MODULE 2: THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES OF ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR

EXAM REVISION STUDY GUIDE

SECTION 1: THE BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Neurotransmitter Imbalances

 100 billion neurons in CNS communicate via neurotransmitters (chemical messengers)

 Neurotransmitters regulate: mood, anxiety, cognitive functioning

 Biological treatment focuses on medications addressing neurotransmitter imbalances

Factors Affecting Neurotransmitter Imbalance:

1. Receptors: Number, distribution, and functioning of receptors on dendrites

2. Reuptake: Amount of neurotransmitter in synaptic cleft reabsorbed by releasing neuron

3. Degradation: Process by which neurotransmitter is broken down by enzymes

Hormones

 Chemicals secreted by endocrine glands (e.g., pituitary)

 Play role in nervous system functioning and behavior regulation

 Example: During adolescence, HPA axis changes increase cortisol (stress-related

hormone)

 Functioning based on BOTH biological factors AND environmental stressors

Methods to Assess Biological Contributions:

1. Family History Studies

 Identify people with disorder (probands)

 Examine family trees

 Compare with controls to see percentage of first-degree relatives with disorder

 PROBLEM: Cannot separate genetics from environmental causes

2. Adoption Studies

 Compare disorder rates in adoptive relatives vs. biological relatives of adoptees

  Helps understand genetic vs. environmental causes

 More effective than family history studies

Key Assumptions of the Biological Model:

 Abnormal behavior results from biological dysfunction

 Genetic predispositions play role in mental illnesses

 Imbalances in neurotransmitters and hormones influence mood and behavior

 Structural abnormalities in brain can affect mental health

Types of Biological Abnormalities:

i. Defective Genes

 Each chromosome contains thousands of genes (carriers of DNA)

 Influence psychological and physical development

 Example: Trisomy causes Down syndrome

ii. Behavior Genetics

 Study of individual differences in behavior caused by differences in genotype

 Combination of several altered genes can cause disorder

iii. Structural Brain Abnormalities

 Occur when areas of brain have not developed optimally or undergone pathological
changes

 Example: Ventricles often larger in schizophrenics

SECTION 2: THE PSYCHOANALYTIC/PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE

Rooted in: Sigmund Freud's Theories

Focus: Unconscious conflicts, early childhood experiences, and defense mechanisms shape
psychological disorders

Unconscious Processes: The Tripartite Model

Component Definition Function

Id Unconscious wishes/instinctual desires Operates on pleasure principle

Component Definition Function

Ego Rational self/coping and defense mechanisms Operates on reality principle

Superego Conscience/moral conscience Operates on moral principle

Abnormality occurs when: Ego fails to mediate conflicts between id and superego → anxiety
and use of defense mechanisms (repression, denial, projection)

Unresolved Childhood Unconscious Conflicts/Motivations

 Early childhood experiences and unconscious motivation responsible for disorders

 Often stem from early psychosexual development stages or dysfunctional relationships

with primary caregivers

 Seen in personality structure (iceberg model)

Weak Ego Problems:

Unchecked Id Impulses

 If unchecked, expressed in self-destructive and immoral behavior

 May lead to conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic behavior in adulthood

Too Powerful Superego

 Too harsh and inflexible in moral values

 Restricts id excessively

 Person deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures

Key Assumptions of Psychoanalytic Theory:

 Psychic Determinism: Mental life is lawful (apparently random thoughts are guided by
underlying motives)

 Unconscious Motivation: Most mental life operates outside awareness

 Mind Organized by Conflicts: Unresolved conflicts between id, ego, superego contribute
to abnormality

Treatment Approaches - Psychodynamic Therapy:

Aims to uncover and resolve unconscious conflicts through:

  Free Association: Encourage clients to express thoughts freely to access unconscious
material

 Dream Analysis: Interpret dreams to uncover hidden conflicts and desires

 Transference and Countertransference: Explore emotions directed at therapist to gain

insights into interpersonal dynamics

Contemporary Adaptations:

 Mentalization-Based Therapy (MBT)

 Transference-Focused Psychotherapy (TFP)

 Target specific conditions like borderline personality disorder

SECTION 3: THE BEHAVIOURAL PERSPECTIVE

Core Concept:

 Views abnormal behavior as learned through interaction with environment

 Maladaptive behaviors are NOT symptoms of underlying mental processes but result of
conditioning, reinforcement, or modeling

 Focus on OBSERVABLE BEHAVIORS rather than internal mental states

Core Principles:

1. Classical Conditioning

 Neutral stimulus becomes associated with meaningful stimulus → learned response

 Example: Pavlov's dogs salivated at bell sound after associating it with food

 Explains phobias: Previously neutral stimulus (spider) becomes associated with fear due
to traumatic event

2. Operant Conditioning

 Method of learning using rewards and punishment to modify behavior

 Positive reinforcement: Increases likelihood of repeating behavior by providing reward

 Punishment: Decreases undesirable behavior

3. Observational Learning (Modeling)

  Individuals learn behaviors by observing others

 Example: Bandura's Bobo doll experiment - children who observed aggressive behavior
replicated it

 Explains how maladaptive behaviors develop through exposure to role models

Applications in Treatment/Therapy:

a. Systematic Desensitization

 Used to treat phobias

 Gradually expose individuals to fear-inducing stimuli while teaching relaxation

techniques

 Replace fear response with calm response

b. Aversion Therapy

 Pair unwanted behaviors (smoking) with unpleasant stimuli

 Reduce occurrence of behavior

c. Behavior Modification

 Employ reinforcement and punishment to encourage positive behaviors

 Example: Token economies reward individuals for desirable actions in structured

environments

Cases Applicable of Behaviour Therapy:

 Phobias: Systematic desensitization for fear of heights

 Substance Use: Contingency management provides tangible rewards for abstaining

 Social Anxiety: Role-playing exercises simulate social interactions

Strengths:

 Effective for observable behaviors

 Powerful tools for understanding and treating phobias, compulsions, learned

maladaptive behaviors

 Behavioral treatments reshape disordered behavior and teach new, adaptive responses

Limitations:
  Often disregards internal factors like cognition and emotions

 Most effective when integrated with other perspectives

 Led to integration of cognitive elements in approaches like CBT

SECTION 4: THE COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

Founders:

Aaron Beck and Albert Ellis - Founding fathers of cognitive behavior therapy movement

Core Concept:

 Emphasizes role of thought patterns, beliefs, and mental processes in understanding

psychological disorders

 Distorted or dysfunctional thinking contributes to emotional distress and maladaptive

behaviors

 Highlights importance of internal mental processes in shaping experiences and actions

Key Assumptions/Core Concepts:

1. Cognitive Distortions

 Negative or inaccurate thought patterns central to development of mental health issues

 Examples: catastrophizing, overgeneralization

 Someone who consistently interprets events pessimistically may develop depression or

anxiety

2. Schemas

 Mental frameworks based on past experiences

 Influence how individuals interpret new situations

 Maladaptive schemas (viewing oneself as unworthy) perpetuate emotional distress

3. The A-B-C Model (Albert Ellis)

 A (Activating Event): The situation

 B (Belief): Interpretation/belief about event

 C (Consequence): Emotional and behavioral outcome

  Example: Failing exam (A) → belief "I must always succeed to have value" (B) → feelings
of worthlessness (C)

4. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

 Developed by: Aaron Beck

 Definition: Type of treatment combining cognitive and behavioral techniques

 Process: Identify and challenge negative thought patterns

 Goal: Replace with healthier ways of thinking and behaving

 Efficacy: Shows effectiveness across various conditions (depression, anxiety, PTSD)

Applications and Examples:

Anxiety Disorders

 Patients exhibit catastrophic thinking (assuming worst outcomes)

 Therapy focuses on identifying and reframing these thoughts

Depression

 Negative automatic thoughts like "I'm a failure" common in depression

 Cognitive therapy targets these beliefs

 Helps patients develop more balanced and positive thinking

Evidence and Impact:

 Research supports effectiveness of cognitive-based therapies, particularly CBT

 CBT often rivals or exceeds efficacy of pharmacological treatments for anxiety and
depression

 Offers robust framework for understanding and treating abnormal behavior

SECTION 5: INTEGRATING PERSPECTIVES

Key Insight: Different Theoretical Perspectives are Lenses

 Human behavior complexities call for MULTIPLE CAUSALITY APPROACH

 None of the approaches are complete or equally valid to explain all aspects of human
behavior
  Researchers and practitioners have agreed to integrate various approaches toward more
holistic understanding

Theories of Psychopathology:

 The Biological Approach: Considered dominant force in psychiatry

 The Psychological Approach: Psychodynamic, behavioral, and cognitive-behavioral

perspectives

 The Sociocultural Approach: Becoming quite influential

 Call for Biopsychosocial Approach: All these factors interact and play role in
psychopathology

SECTION 6: THE BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL (BPS) MODEL

Definition:

Incorporates interactions between biological, psychological, and social factors to help determine
why individual might suffer from disorder

Key Components:

Component Focus Examples

Brain function, genetics, Neurotransmitter imbalances, hormonal

Biological
neurochemical imbalances dysfunction, genetic predispositions

Thoughts, emotions, learned Cognitive distortions, defense mechanisms,

Psychological
behaviors, unconscious conflicts conditioning, maladaptive schemas

Environmental factors, cultural Family dynamics, peer influence, cultural

Social
context, relationships norms, poverty, discrimination

Why the BPS Model is Important:

 Recognizes that mental disorders result from complex interactions of multiple factors

 Allows for more comprehensive understanding of psychopathology

 Enables more effective diagnosis and treatment planning

 Reduces stigma by acknowledging multiple contributing factors

 Supports personalized treatment approaches

SECTION 7: COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF PERSPECTIVES

Perspective Core Cause Focus Treatment Strengths Limitations

Brain Ignores
Medication, Scientific basis,
dysfunction, Physical basis psychological
Biological medical effective for
genetics, of behavior and social
interventions some disorders
neurochemistry factors

Unconscious
Internal Free association, Addresses deep- Difficult to
conflicts,
Psychoanalytic psychological dream analysis, rooted causes, test, time-
childhood
processes psychotherapy comprehensive consuming
experiences

Effective for
Learned Systematic Ignores
observable
behaviors, Observable desensitization, internal
Behavioral behaviors,
conditioning, behaviors behavior mental
empirically
reinforcement modification processes
supported

Cognitive
Distorted Highly effective, May
Thought Behavioral
thinking, empirically oversimplify
Cognitive patterns and Therapy (CBT),
maladaptive supported, complex
beliefs thought
schemas practical disorders
challenging