science

Chapter S
What is an atom ?
An atom is the smallest
-

particle of an element that has the chemical

properties of that element.

An atom cannot be seen with the naked

eye
-

-
All matter ismade
up
of atoms
-
All the atoms of an element are identical but atoms of one element differ from atoms of another element.

Structure of an atom
-
Each atom is made up of even smaller particles known as sub-atomic particles
These three of subatomic particles protons elections and neutrons .
types
-
are -

Protons and neutrons the nucleus

are
densely packed in .

Electrons more around the nucleus .

Why is an atom
electrically neutral ?
-

Anatom contains an equal number of protons and electrons .

proton positive
= I

I
electron-negative relative mass: 1840

neutron= neutral I

11 Y Proton /electron number

Na
23

Relative atomic mass

Y
number of protonstneutrons (Neutron = Atomicmass -

protons
What is a chemical formula?
We use chemical
symbols to represent atoms
-
.

-
On the other hand , we use chemical formulae to represent molecules.

The chemical formula tells us :

Typesof atoms
-

Number of each
type of atom
-
 Ammonia
NHz Y This is called a subscript .

It tells us the number of atoms

of that element present . So in this case there are I
hydrogen atoms .

Whenthere is no number
itmeans theres atom
only one

ofthat element.

What is a molecule ?
A molecule is madeup of two or more atoms
chemically combined.
-

Molecules of compounds
Amolecule of compound has a fixednumber of different types of atoms
-

The ratio of the atoms is fixed

regardless of the state of the compound
-

take not women.

I
got too much space so
 Chapter 9

Forces in nature

Tsunamis
Tsunamis caused
by earthquakes or volcanic eruptions under the ocean
-

are .

They cause erosion

damage to buildings and loss of lives
of coastlines,
·

We lessen the impact of tsunamis

can
by building sea walls channels floodgates and warning systems
, , .

Tropical cyclones
Tropical cyclones can cause
flooding which lead to landslides.
-

can

·
The
strong winds can also
damage objects like vehicles ,
buildings and trees .

Earthquake
Earthquakes caused
by the movement of Earth's plate against each otherwhich causes tremors
-

are over or .

Volcanoes
-volcanoes are caused
by magma being pushed
out towards Earth's surface with
great force
.

Types of forces
a force is a push or pull
Two
types of forces :

-
contact force
-
Non-contact force.

Contact forces
Forces
acting between two objects in physical contact with each other called contact forces
-

are .

·
Friction is the force that opposes motion between two surfaces in .
contact

Elastic force is the force elastic object to return it to its

acting stretched or compressed original shape
·

on a .

Non-contact forces
Forces called non-contact forces
acting between two objects that not
touching each other
.

are are .

gravitational force and magnetic force are

examples of non-contact forces.
 Gravitational force
-A planet exerts gravitational force on an
object and pulls it towards its centre .

This keeps the moon or biting around Earth, and makes a

skydiver fall towards the ground
.
.

magnetic force
magnetic force is the force exerted between magnet andanother magnetic material such
a as iron or steel .

Every magnet has North pole and South pole

·

a a .

Weight
Formula :
weight=massx gravitational field strength (ION/g)
w
mg
=

Weight vs mass

-Weight is the measure of gravitational force acting on an

object .

-weight is type of force

a

Weight may change with location

-

Mass is the amount of matter in

object an
-

Mass remains constant

regardless of location
-

Effect of forces
When two objects interact they exert force on one state of
another and
changes in thestate ofrest
-

or more cause
may
,
a or

motion of an object
Forces objects.
can
change the shape and/or size of
-

-
A force applied on an
object can cause turning effect about fixed point called
a a the pivot .

The
turning effect can help us carry out an action with little force.
·

What is pressure?
Pressure is the amount of force per unit area.
acting on
-
 Force and pressure
When the force
acting contact decreases, the pressure decreases
-
on a area .

Pressure and contact area

When the contact area increases, the
pressure decreases
-
.

Factors
The amount of
affecting pressure
pressure exerted depends on:
·
The amount of force
·
The contact area involved.

Calculate pressure
unit : N
Force ->

pressure = contact area

> unit : m
-
↓
unit : Nm2 or Pa

Pressure in
daily life
-A force is applied through the knives and scissors onto the object. The edge of the knife has a
very
small contact

area. This results in a

large pressure on the
cutting edges and allows it to cut through the tomato easily .

Atmospheric pressure
-
The air around us are
light occupy space and have
, mass. The particles pushes down on the Earth's surface
air due to

exerts pressure on all

gravitational force So . , it objects exposed to it .

Pressure in
levels
liquids
due
When sea rise to climate
change the water pressure at the seabed increases
,
.

As water pressure is
higher at the base of the dam thicker wall is used to withstand the
higher water pressure
.

,
a .

What is work done ?

-

There is work done when :

A force is
applied on the object
·

The object moves in the same direction as the force applied on it .

Sl unit of work done joule (5):

sl unit of
joule (5)
energy
:

Calculate work done

work done = Force x Distance

work done Slunit : J

(joules)
What is ?
energy
Energy is the capacity of body to do work
-

a .

Kinetic
Kinetic
energy as the
energy is defined energy
of motion
·

be calculated
It can
using the formula:

EXmU
KE =
spedTo
KES1 unit : J (Joules]

Gravitational potential energy

Gravitational potential
energy
is defined as the
energy possessed by objects due to its position relative to

the . It can be calculated the formula

ground using :

GPE =
mgh m = mass h=
height GPES1 unit :
j(joules]
g =
gravitational field strength

Energy changes
When work is done form another
object energy is converted from one to
.

on an .
,

When an archer applies a force on the bowstring

,
he pulls it at a distance towards him .

The conversion :
energy
Chemical potential energy x
Elastic potential
energy
the
in arm muscles in
bowstring

As the archer releases the pushed some distance forward

bowstring the ,
arrow is .

Energy conversion :

Elastic potential Kinetic

energy > energy
in the
bowstring in the
moving arrow
Principal of conversion of energy
Principal of conversion of energy states that
energy
cannotbe created or
destroyed. It can
onlybe converted from
one form to another
.

force
pressure-contact area
ISO X10 :ISOON

ISOON
2
mi
3X4 = 12 m = 125 Pa (maximum)
4x5 = 20m2
Is
Pa
= TS (minimum)
 Chapter 10
Transfer of heat and its effect

Temperature
·

Temperature is the measure of how hot an object is .

A thermometer is used to measure it

·

Slunit : Kelvin (k)

other units :
degree Celsius (oC) or
degree Fahrenheit (OF)
Different Units
Each unit is used for different
purposes in mind
·

Kelvin takes into account of an absolute zero.

·

Degree Celsius uses the boiling and melting point of water as a reference point .

Temperature Change
moves from a hotter
Heat
region to a cooler region
·

When two objects are in contact, heat is transferred from the hotter object to the cooler object
.

Effects of heat transfer

The transfer of heat can cause objects or substances to expand or contract .

When a substance is heated it

gains heat and expands (increases in volume)
·

·
When a substance is cooled it releases heat and contracts (decreases in volume
,

Expansion and contraction in solids

MRT and
railwaytracks
In hot weather a metal
railway track gains heat and expands The track buckles if it is made with
. one continuous
·

metal piece. Trains

travelling on it
may
derail Hence, expansion
.

gaps
in the track provide space for the tracks to expand .

Telephone wires and electricity cables

Telephone wires and electricity cables raised poles contract cold weather.
on in
They may become tant and snap .

Thus the wires and cables

,
strung loosely from pole to pole.
are

Glassware

When
boiling water is poured too quickly into a
cup made of thick glass the glass sometimes cracks as theglass on the
,

inside expands more

quickly .
 Expansion
and contraction in liquids
Oceans absorb more than
ninety percent of the heat trapped in Earth's atmosphere . When oceans overheat it ,

expands and sea level rises. This causes more coastal land to be washed
away . Thus, coastal erosion increases .

Expansion and contraction in gases

When we bake a loaf of bread ,
the bread
dough rises. This is partly because the air bubbles trapped in the dough
expand when heated .

Applications of expansion and contraction

Opening a
jar
contraction
We can use the effects of expansion and in our
daily lives .

The lid of the jar can be immersed in warm water for a few minutes to cause the lid to expand more than the
glass
·

jar. This makes the lid less tight.

Liquid-in-glass thermometer
A
liquid-in-glass thermometer has abulb partially filled with a liquid such as mercury alcohol at one end. When or

the temperature around the bulb increases the liquid in the bulb gains from the
,
energy surroundings expands ,

and rises the narrow

glass tube . When the temperature decreases the
liquid in the bulb loses from the
up ,
energy
surroundings ,
contracts and falls back into the bulb .

Hot-air balloon
·

When air in a hot air balloon is heated , its volume increases. The mass of air remains constant as the number of air

particles is the same. Density-Massvolume . The mass

stays the same while its volume increases. Thus, the density of
decreases. The hotter and less dense air in the balloon rises,
air
causing the hotair balloon to float .

Bimetallic strip
A bimetallic strip is made up of two metals that expand at different rates
upon the same change in temperature Brass
·

expand and contracts more than steel iron.

They can be joined together to make a bimetallic strip
.

Use of bimetallic strip-thermostats

A thermostat is a component or device that ensures a constant temperature is maintained. Thermostats are often
found in electrical appliances such as air-conditioners, ovens and electric irons .

The
cooling unit coolsthe surrounding it is switched out by closing the circuit. When thetemperature is too cold
·

brass contracts more than and causes the bimetallic strip to bend away
iron
.
The circuit becomes open ,
switching
unit off
the
cooling .
 How does heat transfer take place?
Heat flows from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature
·
.

Thermal
equilibrium occurs when two objects in contact have the same temperature and there is no NET thermal transfer
between them.
The movement of heat
through one or more of the following processes
·

occurs :

Conduction
Convection

Radiation

Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat without the
physical movement of themedium .

A material that conducts heat is a conductor of heat.

·

Poor conductors of heat are called insulators of heat

.

solids are
generally better conductors of heat than (liquid andgases) fluids as the
particles are more
closely packed
to one another which allows heat to be transferred more
quickly .

Good conductor of heat

solids conduct heat better than liquid and
gases .

Metals are
good conductor of heat .

Examples :

Metals such as aluminium, iron , steel

Mercury is an exception . It is a
liquid and a metal so it is also a
good conductor of heat .

Poor conductor of heat

Used to reduce the heat
being transferred from place to another via conduction
·

one .

Example :

Non-metal solids

Liquid
Gas

why ladle not after awhile in soup

Heat is transferred from the bottom end of the ladle to the top end
through the ladle via conduction
·

Can and Carton same

fridge. can colder
from our hand
Metal conducts heat [Link] metal feels colder
·

away
more .
 Convection
convection is the transfer of heat from one place to another
by the physical movement of medium
·

a .

Convection current :
·

Water at the bottomis heated up It expands becomes less denseand rises. The coolerand denser water sinks to
.
,

replace it. The cyclerepeats itselfand a convection current is set

up
.

convection in
gases
·

Air above the candle is heated

up The
. heated air expands becomes lessdense and rises upthe [Link] cooler
,

denser air sinks to replace it. The

cycle repeats itself and a convection current is set up .

Radiation
·

Radiation is the transfer of heat from ahotter body to a cooler

body without the need for a medium .

can take place in a vacuum .

May be absorbed or reflected

·

Greenhouse effect
Greenhouse effect is the
warming of the surface of Earth. This happens when heat is prevented from leaving Earth's
·

atmosphere by radiation Greenhouse gases

.
,
such as carbon dioxide , trap heat within the atmosphere and keep
Earth warm to support life .

More greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere when fossil fuels such coal , crude oil and natural
·

as

other forms of
gas are burnt to
get energy .
This increases the
greenhouse effect which ,
increases Earth's

temperature ,
and is known as global warming
.
Global warming polar ice to melt and
glaciers to shrink The melting of large volumes of ice causes
·

cause .
caps
of heat by oceans causes water bodies to expand
the sea level to rise. The increased absorbtion
resulting in ,

rising leading to floods along coastal areas

sea levels ,
.

What affects the rate of heat transfer?

Conduction
type of material Water near the top of the test tube boils
!
-
.

However, ice at the bottom of the test tube does not

melt easily This is because water is a

poor
.
conductor of heat and does not
readily transfer
neat from the top of the test tube to the bottom

What do think the purpose of themetal ring

you
in this experiment ?
It is toprevent the ice from
rising to the top of
·

the test tube. (Ice is less dense than water .

)
 Radiation
Temperature of object body of an object the higher the rateofradiation
The hotter the from the object
·
-
.

surface area of object The

larger the surface area the higher the rate of radiation.
· -

Type (texture and colors of surface

·

Black objects absorbs heat faster than white objects .

A black object emits heat faster than a white object .

Dull ,
rough and black surfaces are good absorbers and good emitters
·

Polished smooth and white surfaces are poor absorbersand poor emitters
,
.

object CANNOT be both an absorber and emitter at the same time

An
·

How to use heat transfer to improve our lives ?

conduction
daily
The base of the
frying pan is made of metal such aluminium which is
good conductor of heat. Heat be
·

as a can

transferred
quickly from the heat source to the food by conduction . So the food
gets cooked faster .

Porous materials like wool trap pockets of air which is a poor conductor of heat. Heat cannot be transferred easily
·

, ,

poor conductors or convection (as air is trapped and cannot circulate )

through it by conduction (as air is a .

Double-glazed windows has layerof air trapped between its glass panels Air is poor conductor of heat and acts
·

a . a

as an
insulating layer Thus double-glazed windows helpsto reduce heat loss from the house during cold weather
.
, .

Convection
convection current :

The air-conditioner cools the hotair on top which contracts becomes denser and sinks to the bottom of theroom. The
·

, ,

surrounding air is warmer (in comparison to the cooled air) and less dense and rises to replace it. The cycle repeats
itself and a convection current is formed Afterawhile
.

,
the room is cooled .

Radiation
The polished and smooth surfaces of cooking utensils teapots and kettles are poor emitters of heat. This reduces heat loss
·

to the
surrounding allowing the contents to stayhot for longer time a .

The
heating surfaces of electric stores areblack and the heating coil has a large surface area These properties
·

.
,

make the surfaces an excellent emitter of radiation .

Hot pipes at the backs of refrigerators are painted black This

type of surface of the pipes is good emitter of
·

. a

radiation .

cooling fins or heat sinks are

usually black dull and /or rough These
types of surfaces are good emitters of
·

,
.

radiation , so heat can be

readily lost to the surroundings .

Emergency or rescue blankets have white polished and /or smooth surfaces which are poor emitters of radiation
·

.
,

Theblankets keep people warm by reducing heat loss fromtheir body .

solar collectors are used to heatwater or houses. Theplates and tubes inside a collector are
usually painted black which is
·

good absorberof radiation . This increases the absorption of radiation from the sun .
 Application of transferof heat
spacesuits are specially designedto keep the temperature ofastronauts at a comfortable level
·

Helmet This is made of a special

:
insulating material and reduces the rate of heat lossby conduction .

A white outer
layer
:
Spacesuits are coloured white White surfaces are poor emitters of radiation. This helpsto reduce
.

the rate of heat loss

by radiation .
 Chp1/
Chemical Changes
How to
identify chemical change
Interactions between matter take place around us all the time. These interactions can result in
physical and chemical
changes .

physical changes
. We can
When there are no new substances
beingformed in the change . The
changes can usually be reversed
get the
constituents back
using separation techniques .

Chemical changes
formed it means that a chemical reaction has taken
A
change in which new substances are .
When a chemical change occurs ,

place. Substances that react with each other are known as reactants. The new substances formed are known as products .

Reactions where two or more substances

Chemical
changes can be classified into two groups : 1 .

chemically combine to form one

or more new substances. Example : carbon burns in the presence of to form carbon dioxide and water
oxygen .

wordequation :
creactants) (products)
methane + carbon dioxide + water
(carbon)
oxygen

.
2 Reactions where a substance breaks down into two or more new substances. Example : Calcium carbonate is heated and breaks

down into carbon dioxide and calcium oxide .

word equation :
calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide

·
Salt added into water is not a chemical change It is . a mixture as no new substances are formed. The table salt can be

obtained from the salt solution

using evaporation to dryness. The change is reversible .

Energy is sometimes taken in or

given out during chemical reaction likewhen carbon is burned, heat is released.
·

Physical VS Chemical change

Physical Chemical

no new substances are one or more new substances

formed. formed .

Changes are reversible Cannot be separated

through physical methods by physical methods

of separation
Word equation
Reactants on left. Products on right .

E .

g :

Zinc + sulfur-> zinc sulfide

Atoms in a chemical reaction

Atoms rearrange themselves and combine
chemically to form
products during a chemical reaction. Atoms of a product must come

from the reactants.

c + j -
0co

Total number of atoms on left and right must remain the same. No atoms are formed or lost in a chemical reaction .

Mass of reactant = mass of products · Mass is conserved

during a chemical reaction

Types of chemical changes

Combustion

Combustion is a chemical reaction in which a substance is heated in the presence of to form one or more new substances
oxygen .

Heat and sparklers release lot of heat and

light are
usually given out
during combustion. e .

:
g a
light when
they burn .

Thermal decomposition
Thermal decomposition is the process in which a substance breaks down into two or more simpler substances upon heating .

calcium carbonate thermal in orderto

e .

g
:
undergoes decomposition produce glass .

Oxidation

some substances it chemical change

can interact with
oxygen
. When a substance
gains oxygen ,
undergoes a

called oxidation. when iron reacts with and water /water vapour in the air) to form rust
. Rusting occurs
rusting
e
:
g
.

oxygen .

Respiration is also an example of oxidation. Food molecules such as to

glucose arebroken down in the presenceof oxygen provide
cells with energy to survive and reproduce. During respiration ,
carbon dioxide and water are produced .

glucose+ oxygen- > carbon dioxide water

Neutralisation
Acids and Alkalis

There are
many
substances around us in our
daily lives that contain acids and alkalis .

Acid -
Tastes sour and is corrosive . Common acids : hydrochloric acid nitric acid
, ,
sulfuric acid

Alkali-Tastes bitter feels and is corrosive Common alkalis : sodium hydroxide potassium hydroxide aqueous ammonic
soapy
.
, , ,

When an acid is mixed with an alkali ,

a neutralisation reaction occurs. The ending products of this reaction is a salt and water .

acid + alkali- > salt-water

Different acids react with different alkalis to form different salts. However water is always formed as ,
a product .

acid used : salt formed :

hydrochloric acid chloride

nitric acid nitrate eg

:
hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide >
-
sodium chloride + water

sulfuric acid sulfate

 Acids and metals
An acid can react with a metal to form 2 products : a salt and hydrogen gas.

metal + acid > -

salt+hydrogen
(MASH)
HOWEVER ,
some metals do not react with acids. They are copper silver and gold ,
.

testing for hydrogen gas

To test for hydrogen gas produced lighted splint Test
,
we can use a .

lighted splint into the test tube containing the gas

: Insert a .

Observation : Lighted splint will

extinguish with a "pop" sound in the presence of hydrogen gas .

Acids and carbonates

An acid react with carbonate to form 3 products : salt water

can a a ,
carbon dioxide
gas and
acid + carbonate <salt + carbon dioxide + water

: nitric acid+ calcium carbonate> calcium nitrate + carbon dioxide + water

eg
testing for carbon dioxide
To test for carbon dioxide
gas produced we can use limewater
, .
Test : Bubble the
gas through
lime water. Observation : White
is formed if carbon dioxide gas isbubbled through it
precipitate .

Indicators
It is not safe to taste or touch an unknown solution to find out whether it is acidic or alkali . PH(v/ < 7 (acidic)
·
An indicator is a substance which
changes color depending on the nature of the solution .
> T(alkaline)
Litmus
paper
7) (neutrall
In the school
laboratory ,
litmus
paper is often usedto test the nature of the solution. There are two
types of litmus paper:
·
Red litmus
paper red litmus paper blue litmus
paper
·

Blue litmus acidic : remains red turns red

paper
alkaline: turns blue remainsblue

neutral : remains red remains blue

Universal indicator

Universal indicator provides approximate values. It is available the form of paper strips or a
green solution.
PH in It is

made of a mixture of indicators So , it can wide of colors depending on the PH of the solution tested
up .

display a
range .

Acidic :
Red/orange/yellow
Neutral : Green
Alkaline : Blue/Purple
Thevaluesof the PH scale
range from O to 14. The lower the PH the more
.
,
acidic the solution . The
higher the PH the more
alkaline the solution . T is neutral
 How chemical
changes happen
mixing
when two or more reactants are mixed
together they can
,
combine
irreversibly to form more products resulting in ,
a chemical

change.
Heating
Heat or an increase in temperature is needed for chemical reactions like : combustion thermal , decomposition
Exposure to light
Photosynthesis is chemical reaction that occurs in
green plants. In the presence of
light green plants chlorophyll in their
·

a , use

leaves carbon dioxide and water to

, produce glucose and oxygen.
colours in clothes can fade overtime when
they are exposed to sunlight. This is due to a chemical reaction caused by ultraviolet
·

(UV)
rays
in
sunlight. This also explains why photographs or book covers look faded after some time .

Interaction with
oxygen
Oxidation refers to a process in which a substance reacts with oxygen Oxidation also . occurs during combustion and

cellular respiration. Objects made of copper interact with too.

oxygen Theyturn green as copper reacts with water and
to form . Thered and brown colors of tropical soils are also result of chemical reactions with
oxygen copper compound a

oxygen
.

Electroplating
sometimes covered
Coins and trophies are
by a thin layer of metal to make them more attractive. The metal layer may also
prevent them from rusting. This is done through electroplating. Electroplating is the process in which a substance is
coated with a metal when an electric current passes
through it .

Chemical reaction in
daily life
Benefits

cooking causes chemical reaction in food . Heat from cooking softens food and improves its flavor Also makes it
-
.

body to absorb nutrients from food

easier for the ,
although some may be destroyed in the process .

Respiration glucose molecules react with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water The released allows the cells
energy
-
.

in an
organism to survive and reproduce .

Decay -
The
process of breaking down organic matter into simpler substances. It allows nutrients to be returned to the
environment. These nutrients support the growth of plants which in turn support other organisms
,
.

Harm

Decay -
causes food to spoil and eating spoilt food can harm our health .

How to prevent : vaccum

packaging
Rusting -
Rustis flaky and brittle which causes the
,
rusty surface to flake away over
time. This
exposes the layer underneath
to and water, leadingto further rusting. Eventually , all of the iron will rust and flake away which weakens the
oxygen ,

structuresof
buildings and
bridges .

How to prevent : Paint over

 combustion

Combustion of fuels can produce air pollutants like carbon monoxide sulfur dioxide and oxides of nitrogen
,

Air pollutants : Effects :

carbon monoxide -

Highly toxic gas that is colourless and odourless . Reduces the amount of
oxygen
taken up
by red blood cells .

sulfur dioxide nose and Worsens health problems Dissolves in rainwater to form acid rain
=
Irritates
eyes ,
lungs
. . .

oxidesof
nitrogen
When substances
containing carbon are burnt carbon dioxide gas is released. This chemical reaction cannot be reversed
, . Some

communities still use slash-and-burn practices to clear forests farmland. The smoke given off from
or
burning can cause air pollution
and harmful health effects when inhaled. forests increases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere there are
Removing as

fewer trees left absorb carbon dioxide. The large amount of carbon dioxide released
to
duringburning traps heat within the
atmosphere resultingin global warming.
,

Ocean acidification

When carbon dioxide in the atmosphere dissolves in seawater carbonic acid is formed As the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
,
.

increases , more carbonic acid is formed ,

which causes seawater to become more acidic . This is known as ocean acidification .
 Chp13
Electricity
Electricity must flow
through an electrical appliance before it can work .

Electric current
flow of
The
electricity is called an electric current .

An electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge .

:I
Symbol
ampere (A)
Sl unit :

conventional current

Electric current flows from the positive terminal of a

battery to the negative terminal .

Electron flow

After the flow from the

discovery of electrons ,
it became known that electron occurs
negative to the positive terminal .

The direction of conventional current flow is opposite to the direction of electron flow .

Electric circuits

An electric current flows electric circuit

through a path that is setup by an .

for electric current to flow in the circuit

energy source (battery) provide energy .

11 wires connect the various components together .

Switch turns !* This provides a complete path for current to flow .

current on/off

bulb converts electrical

energy
into
light and heat .

circuit diagram
A circuit if the electrical components
diagram is drawn to help us to see are connected correctly
.
We use common
symbols when drawing
circuit
diagrams.
common
symbol
wire
positive
switch openn . lightbulb X

battery switch closed·

series and parallel circuits

There are two types of electric circuits series circuit and parallel circuit .

The electric current

In a series circuit , the electrical components are joined one after another to form a
single loop .
flowing through all
electrical components in the circuit are the same .

In a parallel circuit the electric current is divided into branches. In a parallel circuit where thenumberof identical electrical
S components
in each branch is the same, the electric current is divided equally into each branch .
 measuring current
we measure current using an ammeter. The terminals of an ammeter are marked with positive (t) and negative (-) signs An ammeter
·

must be connected in series in a circuit.

Potential difference
Electric charges flow between a point of higher potential to a point of lower potential . An electric current can flor
only when there
is a potential difference.
The potential difference between any two points is the amount of energy needed to move one unit of electric charge from one point to
another ·
Symbol:
Slunit : volt (v)

The more
energy needed to move a charge between two points in a circuit the
,
greater the potential difference between the two points.
measuring potential difference

we measure potential difference using a voltmeter . The terminals of a voltmeter are marked with positive (t) and negative (-) signs ·

The voltmeter mustbe connected in parallel to the circuit component .

In a parallel circuit ,
the potential difference across each branch is the same .

In a series circuit the ,

potential difference across each electrical component in the circuit may be different .

-Resistance
An electrical component resists or hinders the flow of electric charges when it is connected in a circuit.

The resistance of a component isthe ratio of the potential difference across it to the current flowing through it .

Slunit : ohm (1)

resistors

Most electrical circuits contain components called resistors to control the current flowing [Link] larger the resistance of the

resistor the smaller the

,
current .

There are two types ofresistors :

·
Fixed resistor

variable resistor

fixed resistors

Fixed resistors have fixed resistance. If a circuit contains

only fixed resistors theresistance of the circuitcannot be changed
,

in order to
The resistors have to be changed change resistance. Resistors can be connected in series or parallel .

symbol :

arrangement of resistors
resistor in parallel resistance decrease bulb
= =
brighter
resistor in series = resistance increase = bulb dimmer

variable resistor /rheostats)

A variable resistor or rheostat allows us to adjust the resistance in a circuit

using a slider. Rheostats are used to adjust the

sound volume of radios and the brightness of light bulbs .

symboli
 Effects of an electriccurrent
chemical

An electric current can cause a chemical

change when it is passed through certain liquids. This chemical change is known as electrolysis
Electrolysis can be used for electroplating
magnetic
An electromagnet can be made by using electric .
current
Electromagnets can be used in :

scrapyards to pick up heavy scrap metals

·

Magletrain
·

heating
is converted to heat. The
When an electric current passes
through a wive the electrical
,
energy heating effect of current is used
in
heating appliances such as electric kettle and electriciron .

lighting
The
heating effect of a current can lead to the
lighting effect .

Power
An electric fan that blows
strongly is said to be 'powerful because it converts electrical energy quickly into the energy of moving air .

The power of a circuit component is the amount of electrical converted to other forms of
energy energy per unit
time
bythe component .

5) unit : watt (w)

One watt of power means that one joule of energy is converted to other forms of
energy
in one second .

The power rating of an appliance tells us how quickly an appliance converts electrical energy into other formsof energy. As most
household appliances have
high power ratings ,
their electrical power is measured in kilowatts (kW) instead of watts .

electrical
energy
We the amount of electrical
energy using
can measure :

Energy = Power Time

( kW) (h)
(kWh)

fuse
A fuse has a current rating. The current
rating shows the limit to the maximum amount of current that can flow through it. The fuse is
short length of wire that melts and breaks the circuit when the current flowing through it exceeds its rating When the wire in a fuse
a
.
melts we the fuse is 'blown' A blown fuse should be replaced after electrical fault has been rectified
,
say . an .

circuit breakers

A circuit breaker can also cut off an electric current . However unlike a fuse it does not need to be replaced. The circuit breaker in
, ,
our

home is found in the consumer unit

. Each circuit breaker is a switch-like lever connected to a different part of the household circuit .

When a appliance or the part of the circuit fixed , the circuit switched on circuit breaker
damaged is can be
again usingthe .