight in grams of 9000 metres

• In direct system, the higher the count, coarser the yarn

72
 Direct System
• Generalizing,

𝑊×𝑙
𝑁=
𝐿
Where
N = yarn number or count,
W = weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of the system,
L = length of the sample, &
l = unit of length of the system.

𝑊×1000 𝑊×9000
𝑇𝑒𝑥 = Denier =
𝐿 𝐿
For tex: unit length (l) is 1000 m For Denier: unit length (l) is 9000 m
W in gm W in gm
L in meter
L in meter
73
 Basic Conversions
Length Weight
1 inch = 2.54 cm 1 lb = 7000 grains
1 yard = 36 inch 1 lb = 16 oz
1 meter = 1.0936 yards 1 lb = 453.59 gm
1 hank = 1 kg = 2.2046 lb

590.5
𝑇𝑒𝑥 =
𝑁𝑒

5315
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 =
𝑁𝑒

74
Yarn count conversion table

1 kg

75
 Direct Count System
Name of System Definition

Tex Count Weight in gms. Per 1000 meter.

Grex Count Weight in gms. Per 10000mtr.

Denier Count Weight in gms. Per 9000 mtr.

Jute Count Weight in lbs. of 14400 yds. Spindle

Hemp Count Weight in lbs. of 14400 yds. Spindle

Flax Count Weight in lbs. of 14400 yds. Spindle

Linen Count Weight in lbs. of 14400 yds. Spindle

Silk Count (Dram System) Weight in Drams of 1000 yards hank.

76
 In-direct Count System
Name of System Definition
English Cotton Count No. of 840 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
French Cotton Count No. of 1000 meters hanks per 500gm.
Metric Count No. of 1000 meters hanks per 1kg(1000gm.)
Spun Silk Count No. of 840 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
Silk Count (Ounce) No. of 1000 yards hank per ounce(oz.)
Spun Rayon Staple Fibre Count No. of 840 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
Worsted & Mohair Count No. of 560 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
Woolen Count-American Cut No. of 300 yards hank or cut per pound(lbs.)
Woolen Count-American Run No. of 100 yards hank per Ounce(oz.)
Woolen Count-Yorkshire Skeins No. of 256 yards hank(skeins) per pound(lbs.),
Fibreglass Count No. of 100 yards hank (Cut) per pound(lbs.)
Asbestos Count-British No. of 50 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
Asbestos Count-American No. of 100 yards hank per pound(lbs.)
77
 Numerical

If a skein of 100 m of filament Viscose yarn weight 1.67

gm, calculate its denier.

From Formula,
W = 1.67 gm
L = 100 m
I = 9000 m 𝑊 × 𝑙 1.67 × 9000
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 = =
𝐿 100

Answer = 150.3 Denier

78
 Numerical
A lea of 120 yards of cotton yarn weighs 25 gr, calculate its count in
cotton system.
From Formula,
L = 120 yards,
l = 840 yards
w = 1 lb
W= 25/7000 lbs

𝐿×𝑤 120 × 1
𝑁= =
𝑙 × 𝑊 840 × 25
7000

Answer : Cotton count = 40s Ne

79
 Numerical
Q1. If a hank of cotton (840 yards) weighs 6.48 gm. What will be the tex
of yarn?
Q2. Yarn of length 120 yards weighs 33.874 gr, what will be its metric
count?
Q3. Yarn of length 1000-meter weighs 33.874 g, what will be its English
cotton count
Q4. Prove the relation between Tex and English cotton count

80
 Numericals
Q1. Determine the resultant count of three ply yarn which is made from 20 s, 30 s
and 40 s count. During twisting the resultant ply yarn length shrink by 5 %.
Q2. Determine the resultant count of three ply yarn which is made from 20 tex, 30
tex and 40 tex count. During twisting the resultant ply yarn length shrink by 5 %.

81
 The basic unit : Fibre & Filament

Cotton fibres Under SEM

Cotton Boll (a) Cross-sectional view of the fibres & (b)
longitudinal view of the fibres

➢ Fibre or staple fibre is unit of matter which is usually at least 100

times longer than it is thickness
➢ Most apparel fibres have length between 15-150 mm (except flax
500 mm or longer)
➢ Thickness of fibres is in the range of about 5 µm to 50 µm 82
 Filament

• A filament is very long fibre. Its length may range from a few hundred meters
(as in case of silk), to several kilometers in case of man-made fibres

• The thickness of the filaments is almost same as that of the fibres

83
 Cotton Fibre

Hand harvesting Foreign matter in seed cotton

before ginning is 1-5% for hand
harvested and 10-30 % for
mechanically harvested cotton

84
Mechanical harvesting
 Cotton Ginning
The principle operation of cotton ginning is to separate
fibres from the seeds

Cotton bales

Separated lint or fibres are then packed in the form of

compressed bales having weight of 160-170 Kg for
transportation 85
 Important Cotton Fibre Properties
• Length and length
uniformity
• Strength
• Fineness (Micronaire)
• Maturity
• Elongation
• Trash Content
• Neps
• Colour

86
Grading of cotton as per fineness

87
Fibre produced by different spinning methods

88
 Various techniques of manufacturing textile fibers
Polymer spinning techniques

1. Melt spinning

a) Extrusion spinning

b) Direct spinning

2. Solution spinning

a) Dry spinning

b) Wet spinning

c) Gel spinning

d) Electro spinning
Melt spinning

90
Wet spinning method.

91
Dry jet wet spinning method

92
Dry spinning method

93
 Fibre spinning methods
Solidification of the melt thread involves only heat transfer,
Dry-spinning: Heat transfer and one-way mass transfer
Wet-spinning: two-way mass transfer and heat transfer

94
Indian varieties of Cotton & their properties

95
 Fibre mixing and fibre blending
➢Fibre mixing is mixing different varieties/lots/ qualities of
cotton for improving properties & reducing cost

➢Large number of bales are mixed to produce consistent &

good quality of yarn

➢Fibre blending is mixing different type of fibres For e.g.

Cotton & Polyester fibres

96
 Mixing of cotton from bales
• Production of homogeneous product from inhomogeneous
material required mixing of fibres from many bales
• In practice, fibres are taken from 20-48 bales for cotton (can
go as high as 130 bales)
• For man-made fibres 6-12 bales are sufficient
• Bales are chosen such that length, strength, fineness etc. are
within predetermined upper & lower limits
• For this quality of each bale must be known
• Softwares are available for optimizing bale grouping

97
 Testing of cotton quality
High Volume Instrument (HVI)
Mic: Micronaire
Mat: Maturity Index (%)
Len: Upper Half Mean length
Unf: Uniformity Index (%)
SFI: Short fibre index (%)
Str: Strength of fibre bundle (cN/tex)
Elg: Elongation (%)
Moist: Moisture content (%)
Rd: Reflectance
+b: yellowness of the sample

For a mill to fully control the variations in the bale inventory, HVI
test data for each bale is necessary
Testing speed of HVI is upto 150 bales/hour
98
 Measurement of Fibre length
Comb Sorter method Fibrogram

✓Halve max. length OA at Q & determine position

of P such that the perpendicular PP' = OQ.
✓Mark off OK = OP/4 & erect a perpendicular KK'
cutting the curve at K’.
✓Halve KK' at S & determine the position of R such
that the perpendicular R'R = KS.
✓Mark off OL = OR/4 & erect a perpendicular LL',
cutting the curve at L'. The length represented by
LL is effective length.

Effective length is the length of the main 2.5% span length &
bulk of longer fibres 50% span length are measured
99
 Yarn Spinning: Fibre to Yarn
There are different methods of Yarns manufacturing

Ring spinning
Rotor spinning
Air-vortex spinning
Air-jet spinning
Friction spinning
Wrap spinning….

100
 Yarn Spinning: Fibre to Yarn
Process sequence for Carded yarns Process sequence for Combed yarns
Blowroom Blowroom

Carding Carding

Breaker Draw Breaker Draw frame

frame

Finisher Draw Unilap

frame
Comber
Speed frame
Finisher Draw
Ring frame frame

Speed frame
101
 Blow Room
• Blowroom is a sequence of machines

• Objectives of blowroom are

✓ Open the material into very fine tufts
✓ Eliminate most of the impurities
✓ Eliminate dust
✓ Provide good blend (mixing)
✓ Even feed to card (next machine)

And this has to be done

– with very careful treatment of raw material
– with maximum utilization of raw material
– while assuring maximum level of quality
102
 Opening of Raw Material
Degrees of opening
➢ Opening to flocks: in blowroom
➢ Opening to fibres: in Carding & OE spinning

Technological Operation of Opening

✓Opening out

✓Breaking apart

103
 Blow room line
• Technological performance of a blowroom line and influencing factors

104
Degree of opening

105
 Blowroom Operations: Opening
Opening is done to the stage of tufts

tufts

Tuft weight can be reduced to 0.1 mg in blowroom

106
 Blowroom Operations: Opening
In addition to usable fibres, cotton stock contains foreign matters like-

Vegetable matter: Mineral Material Sticky contaminants

Husk portions, -Sand, Honeydew (insect sugar),
Seed fragments, -Ore dust & dust Grease, oil, tar
Stem fragments, picked up in additives
Leaf fragments, transport
Wood fragments

Other foreign matter Fibre fragments

Metal fragments, Fibre particles (which
Cloth fragments finally makes dust)
Packing materials (mostly polymer material)
Therefore, cleaning of
Cotton is important
107
 Blowroom operations: Cleaning
➢ Impurities can only be eliminated from surfaces
➢ Therefore, it is necessary to create new surfaces continuously by opening the
material
➢ Blowroom cannot remove all the impurities (40-70% impurities can be
removed)
Opening

➢ Cleaning depends on raw material, machines & environmental conditions

➢ Normally, fibres represent about 40 - 60 % of blowroom waste

108
 Blowroom operations: Dust removal
➢ Almost all blowroom manufacturers provide dust removing machines or
equipment in addition to opening & cleaning machines

➢ However, dust removing is not an easy operation

➢ Dust removal will be more intensive, when the tufts are smaller

➢ Dust removal takes place at all stages of spinning

109
 Blowroom operations: blending/mixing
➢ Mixing at the start of the process is important, as different materials can be
mixed uniformly
➢ Simultaneous extraction of fibres from all the bales is not possible
➢ therefore, intensive blending in blending machine is carried out

Blowroom operations: Even feed to card

➢ The blowroom must ensure even feed to the card

➢ Carding machines work today with automatic tuft feeding systems

110
 Machines in Blowroom Sequence
• Machine sequence in high performance blowroom line

Rieter Blowroom Line

Line may be extended for special purposes by adding foreign matter extractor,
111
dedusting machines etc.
 Automatic bale opener
• Second generation: travelling type machine
• Extract material from top layers of bales
• More bales can be processed in a mixing: better long-term
blend is achieved
• These machines extract material only in batches….
• Machines are completely electronically controlled….

112
Opening Devices

113
 Automatic bale opener (cont.)
There are different machine manufacturers, & therefore different
machines (models) are available
Rieter A11 UNIfloc
[other machine manufacturers are Marzoli & Trutzschler
(Blendomat)]
▪ Can work with as much as 130 bales
▪ Maximum bale layout length is 47.2 m
▪ Production rate is generally 2400 kg/h

114
 Automatic bale opener (cont.)
Turret

Extraction
assembly

Feed duct

Rieter A11 UNIfloc

➢ Feed duct & two rails are secured to ground

➢ A chassis moves back and forth on guide rails & carries turret, which can
swivel through 180°
➢ This turret supports extracting assembly which can move up & down
➢ Machine is provided with microprocessor...
115
➢ Bales are laid out to left and right of the machine
 Trutzschler Blendomat BDT 020

➢ Extraction method differs, extraction takes place continuously

➢ Material is extracted in inclined position
➢ The moment one bale is exhausted completely, it will be replaced by a new one,
and so on
➢ Bales with different heights will be present on conveyor
116
 Trutzschler Blendomat BDT 020

▪ Extraction of material occurs in same way, only difference is that opening

device has to have some angle of inclination
▪ Advantage of this method is very good long term blending (continuous, not
charge by charge)
▪ Disadvantage is limited number of bales in feed
117
 Pre-cleaner (Coarse cleaner)
Rieter B 12 UNIclean
✓ Sufficient surface area has been Inlet duct
created for cleaning by Automatic
Bale Opener
▪ Treats the material in free
flight
Material
(gentle treatment) outlet
▪ Sticker elements are widely
spaced
✓ Material is forced to pass over the
Cleaning
roller (& grid bars) five times drum

Grid bars

118
 Pre-cleaner (Coarse cleaner)
Rieter B 12 UNIclean
✓ Material is forced to pass over roller (& grid bars) 5 times
✓ Material is also exposed to low pressure chamber with perforated
sheet : dedusting takes place

Different Settings

119
 Machines for Blending/Mixing
Conventional method of mixing at start of process
(The mixing battery)
Mixing Bale
Bales openers

Common conveyor belt

▪ 2-5 Mixing Bale openers operate together

▪ Good blend is obtained
Mixing Bale
▪ Opened material flows on a common conveyor belt
openers
120
 Machines for Blending/Mixing
Rieter B 70 UNImix
✓ Pneumatic deposition of material
✓ 90° bend in material flow
✓ Further opening & mixing
✓ Optical sensors

Feed Opening roller

Take-off
roller

Storage
section
Delivery

Intermediate Upright lattice

section 121
 Machines for Fine Cleaning
➢ In last few decades, cotton stock has become more contaminated,
while impurities have become smaller
➢ Therefore, it requires more intensive opening action for creating
smaller tufts
➢ In modern machines, saw tooth rollers are used for fine cleaning

122
 Machines for Fine Cleaning
Rieter B 60 UNIflex Fine Cleaner
Feed ➢ Machine is equipped with automatic
lap in-take
Feeding
➢ Opening roller: in different versions
chamber depending on material

Clamping and opening of the material

Plain roller

Feed trough
Perforated
roller

Feeding Opening cylinder

trough

Opening
cylinder 123
 Machines for Fine Cleaning
Trutzschler CLEANOMAT TFV
➢ Depending upon material to be
processed, machine is available with
different no. of opening rollers
➢ Specially designed waste elimination
device (no grid)

CLEANOMAT CL-C1

CLEANOMAT CL-C3 CLEANOMAT CL-C4 124

 Machines for Fine Cleaning
Trutzschler CLEANOMAT TFV

From first to the last roller the speed increases, also wire
points on the roller becomes finer and finer
125
 Dust Removal
Finest particles of trash, contaminants, and fibre particles (dust)
can be separated by

1. Releasing them in the air, & then removing dust-contaminated

air
2. Separating the dust particles directly from fibres through
suction or scraping (care must be taken that fibres are not
lost)

126
 Dust Removal (cont.)
Methods of dust removal are:
1. Using perforated drum,
2. Using perforated surfaces
3. Using perforated conveyor belts
Pneumatic transport also removes dust, whenever material is
separated from air at the end of duct

Dedusting within
transport duct

Rieter Dust Extractor 127

 Dust Removal (cont.)
Trutzschler DUSTEX dedusting machine

Delivery
Perforated sheet

Feed

Suction
128
Contamination Clearer

129
Contamination Clearer: LOPTEX
• Raw material first passes through
acoustic sensor (detection of
materials with different densities,
surface structures)

• Then material passes through

optical sensors (photosensors)
where contaminants with different
colour are detected

• High speed pneumatic valves

remove the contaminants by
blowing compressed air

130
 Machines in Blowroom Sequence
• Machine sequence in high performance blowroom line

Rieter Blowrrom Line

Line may be extended for special purposes by adding foreign

matter extractor, dedusting machines etc. 131
Trützschler CONTIFEED

132
Carding Machine & Process
Process Sequence for Combed Yarns
Blowroom

Carding

Breaker Draw
frame

Unilap

Comber

Finisher Draw
frame

Speed frame

Ring frame

134
 Objectives of Carding Process
1. Opening into individual fibres
• Blowroom opens raw material into tufts, the card must open to stage of
individual fibres
2. Elimination of impurities
• Degree of cleaning achieved with modern cards is 80 - 95%
• Overall cleaning achieved with blowroom & card is 95 - 99%
3. Elimination of dust
• Card removes large proportion of microparticles that are bound to fibres, in
addition to free dust particles
• Significant fibre-metal or fibre-fibre friction is necessary to loosen such
particles
4. Disentangling neps
• Number of neps increases from machine to machine in blowroom, card
reduces neps to a small fraction
135
 Objectives of Carding Process (cont.)
4. Disentangling neps (cont.)
• Neps are generally opened up & only small fraction leaves the
machine unopened

Neps

Neps in Yarns

Neps in fabrics

136
 Objectives of Carding Process (cont.)
5. Fibre blending
• Carding improves transverse blending & fibre-to-fibre
blending
• Intimate fibre-to-fibre mixing is achieved in formation of web
6. Sliver formation
• An appropriate intermediate product must be formed
• It is called as Sliver (Count is 4 ktex to 7 ktex)

137
 Operating Principle
Pipe ducting

Cleaning unit Flats

Fixed carding bars
Feed Coiler

Stripping
Licker-in Cylinder device

Doffer Can

Feed roller Cover

& feed plate plate

Grid bars, mote

knives, carding
138
segments
Operating Principle

139
 The licker-in
✓ Function of licker-in is to pluck finely opened tufts from feed batt, lead them over
dirt-eliminating parts present under it, & then deliver them to main cylinder
✓ Diameter 250 mm
✓ RPM: 800-2000 rpm for cotton

Elimination of Impurities
➢ Waste elimination is very intensive & takes place by
means of special devices
➢ High-performance cards have high material
throughput: alternative assemblies
➢ Tufts are first guided over mote knife (2), then over
carding plate (3), then again over mote knife & over a
carding plate 140
 Transfer of fibres to Main cylinder
Transfer of fibres to the main cylinder
✓Wire points clothing is configured for doffing
✓Ratio of surface speed between licker-in & cylinder has influence on
improvement in longitudinal orientation of fibres
✓This ratio should be about 1:2; i.e., draft between licker-in & main
cylinder should be slightly more than 2

141
 Cylinder
• Cylinder is usually manufactured from cast iron or steel
• Most cylinders have diameter of 1280 - 1300 mm & rotate at speeds between
250 - 500 (to 600) rpm (Rieter C 60 card 814 mm, speed up to 900 rpm)
• Roundness tolerance must be maintained within extremely tight limits –
narrowest setting distance (between cylinder & doffer) is only about 0.1 mm
• Generally supported in roller bearings

Fine cotton Cylinder wire: 800 to 1000

Points/inch2
Coarse Cotton: 600-800 Points/inch2

142
 Flats
• The bars of flats are made of cast
iron or nowadays aluminum profiles
• Each bar is approx. 32 - 35 mm wide
• These bars are given ribbed form (T-
shape) to prevent longitudinal
bending
• A wire point clothing strip of same
width is fixed to it
• For Fine cotton: 500 Points/inch2
• For Coarse cotton: 350-400
Points/inch2
143
 Cylinder & flats: Carding Zone
• Flats & cylinder together form the main carding zone
• In this zone following should be achieved
– opening of tufts into individual fibres
• elimination of remaining impurities
• elimination of some of the short fibres
• untangling neps (possibly their elimination)
• dust removal
• high degree of longitudinal orientation of the fibres

• Bars of the flats are joined together to form an

endless, circulating belt Direction of rotation of flats
• In addition to the 40 - 46 flats, that are present in
carding zone, further flats are needed to form endless
chain so altogether 100 – 120 (Rieter 79 flats) flats are
fitted

144
 Doffer: Doffing Operation
The Doffer
• Cylinder is followed by doffer, designed to take individual fibres & Condense them to a
web
• Doffer : cast iron (or steel) with dia. 600-707 mm (680 mm on Rieter)
• Fitted with metallic clothing & runs at a speed of 300m/min

Doffing Operation
✓Wire points are arranged in the carding configuration
✓Fibres are transferred from cylinder to doffer, but the fibres
Cylinder Doffer
are not oriented parallel
✓Fibres form hooks:
✓ over 50 % of the fibres in the web exhibit trailing hooks
✓ about 15 % have leading hooks;
✓ another 15 % have double hooks; and
✓ only a small proportion are delivered without hook
145
Detaching, Coiling in Cans
Detaching
• The web is detached from doffer with the help of
a roller & two counter-rotating belts carry web
into the center, forming the Sliver

Coiling in Cans
✓ The sliver is coiled in cans for storage & transport
✓ Can diameters now lie in the 600 to 1200 mm range &
can heights are between 1000 and 1220 mm

146
Lap Former & Combing
Comber video

148
Process sequence for Combed yarns
Blowroom

Carding

Breaker Draw
frame

Unilap

Comber

Finisher Draw
frame

Speed frame

Ring frame

149
 Objectives of Combing
➢ The comber is used in production of medium, medium-fine & fine
yarns, & enables a positive influence on
Yarn characteristics
✓evenness
✓strength
✓Cleanliness
Fabric characteristics
✓smoothness
✓visual appearance &
✓handle
➢Combed cotton needs less twist than a carded yarn

➢However, these quality improvements are obtained at cost of

additional expenditure on machines, floor space & personnel,
150
together with a loss of raw material
 Objectives of Combing
To achieve an improvement in quality:
➢ Elimination of a precisely pre-determined quantity of short fibres
➢ Elimination of the remaining impurities
➢ Elimination of large proportion of neps in the fibre material
➢ Formation of sliver having optimal possible quality parameters

❑ Elimination of short fibres produces an improvement mainly in

staple length & also affects fineness of material
❑ Combing increases parallelization of fibres…

❑ Amount of material combed out is in between 8 % to 25 % of

infeed stock
151
 Preparation of Stock for Combing
• Preparation of material for combing is very important
✓ The raw material delivered by card is unsuitable for combing as
regards both form & fibre arrangement

✓ Good parallel disposition of fibres within the sheet is

necessary

152
 Preparation of Stock for Combing (cont.)
✓ fibre arrangement must be taken into account (disposition of the
hooks)

✓ Fibre disposition in card sliver …

Even number of machine passages must be provided
between the card & comber

Breaker Draw frame Lap former machine 153

 Preparation of Stock for Combing (cont.)
✓Due to repeated reversal of the hook disposition during coiling &
subsequent removal from cans an even number of machine
passages must be provided between ‘card’ & ‘comber’
Conventional machine Modern machine
sequence sequence

Card Card

Sliver Lap Breaker draw frame

Ribbon Lap Lap former

154
Comber Comber
 Lap Forming Machine: UNIlap
Calender Feed table
rollers

Drafting
Lap Web system
table
Breaker draw
frame sliver
Lap forming
assembly Rieter UNIlap
155
 Machine Details:
Production, draft, speed for UNIlap
• Batt weight: up to 80 ktex
• Feedstock: up to 70 ktex per drafting arrangement
• Doublings: up to 28
• Draft of the drafting arrangement: 1.36 - 2.2
• Lap width: 300 mm
• Lap weight, net: up to 25 kg
• Delivery speed varies between: 70 and 140 m/min
• with OMEGA system: (at constant speeds) up to 180 m/min
• Theoretical production(per machine): up to 350 kg/h
• with OMEGA system: up to 520 kg/h

156
Comber

157
 Comber Head
Lap

Top nipper

Top Comb

Detaching rollers

Feed roller

Cylinder

158
 Combing Cycle
Top nipper
plate Feed
Lap rollers

Bottom nipper
plate

Combing
segment
(a) feed
(b) nipping
(c) combing 159
 Combing Cycle (cont.)

Detaching
rollers

• (d): nippers forward

• (e): web return
• (f): piecing
160
 Combing Cycle (cont.)
Top comb

• (g): detaching
• (h): passive combing by the top comb
• (i): A new combing cycle begins

161
 Combing Cycle (cont.)

• (k): Cleaning of cylinder wire points

162
 Withdrawal of Web & Formation of Sliver
• Resulting web must be collected into a
sliver by the trumpet Web plate
Trumpe
t
• Calender rollers withdraw the sliver &
deposit on the sliver table
Calender
rollers
• Web plate therefore functions as a web Sliver
reserve zone table

• Collection of web is done on one side

(Fig. b) in modern combers

163
 Types of Feed in Comber
• Forward Feed
▪ higher production rates
▪ quality requirements : not too rigorous
Conventionally, for noil % of 12-14%

– Backward Feed
• Higher quality required
• For noil % of 12-25%

• With modern high-performance machines (combing

preparation & combers) the situation has changed
• Forward feed is mostly used over all staple ranges for
achieving noil levels from 8 to 18 % 164
 Drafting Arrangement
• In Rieter Comber, sliver table leads to a
vertically inclined 3-over-3 drafting
arrangement
• Break draft & main draft distances & amounts
of draft are variable
• Overall draft lies between 9 & 16
• At delivery end of drafting arrangement a
trumpet collects discharged web & guides it,
with additional compacting, to the delivery
rollers

After the drafting arrangement, the sliver is passed through

coiler assembly, & deposited into the cans
165
 Influence of combing operation on quality
✓Combing is applied range of spinning processes, and therefore improvement in
quality is correspondingly wide
✓Based on the amount of noil extracted combing can be categorized as,
▪ semi-combed (upgrading) with noil % below 12 %
▪ normally combed, with noil % between 12 & 18 %
▪ highly combed, 18 - 22 % noil
▪ super combed, with noil % above 22 %

Elimination of short fibres produces an

improvement mainly in staple length

166
 Machine details: Speed, production
• Number of combing heads: 8
• Number of deliveries: 1
• Doublings: 8
• Nips per minute: up to 500
• Noil (%): 8 - 25
• Efficiency (%): up to 96
• Production (kg/h) : up to 68

• Batt weight (ktex): 64 - 80

• Delivery hank (sliver weight) (ktex): 3 - 6
• Forward / backward feed: adjustable

167
Draw Frame
Video

169
Process Sequence for Combed Yarns
Blowroom

Carding

Breaker Draw
frame

Unilap

Comber

Finisher Draw
frame

Speed frame

Ring frame

170
 Deterioration in Evenness During Processing
• In processing in spinning mill, unevenness of product increases
from stage to stage after the draw frame

Because of two reasons

1. Number of fibres in the cross-section steadily decrease Uniform
arrangement of fibres becomes more difficult, the smaller their
number
2. Each drafting operation increases the unevenness

171
 Basic Possibilities for Equalizing
Possibilities of improving evenness of material

➢To achieve usable yarn characteristics, the process must include

operations that have an equalizing effect

➢These can be: doubling; leveling; drawing while simultaneously

imparting twist

➢Doubling is still the most widely used, but leveling is becoming

gradually more significant

172
 Doubling
1. The averaging effect
➢ A simple, not very precise, but mostly adequate method of equalizing
➢ Several intermediate products (slivers) are fed in together, into a drafting
arrangement, & single slivers produced
➢ There is only a small probability that all thin places and/or, all thick places
will coincide
➢ On the contrary, they will tend to be distributed & so to offset each other,
at random

173
 Doubling (cont.)
2. Transverse Doubling

In principle, every doubling process is a transverse doubling because the

feeds are united side by side

174
 Leveling

• Open loop autoleveller

– In open loop autolevellers, sensing is done at the
feeding end and the correction is done by changing
either a break draft or main draft of the drafting
system
• Closed loop autoleveller

175
Open loop autoleveler

176
Close loop autoleveller

177
 Advantages of Autolevelling
1. All variations are corrected.
2. Count CV.% will be consistent & good, hence the yarn will be suitable for knitting.
3. Thin places in the sliver, hence in the yarn quality will be low.
4. Ring frame breaks will come down, hence pneumfil waste will be low.
5. Fluff in the department will be less, therefore Uster cuts will be less.
6. Fabric quality will be good because of lower number of fluff in the yarn.
7. Labour productivity will be more.
8. Machine productivity will be more.
9. Idle spindles will be less.
10. RKM c.v.% will be low, because of low number of thin places.
11. Workability in warping & weaving will be good, because of less no. of thin places &
lower end breaks in spinning & winding.
12. Low sliver U%, hence yarn U% will be good.
13. Production will be more accurate in autoleveller drawframe compared to non
autoleveller drawdframe.
14. Variation in Blend percentage will be very less, if both the components are
autolevelled before blending, hence fabric appearance after dyeing will be excellent
178
 What is Drafting
➢ First intermediate product is a card sliver, which contains about
20000 - 40000 fibres in cross-section
➢ This number must be reduced to about 100 in the yarn cross-section
in several operating stages
Which can be done in two ways:
1. through draft, i.e. distribution of an approx. constant total no. of
fibres over greater length of product or
2. through elimination of fibres (loss) into waste

179
 Drafting Operation
✓ Drafting is effected mostly on roller-drafting arrangements
✓ Fibres are firmly nipped between bottom steel rollers & weighted
top pressure rollers
✓ If rollers are now rotated in such a way that their peripheral speed in
throughflow direction increases, then drawing apart of fibres, i.e.
draft, takes place
✓ This is defined as the ratio of delivered length (LD) to feed length
(LF), or the ratio of corresponding peripheral speeds

180
 Drafting Operation (cont.)
• Draft can be given by,

where v = peripheral speed of roller, D = delivery & F = feed

➢ Drafting system shown has two sub-drafting zones-

𝑉2
Break draft zone (B) =
𝑉3
𝑉1
Main draft zone (A) =
𝑉2

➢The total draft is always the product of the individual

drafts
𝑉𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 ×. . .× 𝑁 181
 Tasks of Draw Frame
1. Equalizing
➢One of the main tasks: to improve evenness over short, medium &
especially long term

➢Card slivers are fed, having high degree of unevenness & slivers from
comber have ‘piecings’ which are to be evened out

➢Equalizing is performed by doubling

➢Draft & doubling often have same values (In the range of 6 to 8)

182
 Tasks of Draw Frame (cont.)
2. Parallelization
✓ Fibres must be arranged parallel in fibre strand (sliver)
✓ It is draw frame’s task to create this parallel arrangement
✓ Which is done by means of draft, each drafting operation results in
straightening of fibres

✓Value of draft must be adapted to material (several fibre parameters),

➢staple length
➢mass of the fibres
➢volume of the strand
➢degree of order (parallel disposition)

183
 Tasks of Draw Frame (cont.)
3. Blending
▪ Draw frame compensates the raw material variation by blending, which
occurs simultaneously

▪ This can be used for production of blended yarns comprising

cotton/synthetic or synthetic/synthetic blend

▪ Example: Production of 67:33 blend

184
 Tasks of Draw Frame (cont.)
4. Dust removal
✓Necessary to remove dust to greatest practical extent within overall process
✓Dust removal is efficient when fibre-fibre or fibre-metal friction is present
at high level
✓Such friction is available at card & draw frame (in drafting system)
✓On high performance drafting system (equipped with suction systems), 80
% of the incoming dust is removed

185
 Operating Principle of Draw Frame

Drafting arrangement
Feed roller pair

Calendering rollers

Delivery sliver can

Feed sliver can

186
 Requirements of Drafting Arrangement
❑ Drafting arrangement is heart of draw frame & thus exerts most
decisive influence on quality
❑ Requirements of drafting arrangement:
✓ Simple, uncomplicated construction
✓ Stable design with smooth running of rollers (centricity)
✓ Produce high-quality product even at high running speeds
✓ High degree of flexibility, i.e. suitability for all raw materials, fibre
lengths, sliver hanks, etc.
✓ Optimal control over movement of fibres during drafting
✓ High precision of both operation & adjustment
✓ Rapid & simple adjustability of roller spacings & draft levels
✓ Ease of maintenance & cleaning
✓ Optimal ergonomic design 187
 Elements of Drafting Arrangement
(At all the places in spinning system where drafting system is used)
Bottom Rollers
➢ Made of steel & mounted in roller stands or in the frame (by
needle/roller/ball bearing)
➢ Positively driven from main gear transmission /by separate drive
➢ To improve their ability to carry fibres along, they are formed with flutes
of one of following types:
➢ axial flutes (a)
➢ inclined flutes (spiral flutes) (b)
➢ knurled fluting (c)

188
 Elements of Drafting Arrangement
(At all the places in spinning system where drafting system is used)
Bottom Rollers
➢Dia. of bottom rollers can be in the range of 20 - 90 mm, but
normally diameters between 25 & 50 mm are used
➢Three to six rollers
➢Distances between rollers of drafting arrangement are usually
adjustable & can be adapted to fibre lengths

189
 Elements of Drafting Arrangement
Top Rollers
✓ Top rollers are not positively driven
✓ Can be one piece or twin rollers
✓ Thick coating (roller surface) is made of
synthetic rubber
✓ An important characteristic of this coating
is its hardness
✓ Measured in terms of degrees Shore
❖soft: 65° - 75° Shore
❖medium: 75° - 80° Shore
❖hard: above 80° Shore
✓ Diameters of top rollers are between 25 -
40 mm
✓ Spring or pneumatic pressure is used for
loading 190
 Elements of Drafting Arrangement
Top roller maintenance
✓ As top roller coverings get worn out during processing, these must
be reground from time to time

✓ Done with grinding discs or rollers that remove very thin layers of
materials

✓ If thickness has been reduced to defined minimum (cannot provide

adequate elasticity) under pressure then these coverings must be
replaced

191
 Elements of Drafting Arrangement (cont.)
Top roller pressure
➢ To clamp the fibres, top rollers must be forced at high
pressure toward bottom rollers
➢ This pressure is applied by means of
➢ spring weighting (the most usual form)
➢ pneumatic weighting (Rieter)
➢ hydraulic systems (hardly used)
➢ magnetic weighting (was used by former Saco Lowell
company)

➢ Spring loading: uncomplicated, robust & easy to handle

➢ Pneumatic loading: more even, allows easy & quick
change & partial unloading during longer machine
stoppages
192
 Draw Frame: Drafting Arrangements
➢ Drafting is carried out almost always in two zones (seldom three)
➢ Break drafts is in between 1.15 to 1.70
➢ Total draft is in between 4 to 8
➢ In modern draw frames, drafts are no longer adjusted by exchanging gear wheels,
but by simple setting of variable-speed or stepping drives or by individual motor
drives
Important: Drafts in different zones & distance between the roller nip lines are
adjustable (based on fibre lengths) in all the drafting systems (at any stage in spinning
process)

3-over-4 roller drafting arrangement (Marzoli) 5-over-4 roller drafting

193
arrangement (formerly Rieter)
 Draw Frame: Drafting Arrangements (cont.)
✓ Most widely used form of drafting
arrangement for draw frames

✓ The larger the rollers of drafting arrangements,

smoother it runs
3-over-3 roller drafting arrangements
with pressure bars
✓ This is because of stability & lower revolutions
for same surface speed

✓ But it also increases nip spacing, therefore,

special guide system is necessary (at least for
short fibres)

✓ For this, guide bar is provide in the main 4-over-3 roller drafting arrangements
with pressure bars
drafting zone
194
 Distribution of Draft
✓Commonly used drafting system: three line drafting system with two
drafting zones
✓The task of break draft is to prepare material for main draft
✓Fibres must be straightened & extended to such degree that main draft can
immediately cause fibre movements
✓Break draft is normally lies below critical draft region
✓But when draft required is high, (e.g. at ring frame, draft 40), break draft is
kept above critical region
✓Main draft must be adapted to drafting conditions, like fibre mass in
drafting zone & arrangement of fibres in strand

195
 Sliver Condensing & Coiling in Cans
• After trumpet, sliver runs between two calender rollers which are
pressed towards each other
• Condensing of sliver => more material is fitted into the cans

• Fluted or smooth cylindrical calender rollers are replaced with

grooved or stepped rollers. So that fibres do not escape laterally, &
better condensing effect is achieved
• Total filled weight of can may be increased by up to 20 %
• Grooved or stepped rollers can be used simultaneously as
measuring devices for autoleveling systems 196
 Monitoring & Leveling

Main task of autoleveling is to eliminate deviations in mass

Can be classified into two types:
1. Open-loop principle
2. Closed-loop principle

➢ Open-loop control can compensate variations of short (to

medium) wavelength
➢ Closed-loop control can compensate only medium & long-term
variations

➢ Draw frames of open-loop control type autoleveling are mostly

used for second passage (Finisher draw frames) 197
 Leveling Draw Frames with Open-loop Control
• Total volume of all slivers is measured at infeed & adjustment is
affected with appropriate time delay in main drafting zone
• Extent of change is retained in a storage device until measured
deviation arrives at drafting point
• Detection is usually carried out mechanically or by capacitive
sensors

Draw frames with open-loop control autoleveling are predominantly used 198
 Leveling Draw Frames with Open-loop Control
Advantages
• Very precise leveling of very short lengths
• Ability to measure far greater sliver masses due to lower infeed
speed

Disadvantages
199
 Leveling Draw Frames with Closed-loop Control
✓Evenness of the sliver delivered is measured
✓Adjustment point is before measuring point
✓Measuring has to be performed at very high speeds & with relatively
small fibre masses, high demand on sensing device & signal
processing
✓Adjustment is made in main draft zone
✓Mechanical or pneumatic sensing devices are used

Disadvantages
200
 Leveling Draw Frames with Closed-loop Control

Advantages
▪ Actual value does not have to be established as an absolute value

Disadvantages
201
Rieter draw frame leveling system

202
Draw frame

203
 Leveling Operation
• Leveling is performed by adjustment of draft
• There are two possibilities for adjustment: via break draft & main draft
• Main draft is always used because it is larger, & finer adjustments are
possible
• Draft variation can also be carried out by adjusting either infeed or
delivery speed
• Adjustment of the infeed speed is generally used, since lower masses have
to be accelerated & decelerated at lower speeds;
• the delivery speed => production rate, remains constant

204
 Technical Data: High-performance Draw Frame
✓ Delivery speed [m/min] up to 1100
✓ Production per delivery [kg/h] up to 400
✓ Deliveries per machine 1 or 2
✓ Doublings 4 to 8
✓ Draft up to 12
✓ Delivery hank [ktex] 1.25 to 7
✓ Waste [%] 0.1 to 1

205
 Improvement due to doubling
➢ In doubling, several slivers are combined and then attenuated by
draft

➢ If n slivers are doubled together, the C.V. of the doubled material

will be reduced by a factor of 1/√n,

𝐶. 𝑉𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐶. 𝑉𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑛

206
 Fibre Control in Roller Drafting
✓Drafting is process of elongating strand of fibres, with intentions of
orienting the fibres in the direction of strand & reducing its linear
density
✓Strand is passed though series of sets of roller, & each successive
roller pair rotates at higher speed
✓In ideal drafting, fibres will move at back roller speed, until its leading
end is gripped by front roller

207
 Fibre Control in Roller Drafting (cont.)
• Fibres held in back-roller nip are known as back beard fibres, & fibres
held in front roller nip are called front beard fibres
• Fibre lying between front & back roller nip are called as (without
gripping) are called as floating fibres
• Floating fibres accelerate out of turn, & cause adjacent fibres to
accelerate, creating thick place
• As thick place is drawn forward by front roller nip, leaving thin place
behind
• This thick-thin variation has a sinusoidal wave form, & therefore called as
drafting wave

208
Wavelength of drafting wave is 2.5 times the mean fibre length
 Fibre Control in Roller Drafting (cont.)
➢ Main aim of fibre control is to keep floating fibres at speed of back rollers
until they reach front roller nip
➢ i.e., prevent them from being accelerated out of turn while allowing long
fibres to be drafted
➢ Different machine manufacturers use different systems
➢ Control rollers or pressure bars force fibres to take curved path, which
controls the fibre movement during drafting

209
 Addition of irregularity at different processes
• When we process the material at machine, the process also adds some
irregularity to material

• If CVin is CV of linear density of input strand prior to drafting, and CVadded

is additional irregularity due to drafting, then the resultant variation in
the drafted product is given by
2 2 2
𝐶. 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐶. 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝐶. 𝑉𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑒𝑑

• Irregularities caused by drafting can be classified as,

– caused by machine defects and
– caused by interaction of fibre properties & machine settings
210
Question 1

211
Question 2

212
Question 3

213
Question 4

214
 Textile yarn….??????

✓ A textile yarn may be defined as a long fine fiber strand of parallel continuous
filaments or twisted staple fibers.

✓ Linear density of the yarn can be identified based on various numbering systems
Yarn Numbering System
 Yarn Numbering System
✓ Yarn thickness varies with variation in its application for e.g.- For making a scarf very fine
yarn is required as compared to a shirt. But measurement of yarn diameter is not
practical because all yarns don’t have circular cross-sections and yarn gets deformed
during diameter measurement.
✓ Solution to the above problem is assigning a number to the yarn based on its linear
density. Yarn numbering systems are used to express a relationship between a unit length
and the weights of yarns.
✓ Yarn count or linear density can be expressed in two ways

Length – Constant
Direct
Weight – Variable

Yarn Count

Length – Variable
Indirect
Weight – Constant
 Yarn Numbering System

80 tex 100 tex

30 tex 50 tex
1 tex 10 tex 20 tex
5

Direct System:- Yarn linear density increases with an increase in yarn count ( Tex – Count in direct System)

1 Ne
10 Ne 20 Ne
30 Ne 50 Ne
80 Ne 100 Ne

Indirect System:- Yarn linear density decreases with an increase in yarn count (Ne – Count in indirect system)
 Yarn Numbering System

Direct System:- Linear density is expressed directly – mass per unit length

Weight in grams of 1000

Tex System
meters of the material

Direct
System

Denier Weight in grams of 9000

System meters of the material
 Yarn Numbering System

Indirect Count System:- Linear density is expressed indirectly – length per unit mass

Cotton or English Count Number of hanks of 840 yards in length that

(Ne) weigh one pound

Indirect Count Number of hanks of 560 yards in length that

Worsted Count weigh one pound
System

Number of kilometer lengths that weigh one

Metric Count (Nm)
kilogram
Grex – Decitex (Dtex)
Relation between yarn count and diameter

Indirect System
1
Yarn diameter d =
28 Ne

Ne = Yarn count in English System

d = Yarn diameter in inches

Direct System
Yarn Diameter d = 3.57 T/ρ × 10−3

T = Yarn Tex,
ρ = Yarn density
d = Yarn diameter in cm
 Resultant yarn count
Indirect System

1 1 1 1
Resultant yarn count = + +
𝑁 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝑁3

Where, N1, N2, and N3 are single yarn counts in Ne or Nm

Direct System

Resultant yarn count (N) = 𝑁1 + 𝑁2 + 𝑁3

Where, N1, N2 and N3 are single yarn counts in direct system (Tex or Denier )
 Yarn Twist

✓ Yarn twist is a spiral arrangement of fibers around the axis of the yarn. Through twisting, the fibers are
bound together and create a stronger yarn. The number of twists involved is normally referred to as turns
per inch or turns per meter.

✓ There are two types of yarn twist based on the direction of the twisting
Classification of yarns
 General classification of yarns

Yarn Types

Continuous Industrial
Staple yarns Novelty yarns High bulk yarns Stretch yarns
Filament yarn yarns
 Classification of staple yarns

General Yarn Properties:- Good hand, cover,

Staple Yarn Types comfort and textured appearance Average
strength and uniformity

Synthetic
Combed yarn Carded yarn Synthetic yarn Worsted yarn Woolen yarns
blended yarns

Synthetic yarn Mélange yarn

 Classification of filament yarns
General Yarn Properties:- High strength, uniformity and possibility
for very fine yarns Fair hand and poor covering power

Natural

Continuous-
filament yarns

Man made or
synthetic
 Classification of novelty yarns
General Yarn Properties:- Decorative features and characteristics.

Fancy yarns

Novelty yarns

Metallic yarns
 Classification of industrial yarns
General Yarn Properties:- Functional ,designed and produced to satisfy a specific set of
requirements

Tyre cord

Industrial Rubber or
yarns elastic core

Multiply
coated
 Classification of high bulk yarns
General Yarn Properties:- Great covering power with less weight, high loftiness or fullness

Staple high bulk yarns

High Bulk yarns

Continuous filament
(Taslan)
 Classification of stretch yarns
General Yarn Properties:- High stretchability and cling without high pressure, good
handle and covering power

Twist-heat set-untwist

Crimp heat-set

Stress under tension

Stretch yarns

Knit-deknit

Gear crimp

Fig:- Different types of textured yarns

Classification of Spinning Systems
 Classification of various yarn spinning systems

Spinning Systems

Hollow Open end Combined Airjet

Ring Doubling
Spindle spinning systems Spinning
Spinning system
spinning

Rotor Vortex Friction

spinning spinning spinning
 Ring Spinning System
✓ Ring spinning system is the most versatile one and ring spun yarn is very much famous for soft fabrics
with very good handle.

Fig:- Front View of ring Frame Fig:- Side View of ring Frame
 Ring Spinning System

Fig:- Ring Spinning process flow diagram

 Ring Spinning System
Opening:- Opening compressed cotton fibers into smaller-fiber tufts and
removing trash, dirt, and other foreign matter.
Carding:- After Further opening of fiber up to the individualization stage and
removal of remaining impurities. Conversion of opened fibers to a continuous
strand called as Card Sliver.
Drawing:- Drafting/drawing is the straightening of the fiber strand (sliver) so
that full length of a fiber can be utilized while spinning the yarn.
Combing:- Removal of short fibers to reduce yarn hairiness, twist to make yarn
soft.
Levelling:- Drawing and levelling of combed slivers for increasing evenness.
Roving Formation:- Conversion of sliver into an intermediate product called
roving through drafting. Roving is formed because direct conversion from sliver
to yarn in a single run is practically not feasible.
Ring spinning:- Conversion of roving into yarn and winding the same on Ring
frame cops.
Hollow spindle spinning

Hollow Spindle Spinning:- In this process, the twist in a yarn is

replaced by wrapping a filament binder around the materials used.
This results in a fascinating yarn structure in which most of the core
fibers/yarns run parallel to one another along the axis of the strand,
while the binder imparts the necessary cohesion.
 Open-end Spinning
✓ The flow of fiber is interrupted, the fiber strand being opened into individual fibers at a predetermined position, usually by means of
an opening roller, followed by air-born fiber transport.

✓ In open-end spinning, the yarn twisting action is separated from the winding action and the package needs to rotate only at a
relatively low winding speed.

✓ The process may be divided into the following steps:

▪ Opening,
▪ Transport,
▪ Alignment,
▪ Overlapping
▪ Twist insertion.
 Rotor spinning system
✓ In the rotor-spinning process, individual fibers are carried into the rotor on an air stream and laid in contact with
the collecting surface so that a strand of fibers is assembled around the circumference

✓ As the fibres are drawn off, twist is imparted by the rotor, to produce a yarn. Rotor spinning is most suitable for
spinning short staple-fibre yarns.

Fig:- Mechanism of Rotor Spinning System

 Vortex Spinning
Vortex open-end spinning technology has recently emerged as a revolutionary development in the field of fasciated yarn technologies.
Vortex spinning (MVS) is its ability to spin carded cotton yarns at speeds significantly higher than any other system currently in existence.

Fig:- Vortex Spinning

Friction Spinning

Friction spinning is an entirely

different open-end spinning
technique. Instead of using a rotor,
two friction rollers are used to collect
the opened-up fibres and to twist
them into yarn.
 Airjet Spinning

✓ This is a pneumatic method and is not an open-end spinning process. The drafted
fiber strands pass through one or two air nozzles located between the front drafting
roller and the take-up system
✓ This is a pneumatic method and is not an open-end spinning process. The drafted
fiber strands pass through one or two air nozzles located between the front drafting
roller and the take-up system. The roller drafting system drafts the input sliver into a
ribbon-like parallel fiber strand. High-pressure air is injected into the nozzles,
causing swirling airstreams inside the nozzle. This results in the insertion of false
twists into the drafted fiber strands. The edge fibers wrap onto the surface of the
core strand and form the yarn.
Basic characteristics of textile yarns

Fig:- Textile yarn specifications

 Bulk Properties of yarn

Yarn Linear density:- The weight per unit length or length per unit weight of a yarn indicates linear density.
There are two systems of expressing the same i.e., direct & indirect systems.

Packing density:- Yarn packing density (μ) can be defined as the ratio between the fibers volume and the total
volume of fibrous assembly, where μ ϵ <0,1>

Fiber Migration:- The term fiber migration is used to describe the relative movement of a fiber with respect
to neighboring fibers during the process of twist insertion into the fiber assembly and the ultimate position of
the fiber in the final yarn structure.

Fibre migration, which is expressed by various parameters and indices, depends on fiber properties, the
characteristics of the fiber assembly, and the processing conditions. The fiber properties include length,
degree of elasticity, stiffness, and fineness. Short, coarse and stiffer fibres move out of the core towards the
sheath, while long, fine and flexible fibres move toward the core. Strongly crimped fibres are also found
predominantly in the sheath.
 Bulk Properties of yarn

Fiber Migration…….

Fibre migration is caused largely by the existence of varying fibre tensions at the point where the strand is
twisted. Fibers at high tension try to relieve their tensions by migrating to the core. Relatively slack ones are
displaced outwards.

Fig:- Fiber migration in yarn

 Bulk Properties of yarn
Breaking Strength or yarn tenacity:- Yarn breaking strength is the ratio of the force required to break a yarn to its
linear density and is a common feature for evaluating the strength of yarn components and a tool for testing and
validating experiments. Expressed as cN/tex or gram/tex.

Breaking Elongation:- The change in length of the yarn at breaking force expressed as the term of percentage is
called elongation.
 Bulk Properties of yarn

Yarn toughness:- Amount of energy per unit volume that a

material can absorb before rupturing. When fibers/yarns are
used for clothes, the breaking stress and Young's modulus
have been widely introduced in determining the mechanical
properties. However, when fibers/yarns are used for industrial
materials then toughness, the amount of work needed to
break, should be introduced in determining mechanical
properties as well as the breaking stress and Young's modulus.

Yarn Flexibility:- Ability to resist permanent deformation

under bending, lateral stress, and strain.
 Surface Properties of yarn

Unevenness:- Unevenness is a measure of variation in weight per unit length of the yarn or the variation in
thickness of the yarn. Uster measures the yarn unevenness by a capacitive method.
 Surface Properties of yarn

Hairiness:- Yarn hairiness is measured in terms of hairiness index, H, which is the length of hair per unit
length of 1 cm. Thus, a hairiness index of 4 will simply mean that the accumulated length of hair of a certain
yarn is 4 cm per unit length of 1 cm.
 Surface Properties of yarn

Yarn friction:- Friction is the force that resists the sliding or

rolling of one solid object over another. The frictional force is
measured in terms of the coefficient of friction (fr), which is the
ratio of the resistive force of friction (Fr) divided by the normal or
perpendicular force (N) pushing the objects together. It is
represented by the equation: fr = Fr/N.

In the case of yarn, yarn-to-metal friction is considered because

during fabric manufacturing processes ( knitting and weaving)
yarn runs on metallic parts of the machines. Yarn having a lower
yarn-to-metal coefficient of friction runs smoothly with very low
breakage and fly generation.
 Surface Properties of yarn
Yarn abrasion resistance:- Abrasion is the physical destruction
of fibers, yarns, and fabrics, resulting from the rubbing of a
textile surface over another surface.

Interyarn abrasion is a principal cause of failure and of the

short service life of large synthetic fiber ropes during tension
and bending cycling.

The YoY abrasion test is used to determine the quality of finish

applied on yarns to enhance abrasion resistance, especially in
wet conditions. It is also used to compare the relative
abrasion resistance of various yarns.

The test measures abrasion cycles to failure on inter-wrapped Fig:- Yarn on yarn abrasion setup
by Tension Technology
yarn at various applied tensions. International Ltd.
 Special specifications of yarn
Moisture management & comfort

✓ Comfort evaluation includes mainly vapor and liquid transmission properties of yarn and fabric at
constant atmospheric conditions and constraints. The liquid transmission includes water absorbency
and wicking.

✓ Absorbency is used to describe the ability of a yarn or fabric to take in moisture—an important feature
that influences a variety of other factors such as skin comfort, static build-up, shrinkage, water
repellency, and wrinkle recovery.

✓ Wicking is the spontaneous transfer of a liquid into a porous structure caused by capillary forces. When
the free energy of the solid-gas interface surpasses that of the solid-liquid interface, capillary
phenomena occur. The study of wicking in textile material is of great interest for two main reasons.
Firstly, it allows a better understanding of liquid-fiber contact in order to characterize any liquid flow of
spin finishes, dyeing, or coating of either fabrics or yarns.
 Special specifications of yarn
Moisture management & comfort

✓ Secondly, it enables the characterization of textile structures, and their porosity resulting from the
capillaries formed by the inter-filament spaces in which the liquid flows. Moisture absorption is intimately
linked to the comfort of garments made from cellulosic fibers.

✓ The term wetting is usually used to describe the displacement of a solid-air interface with a solid-liquid
interface. Wetting behavior is commonly characterized by the value of the contact angle within the liquid.
The wetting and wicking behavior of the fibrous structure is a critical aspect of the performance of
products such as sports clothes, hygiene disposable materials, and medical products. Clothing comfort is
influenced by the wetting and wicking processes that occur during wear.
 Special specifications of yarn

Flame retardant yarns:- Flame retardant yarn/fabric can

be produced in two ways

1. By using fibers that do not burn.

2. By chemically treating the fibers to produce the

desired effect.
Variations in textile structure and properties based on applications

Fig:- Application chart for staple spun yarns

Variations in textile structure and properties based on applications

Fig:- Application chart for filament yarns

 Deterioration in evenness during processing
• Unevenness of the product increases from stage to stage after the
draw frame,
mainly because of two reasons
1. number of fibres in the section steadily decreases. Uniform
arrangement of fibres becomes more difficult, the smaller their
number
2. Each drafting operation increases the unevenness

The yarn is never better than the draw frame sliver

258
 Basic characteristics of textile fabrics

Fabric is a planar structure manufactured by any one of the techniques like interlacing
(weaving/braiding), knitting, or bonding of fibers or filaments (nonwoven).

Woven Fabric Knitted Fabric

Classification of fabrics
 Woven fabric

Knitted fabric

Fabric types
Nonwoven fabric

Braided fabric

Fig:- Classification of fabrics based on various manufacturing techniques

Weaving
 Basics of weaving

▪ Weaving is a method of textile production in which two distinct sets of yarns or threads are interlaced at
right angles to form a fabric or cloth. Two sets of threads are called warp and weft.
 Preparatory processes for the
fabric manufacturing (weaving)

▪ Winding
▪ Warping
▪ Sizing
 Winding
▪ Winding is the process of converting small
yarn packages into larger ones

▪ Modern winding machines have yarn clearers

that detect and eliminate yarn defects

▪ Lot stickers pasted on yarn packages during

winding provide control and traceability
throughout the production and subsequent
processes

▪ Effective winding contributes to the overall

quality and performance of the spun yarn and
the final textile product.
 The objective of the warping process is to convert the
Warping yarn packages into a warper’s beam having the
desired width and containing a requisite number of
ends. Uniform tension is maintained on individual
yarns during warping.
 Sizing
▪ The objective of warp sizing is to improve the weaveability of yarns by applying a
uniform coating on the yarn surface so that protruding hairs are laid on the yarn surface.
▪ Sizing prevents the warp yarn breakage due to abrasion with neighboring yarns or with
the backrest, heald eye, and reed.
▪ It improves the yarn strength by 10 to 20%, although it is not the primary objective of
the sizing process.
 Basics motions of loom in the weaving
Primary Motions of Loom
Shedding is the operation by which the warp is divided

into two parts so that a sufficient gap is created between

them for the uninterrupted passage of the weft from one

side of the loom to the other.

Picking is the operation to transfer the pick (weft) from

one side of the loom to the other.

Beat up is the operation to position the newly inserted

pick up to the cloth fell i.e. the boundary up to which the

fabric has been woven.

 Basics motions of loom in the weaving
Secondary Motions of Loom
Let off refers to the controlled release of warp
threads from the warp beam at the back of
the loom for ensuring a consistent warp
throughout the weaving process.

Take-up is the motion that advances the

woven fabric forward and winds it onto the
cloth beam at the front of the loom. The take-
up motion ensures that the woven fabric is
wound tightly and evenly onto the cloth
beam, preventing looseness or slackness.
 Shedding and its types
Types of shedding

Tappet Shedding: Tappets and cam

systems are used to raise and lower
heald shafts.

Dobby Shedding: Advanced shedding

mechanism with the capability of
controlling up to 48 heald shafts.

Jacquard Shedding: Modern shedding

system having control over the
movement of every single warp
thread.
 Weft insertion systems in weaving
Limitation of conventional shuttle looms:

Very low weft insertion rate due to ineffective shuttle checking

mechanism in case of high shuttle velocity.

Non-conventional weft insertion systems

Projectile: Use of projectile for weft insertion.

Air jet:-High-velocity air from nozzles is used for weft insertion.

Water jet: High-velocity water jets are used for weft insertion.

Rapier: Use of Flexible/rigid rapiers for weft insertion.

 Woven Fabrics

Basic Woven (2D) 3D Woven

Basic Woven (2D)

Plain Twill Satin

 3D Woven

Orthogonal Through-the-thickness angle

interlock
 3D Woven

Layer-to-layer angle Fully interlaced

interlock
Knitting
 Basics of knitting
▪ Knitting is the process of fabric formation by producing a series of intermeshed loops.
Knitted fabrics, in general, are more stretchable than woven fabrics. The open
structure of knitted fabrics also helps in moisture vapor transmission making it suitable
for sports garments. Besides, knitted fabrics have more porosity than woven fabrics.
Therefore, knitted structures can trap more air resulting in lower thermal conductivity
and higher thermal resistance.

A knitted loop
 Knitted Fabrics

Weft Knitted Warp Knitted

 Weft Knitted

Plain Rib Interlock

 Warp Knitted

Fig:- Warp knitted structure

(a) tricot, (b) locknit, (c) reverse locknit, (d) three-or four-needle satin and (e) three-or four-needle sharkskin.
Nonwoven technology
Nonwoven fabric classification
 Parallel laid
Card laid
Dry Laid Cross laid
Random air laid

Web Formation
Wet Laid
Method
Spunbonded

Spun Laid
Melt blown
 1. Bale opener
2. Chute feed
3. Wind up
4. Drying
5. Pan with liquid binder
6. Binder impregnation
7. Card
8. Staple fibre from bale opener or blender
9. Bales of staple fibre

Fig:- Drylaid method of web formation

 1. Long fibre
2. Water
3. Fibre and water (slurry)
4. Web forming
5. Binder impregnation
6. Drying
7. Windup
8. Excess water removal
9. Wood pulp

Fig:- Wetlaid method of web formation

 Spunbonded
1. Polymer chips feed
2. Liquid polymer
3. Extrusion die
4. Filament attenuator
(cooling and stretching)
5. Wind up
6. Calender bonding
7. Laydown
8. Fiber dispersion
9. Extruder

Fig:- Spunlaid method of web formation (Spunbonded)

Fig:- Spunlaid method of web formation (melt blown)
 1. Needle Punch
Mechanical 2. Spun laced
3. Stitch Bonded

1. Calendering
Web Bonding
Thermal 2. Air bonding
Method
3. Sonic Bonding

1. Impregnating
2. Foam Coating
Chemical
3. Spraying
4. Print bonding
 Needle punching
1. From web forming
2. Needle board
3. To wind up or further bonding
4. Needling
5. Web compression

Fig- Mechanical web bonding (Needle Punching)

Fig- Mechanical web bonding (Spun Laced)
Fig- Mechanical web bonding (hydroentangled)
Fig- Mechanical web bonding (Stitch Bonding)
 1. From web forming
2. Hot embossed cylinder
3. Windup
4. Hot smooth cylinder

Fig- Thermal web bonding (Calendering)

Fig- Thermal web bonding (Air bonding)
 1. From web forming
2. Nip rolls
3. Drying
4. Windup
5. Pan with a liquid binder
6. Engraved drum (bottom)

Fig- Chemical web bonding (Impregnation)

 Web Finishing Method

Coated Laminated Printed Special Finish

Fig- Nonwoven fabrics classified on the basis of web finishing method

 Biaxial Braided

Braided Fabrics

Triaxial
Braided
Designing of fabric
(Structure-Property Relationship)
 Designing of Apparel Fabric
Performance related
characteristics of apparel
products
Components of Clothing Comfort
There are four primary factors in
clothing comfort (4 F’s of clothing
Basic requirements/Functionality comfort)
Dimensional stability, Fashion, aesthetic, ▪ Function
durability, comfort, fit maintenance, safety
▪ Feel
▪ Fit
▪ Fashion
Additional Functionality
Stain and water resistant,
Odor free, UV resistant,
insect repellent, dust
flame retardant, antistatic
repellent
301
Function (thermo-physiological) Feel
(a)Thermal insulation, as a linear function of thickness, is
relatively independent of fibre, and thus a fabric and
design issue.
(b) Moisture permeability is critically important for
comfort as the required evaporative cooling is an
important factor in comfort.
(c) Wicking: It depends upon the following factors:
(1) Fibre selection (2) Yarn structure
(3) Fabric weave (4) Finish

(d) Water uptake: It depends upon the following factors:

(1) Fibre (2) Finishes (3) Weave

(e) Drying time: It is a function of the following:

(1) Fibre (2) Fabric (3) Design

302
Fabric Handle (related to comfort, tailoring, and appearance)

303
 Improvement in Tactile effect (sensation to touch & feel)
Properties Fibre Yarn parameter Fabric parameter
responsible parameter
Compression Fibre fineness, Yarn count, Ends & picks per inch,
cross-sectional packing weave type, crimp,
shape, specific coefficient, twist wales & courses per
bending rigidity inch, knitted
construction type.

Friction Fineness, cross- Yarn count, Weave type, crimp

sectional shape, twist, hairiness
surface smoothness

Shear Fineness, specific Yarn bending Ends & picks /inch,

bending rigidity rigidity, yarn to Weave type
yarn friction

Bending Fineness, specific Yarn bending rigidity Ends & picks /inch,
properties bending rigidity Weave type

304
Winding
 Objectives of Winding
To wind yarn from one supply package to another supply package such
that the latter is adequately compact & usable for subsequent operation

➢ Package size
➢ Yarn content of ring bobbin is small
➢ Warping machine speed is high
➢ For higher efficiency of warping machines,
larger packages are required
➢ Yarn from no. of ring bobbins is joined
serially by knotting or splicing

To remove objectionable faults from yarn

➢ Yarn clearing (removal of objectional faults)

➢ Thick, thin places, neps
➢ It will cause breakage in subsequent process
➢ Or introduce defect(s) in fabric 306
 Objectives of Winding
➢Package Build
✓When the yarn has to be dyed, it is wound on a special package that
permits this treatment
✓In dyeing, package must allow even penetration of dye so that all parts
of yarn are evenly treated
✓It is usually wound on perforated package
✓Winding is done less tightly (with less packing density)

307
 Winding Process Requirements
1. Fault level in yarn must be reduced to an acceptable level
2. Yarn must not be damaged in any way in winding process
3. Yarn must be wound in such a way that it can easily be unwound at
required speeds in further processes
4. Package size, shape, & build must be suitable for particular end
use
5. Package size should be controlled to meet economic requirements
6. Winding operation must be geared to give the best possible
economic performance of the whole process of fabric
manufacture

308
 Types of Wound Packages
➢ In parallel wound package, yarns are laid parallel to each
other
➢ This maximizes the yarn content in package
➢ However, packages suffer from problem of stability & layers of
coils can collapse from two sides of package
➢ Double flanged packages are sometimes used
➢In nearly parallel wound package, successive coils of yarn are
laid with a very nominal angle
➢The rate of traverse is very slow
➢In cross wound package, yarns are laid on package at
considerable angle
➢Coils crosses each other very frequently, & package content is
lower than parallel wound package
➢Packages have very good package stability
309
 Winding Operation
Package Cradle
Winding

Driving drum
zone

Waxing unit
clearing zone
Tensioning &

Tension sensor

Electronic clearer
Splicer

Suction tube
Tensioner
Unwinding
zone

Feed bobbins

310
Winding Operation (cont.)
➢ Region 1: Unwinding of yarn from spinning package
➢ Region 2: tensioning & clearing region
➢ Proper tension is given to yarn for desired package density
➢ typical components: tensioning device, device to detect
thick, thin places (clearing device), splicer
➢ Stop motion causes machine to stop in the event of yarn
breakage or depletion of supply package
➢ Region 3: The winding region
➢ Yarn package suitable for further processing is wound
➢ Many types of packages : cones, cheese or spool or dye
packages depending on next stage of process
➢ The basic requirement of winding is uniform tension on
yarn
➢ Two different ways package winding takes place
311
 Winding Principles

➢ Spindle driven or precision winding

➢ Drum driven or random winding

312
 Spindle Driven or Precision Winding
➢ The package is mounted on spindle which is driven positively by a gear system
➢ If r.p.m. of the spindle is constant then surface speed of package will increase
with increase in package diameter.
➢ Therefore, there can be
A. Constant r.p.m. spindle winder
B. Variable r.p.m. spindle winder

A. Constant r.p.m. spindle winders

Here, ω is constant
𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑉 = ω𝑅
𝑉 = 𝑓(ω 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅)
As diameter of package increases, V increases,
its not desirable situation because,

𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝑉)
Tension will vary though out the package 313
 Spindle Driven or Precision Winding
B. Variable r.p.m. spindle winders

𝑌𝑎𝑟𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑉 = ω𝑅

In this case, ω is variable.

As R increases, ω will change to keep V constant.
Although R & ω are variable, product ωR = yarn velocity = V constant

Precision winders are preferred for winding delicate yarns as package is

not rotated by surface contact & therefore possibility of yarn damage
due to abrasion is lower as compacted to that of surface driven
winders

314
 Drum Driven or Random Winding
➢ Package is driven by cylinder by frictional contact as shown in
Figure below
➢ Traverse to yarn is provided by grooves cut on drum or by
reciprocating guide
➢ Grooved drum rotates package as well as performs traversing

Plain drum rotates package &

reciprocating guide does traversing 315
 Yarn Tensioning
✓ Main purpose of yarn tensioning is to build a package with
adequate compactness
✓ Higher yarn tension than optimum will result in a tighter
package
✓ If tension is lower, package will be loose (less dense)
✓ As a rule of thumb, yarn tension in winding is around 1cN/tex

Types of Tensioning Device

1. Additive type or disc type tensioner

2. Multiplicative type tensioner

316
 Yarn Tensioning (cont.)
1. Additive type or disc type tensioner
Yarn is passed through two smooth discs one of which is
weighted with the aid of small circular metallic pieces

✓ Weights can be changed easily so that tension in output yarn can

be adjusted as per requirement

If T1 & T2 are tension (cN) in the input & output yarns respectively, w
is weight (cN) applied on the top disc & μ is the coefficient of friction
between yarn & metal disc, then
T2 = T1 + 2µw
Factor 2 appears in expression as the lower disc also offers reaction
forces in yarn 317
 Yarn Tensioning (cont.)
2. Multiplicative type tensioner
✓ In this type of tensioner, yarn is passed around a curved or
cylindrical element
✓ The relationship between input & output tension can be
expressed as
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑒 µ𝜃
where θ is the angle of wrap (in radian) of yarn around tensioning
element

Different angle of wrap provides different tension in the output yarn 318
 Tension control on modern winding machines
• On modern machines, tension is kept constant by
continuously measuring & controlling it
Saurer Schlafhorst : ‘Autotense’ system

Tensioner pressure increases or decreases

based on tension level of input yarn
The Figure used here (from: Principles of Woven Fabric Manufacturing, Abhijeet Majumdar, CRC Press) is for academic purpose only, and is 319
intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
 Yarn Clearing
➢ Objective is to remove Objectionable faults

➢ Not all the faults are removed in the yarn, only

objectionable faults are removed

➢ Objectionable faults is a fault that can spoil the fabric

appearance or disrupt subsequent processes

➢ Compromise is needed
➢ Machine is stopped when yarn is cut to remove fault
➢ Joining of yarn is done by knot or splice which is also
blemish
320
 Yarn Clearers
➢ Yarn clearers are broadly classified as
1. Mechanical yarn clearers &
2. Electronic yarn clearers

➢ Electronic yarn clearers are very efficient in eliminating

yarn faults

➢ Mechanical clearers are used on rewinding machines or

are used as pre-clearers prior to electronic yarn clearer
in yarn path

321
 Mechanical Yarn Clearer
➢ Mechanical yarn clearers work on two basic principles:
1. Fixed or parallel blade-type yarn clearer
2. Swinging blade-type or trap clearer

Fixed or parallel blade-type yarn clearer Swinging blade-type or trap clearer

Yarn is passed between two metal It consists pivoted slanting spring
blades separated by narrow gap loaded blade
Gap between blades depends on: Fixed plate, platform or a rod lies
yarn diameter, type of yarn & beneath blade with adequate
degree of clearing required clearance

Advantages: cheap, robust & easy to maintain

Disadvantages: yarn is abraded by blades, & may increase dust & hairiness 322
 Electronical Yarn Clearer
Electronic yarn clearers work on two principles

[Link] type:
mass measurement

[Link]-electric principle:
diameter measurement

323
 Capacitance Principle

✓Capacitance of this condenser changes with the change in

mass of material between the plates

✓Capacitance principle measures yarn mass at given test

length

The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning, Dr. G Thilagavathi and Dr. T Karthik, Woodhead Publishing India) is for 324
academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
 Capacitance Principle (cont.)
Capacitance ∝ mass of material
C ∝m
C = K. m
K is unknown and depends on
material, moisture content
CVm% can be given as,
𝑖=1( 𝑥𝑖 −x͞ )
σ𝑛 2
Standard deviation is calculated (s) =
𝑛−1

𝑠 × 100
𝐶𝑉𝑚% =
x͞

100 1 𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑚% = × න ( 𝑥𝑖 −x͞ )2 . 𝑑𝑡
x͞ 𝑇 0
325
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning, Dr. G Thilagavathi and Dr. T Karthik, Woodhead Publishing India) is
for academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar, 2019-20.
 Optical Measurement Principle

➢ Optical principle measures yarn diameter

➢ Source of light causes light to be incident on a photocell & generates
emf
➢ Yarn is made to pass between source of light & photocell which
interrupts the beam of light & therefore lowers the emf generated
➢ Change in emf indicates variation in yarn diameter
326
 Advantages & Disadvantages
✓ Capacitance based measurements are more sensitive to
deviation
mass ∝ diameter 2

✓ 10% deviation in diameter will actually cause 21%

deviation in the mass
✓ Some of the defects cannot be detected by capacitance
type sensors (like soft spun yarn, hole in the yarn
structure, if mass is same)
…but variation in dia. can produce defect in fabric

✓ But optical tests are better in predicting fabric

appearance

327
 Categorization of Faults
✓ Yarn which is not uniform means it has irregularity along its
length
✓ It has thick-thin places along its length

Classification based on size, length & frequency of occurrence of faults

1. Unevenness or irregularity
2. Imperfections
3. Objectionable yarn faults
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning, Dr. G Thilagavathi and Dr. T Karthik, Woodhead Publishing India) is for 328
academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
 Yarn Faults
• Seldom occurring defects

• Cause end breaks or affect fabric appearance

• Faults are evaluated by Classimat Testers (have different

variants (Classimat 3, Classimat 4, Classimat 5)

• Faults are classified according to mass & length of faults

• Expressed as faults per 100 km (per 100000 m)

329
 Classimat 3
✓ Figure below shows the fault matrix of Classimat 3
✓ Total number of fault categories are 23
✓ Classimat 3 faults are classified under three major categories
Short thick faults A1 - D4
Long thick faults E, F, G
Long thin faults H1, I1, H2, I2
✓ From A1 – D4  16 short thick faults with
A1 belong shortest and D4 being longest
fault
✓ Long thick fault E  spinner’s double
✓ F & G are also long thick faults with mass
exceeding +45%

✓ Among short thick faults: A4, B4, C3, C4, D3,

D4 are considered as objectionable
✓ Now, A3, B3, C2, D2 are also considered as
330
objectionable for high quality yarns
 Classimat 5
✓ Number of fault classes are increased to 45
✓ 23 standard classes, and 22 additional

The Figure used here (from: Principles of Woven Fabric Manufacturing, Abhijeet Majumdar, CRC Press) is for academic purpose only, and is 331
intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
 Setting of yarn clearer
➢ In clearer settings on modern winding machines, user has
flexibility to choose the settings, class of faults that is to be
removed from above Classimat fault matrix

➢ Based on the user requirements, the setting can be changed and

effected from control panel of✓the winding
Among short machine
thick faults: A4, B4, C3, C4,
D3, D4 are considered as objectionable
✓ Now, A3, B3, C2, D2 are also considered
as objectionable for high quality yarns

332
 Performance of Yarn Clearer
• Performance of yarn clearer can be assessed with
following parameters,
No. of objectionable faults removed
Yarn clearing efficiency factor (E) =
Total no. of objectionable faults originally
present in yarn
No. of clearer related breaks
Splice factor (K) =
No. of objectionable faults removed

✓ This measure considers spurious breaks

✓ Higher yarn clearing efficiency factor, and lower splice factor (close
to 1)  more successful clearing
✓ With above factors, total number of breaks actually arising
can be calculated as

Total number of breaks = E × K × n

333
n = number of objectionable faults
 Splicing
Knot is a joint, likely to cause a break on
loom due to obstruction in heald eye or reed
during weaving, or can give bad appearance
in fabric
These problems can be avoided by creating
knot-free joint, called as spliced joint

Splice is
- slightly thick than normal yarn diameter
- Visually unobjectionable
- Does not cause objection to mechanical
operations
334
- Possess sufficient strength for further processing
 Stages of Splicing Spun Yarn
Splicing involves three stages
1. Untwisting or opening: removal of twist from some length of
yarn ends to be spliced
2. Overlapping: after removing twist, opened yarn portions are
overlapped on each other
3. Twisting & rejoining: untwisted overlapped ends are twisted to
rejoin yarn ends

335
 Splicing Performance
• Most winding machines dealing with spun yarns, use
pneumatic splicers
• Splicing parameters like air pressure, overlapping length of
two yarn ends & duration of air blowing: influence splice
quality.
Splice quality is evaluated with following parameters,
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑛
Retained splice strength (%) = × 100
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑦𝑎𝑟𝑛

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑒 (±1𝑐𝑚)

Splice breaking ratio =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡

Higher retained splice strength and lower splice breaking ratio shows
good splicing performance

336
 Yarn Waxing
• Yarn intended for knitting requires reduced metal
to yarn friction
• As yarn makes contact with feeder eye, needles,
sinkers & many other machine components
• Higher coefficient of friction increases tension
acting on yarn during knitting
• Besides, hairiness of yarn may also cause
problem in working of latch
• Therefore, waxing is done in winding operation
• Generally, 0.1 to 0.3% wax is applied to yarn

337
 Unevenness or Irregularity
➢In yarns made from staple fibres: fibre distribution along
the length of yarn varies

➢Variation in number of fibres per cross-section

➢Affected by fibre fineness, fineness variation among the

fibres and material type

➢It is known as Irregularity or Unevenness and expressed in

terms of Um% and CVm%

338
 Unevenness: Um% and CVm% (cont.)
• Unevenness Um%: most common parameter to express
mass variation

Um% is given by,

𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑣
Um%= 100
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡

Mathematical expression for Um% can be given as,

𝑇
‫׬‬0 𝑥𝑖 −x͞ .𝑑𝑡
𝑈𝑚% = *100
x͞∗𝑇
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning, Dr. G Thilagavathi and Dr. T Karthik, Woodhead Publishing India) is for 339
academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
 Unevenness: Um% and CVm% (cont.)
• Mass CV (Coefficient of Variation CVm%)
Standard deviation is calculated as
σ𝑛
𝑖=1( 𝑥𝑖 −x͞ )
2
s=
𝑛−1

𝑠 ∗ 100
CVm% can be given as, 𝐶𝑉𝑚% =
x͞
100 1 𝑇
𝐶𝑉𝑚% = ∗ න ( 𝑥𝑖 −x͞ )2 . 𝑑𝑡
x͞ 𝑇 0

Relationship between Um% and CVm%

If fibre assembly to be tested has normally distributed mass
variation, then
CVm% = 1.25Um%
340
The Figure used here (from Process Control and Yarn Quality in Spinning, Dr. G Thilagavathi and Dr. T Karthik, Woodhead Publishing India) is for
academic purpose only, and is intended only for students registered in NIT Jalandhar.
Applications of textile materials
 Technical vs traditional textiles
▪ Application is quite different

▪ Performance requirement (e.g., failure of astronaut’s suit during spacewalk could be

fatal)

▪ Constituent materials (i.e., high-performance material is used in many cases)

▪ Manufacturing methods and equipment

▪ Testing (e.g., testing of geotextiles/filter fabric)

▪ Life expectancy (In some cases, it could be very high)

▪ Price
Emergence of New Materials

Development stage for functional fibers for next generation

Source of Chitin fibre
Fibers from Bovine skin (Collagen fibre)

Fibers can be extracted from seaweeds (Alginate fiber)

E-textile
 E-textile soldier system

2-dimensional fabric USB The conductive Conductive snap

network installed into network supports full USB connector
ballistic vest USB2.0, streams
SVGA
Biosensor for
wound healing

fiber made of liquid crystals

Smart parachute showing the sensor’s component, the RF
transmitter received and the ground station
Cardiovascular diseases and
rehabilitation

Health Monitoring
Sensing, processing and communicating
Fabric Forming Process : Yarns to Fabric

Warping
Knitting

Sizing

Knitted fabrics

Weaving

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Woven fabrics
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Preteatment, Dyeing, printing and finishing

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 Pretreatment
Singeing
The protruding fibres on the surface of a fabric manufactured with spun yarns may be
desirable in that they impart a little softness to the fabric, but nonetheless they are seen as a
nuisance. These protruding fibres

➢ Create a fuzz which might obscure sharpness of a print or a coloured strip on the garment
➢ Can attract soil
➢ May aggravate pilling
Many cotton materials are valued for their smooth appearance e.g. lustrous sateen and satin
weaves. Hence, in general, it is desirable to remove these surface fibres. One of the most
common methods to do this is just burn off these fibres! This is known as Singeing. Although,
now a days it is also done using enzymes for cellulosic fibre fabrics.

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 Singeing
Objective To burn off the protruding fibers from a yarn or
fabric.
ADVANTAGES
1) Improved end use and wearing properties.
2) Clean Surface.
3) Reduced fogginess.
4) Reduced pilling.
5) Reduced Soiling.

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 Singeing
Cotton & Other Cellulose Fibers
In Grey State (Economical) - As one drying step is avoided.
Slight Yellowing Occurs - Removed on bleaching.
Singed with maximum burner intensity.
WOOL
Poor Combustion properties.
Sensitive to high temperature.
Hence not subjected to intense flame.
Flame is not allowed to penetrate the fabric.
Air is blown from the opposite side. 360
 Desizing
Desizing is the process of removal of size material applied on warp threads of a fabric to
facilitate the process of weaving. Size forms a stiff, hard and smooth coating on warp yarns
to enable them to withstand the cyclic tensions during weaving and reduce breakage.
Removal of impurities
In general the impurities from textile substrates can be removed by following processes:
Solubilization
Emulsification
Chemical breakdown by
Hydrolysis
Oxidation

361
 Desizing
In case the size is not soluble, it is removed by either hydrolysis or oxidation.
Hydrolysis or oxidation results in lowering of molecular weight of starch, which
results in improved solubility of degraded starch.
Following parameters play an important part in determining the efficiency of any
desizing or other pretreatment process:
Important parameters
Temperature
pH
Time
Circulation
M:L ratio
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 Scouring
Scouring is an important pretreatment stage especially for natural
fibres which tend to have a significance presence of natural
impurities. In case of cotton, although the relative amount of
impurities is quite low, it still makes the fibre non absorbent. I case
of wool, the amount may be so high as to interfere with basic yarn
manufacturing operations and hence the scouring may have to be
done at fibre stage itself. In case of silk, presence of natural
impurities tends to mask its natural luster for which it is valued.
The objective
To reduce the amount of impurities sufficiently to obtain level results
in dyeing & finishing operations by bringing the substrate to a highly
absorbent [Link] the emphasis is on removal of hydrophobic
impurities. 363
 Bleaching
After desizing and scouring most of the textile fabrics especially the natural ones, retain
slight coloration. The source of the colour may be:

• Flavone pigment in case of cotton

• Soil and dirt acquired from atmosphere
• Contact with plant parts and seeds etc.
• Colour acquired during mechanical processing e.g., grease, oil etc.
The objective of bleaching is to destroy this natural or acquired color to bring the textiles
in a white state.

This may be necessary when:

• The fabric has to be supplied in white colour

• It needs to be dyed in pastel shades
• It needs to be printed
If the fabric is to be dyed in dark shades, then bleaching becomes an optional process.
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 Mercerization

Mercerization is carried out for the following purpose.

[Link] lustre (silky look, in tension mercerization only).

[Link] tensile strength.
[Link] dimensional stability.
[Link] uniformity of dyeing & improving color yield (savings in dyestuff).
[Link] Elasticity or Stretch material (in slack mercerization only).

365
 Mercerization
• Mercerization is a process of impregnating the textile material with a concentrated
solution of cold NaOH, keeping it in contact with this cold solution for a given time with or
without tension, and subsequently rinsing it.
• MECHANISM-
– Mercerization causes swelling in fibre
– Swelling causes Cross-section to become rounder, loss of convolutions & detwisting
leading to more lustrous surface
– Opening of fibre structure
– Increase in amorphous content due to decrystallization
– Although mercerization is accompanied by swelling, it is more closely related to
internal modification of fiber.
– Effect is observed at 18-24 % w/w NaOH solutions.
– Higher no of –OH groups available as compared to un-mercerized cotton
– Higher moisture regain, dye-uptake and reactivity
366
 Optical whitening agents
• Most of the textile materials, especially the natural ones, appear slightly
yellowish of off white even after they have been bleached. They are not bright
white. The reason lies in slight absorbance by these substrates in blue region of
visible light which leaves these materials appearing as slightly yellowish. This can
be seen in the following figure.

367
 Optical whitening agents
• To make whites brighter, one needs to increase the reflectance of the bleached
goods further. This is possible with certain additives which absorb UV component
of solar radiation and emit in visible range (preferably in blue violet region). Thus,
the overall reflectance of the goods becomes higher than that of bleached goods
with a blue tinge to it, making it appear much brighter.
• The first recorded evidence of OBA application happened in 1929 when Paul Krais
applied aqueous extract of aesculetin-6-glucoside (a naturally occurring OBA) on
linen.

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Garment

369
Technical Textile products

370