SOCIO CULTURAL THEORIES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. Socio-Cultural Theory of Lev Vgotsky.

Lev Vgotsky is the father of socio-cultural perspective. He emphasized the important role of social
interaction particularly in facilitating cognitive development of children. An iconic concept he introduced
was the zone of proximal development (ZPD) which identifies the gap between assisted and non-assisted
development of children’s cognition. Specifically, the assistance provided widens the potential to
effectively and efficiently use cognitive functioning such as the performance of executive functions,
cognitive processing, and acquisition of new information. Actions consistent to this is referred to as
scaffoldings. Learning activities that hope to encourage students to further learn a concept is an example
of scaffoldings. Children’s creativity becomes more evident and further hone when children are given
learning opportunities to utilize such talent. The expansion of ZPD therefore reflects the degree of one’s
environment to providing quality opportunities for learning.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

2. The Cognitive Theory of Development of Jean Piaget.
Piaget highlights the cognitive simulation that adults provide in the movement through stage of
cognitive development – sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational. In
providing cognitive stimulation, content, materials and activities reflect the culture and their corresponding
artifacts. For instance, language plays a significant role in achieving cognitive development milestones
from preoperational to concrete operational. Considering the spurt on the language development on the
parallel ages of these stages, it can accelerate the processing of information as well as in making meaning
with one’s environment. Language facilitates the manipulation of ideas in the mind such as capability to
create connections between and among them. More importantly, it is through language that new
information is acquired.

THE ETHOLOGY-EVOLUTIONARY AND SOCIO-BIOLOGICAL THEORIES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN

DEVELOPMENT

1. Ethological Perspective.
Konrad Lorenz was able to discover how animals can develop behavioral patterns which have
adaptive values for one’s survival. He believes that species are genetically constructed to specifically
process certain information. This gives the readiness of almost all species to respond to their needs, most
especially those that are physiological in nature. Animals develop reflexive reactions that are endogenous
in their system. He later extended his work by making inference about human behavioral patterns
asserting similarities with those that he found with other animal species. Like animal behavior patterns are
the reflexive reactions of infants which are essential to communicate their needs. In doing so, caregivers
can respond better in providing the needs of infants. He also observed great similarities in the proportion
of head with the body of animals and human infants together with other features that make them look
cute. He called it babyishness. This explains favorable attention, if not affection, to newborn infants.
2. Attachment Theories.
John Bowlby, Mary Ainsworth, and Melanie Klein were the key figures for this perspective. The basic
tenet of attachment theory is that children develop a sense of emotional bond with the immediate
caregiver, most especially to mothers, which becomes a prototype in developing social connection in the
future. The ability to initiate, sustain, and end social relationships is based on quality of initial relationship
the mother has established. This can be traced back to their relationship upon birth, particularly in the
infant-nipple relationship. Using the strange situation technique, Ainsworth observed three kinds of
attachment styles, namely secure, insecure avoidant, and insecure ambivalent. They generally described
the degree of anxiety and stress an infant experience when separated and reunited with one’s mother.
Klein, on the other hand, focused on the building of prototypical relationships through the nipple
experience. This is whether the nipple is generous or otherwise. Teachers in school may understand that
students may find it challenging to establish relationships with their classmates or other school personnel
due to the mental representation they have about social relationship. In same manner, children may
experience separation anxiety during the first few days of schooling due to the stress and anxiety they
have about new environment. Children may experience a challenge in adapting to new environment while
others may appear to easily adjust to this new environment.

THE SYSTEM APPROACH THEORIES IN THE STUDY OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1. The Contextualism Theory of Richard Lerner.
Lerner highlights the embeddedness of the organism (or the individual) within the context. For him,
it is not possible to understand the individual with having knowledge into the situations by which the
individual is in. Since the context may not necessarily to be the same from time to time and person to
person, it can be expected that development strongly has variations among individuals. In fact, he believes
that development has larger room of being malleable that highly predeterministic pattern of changes.
Adapting the principle of probabilistic epigenesis, he strongly argued that the sequence and the outcome
of development is rather probable than certain. Putting this in the context of education, the theory
provides implications with regard to seeing learners as having unlimited possible capabilities when given
the opportunity to learn and acquire sufficient and appropriate knowledge. Because of the concept of
plasticity in development, it is possible that a specific talent can be further honed if some degree of
environmental support is left.
2. The Ecological System Theory of Urie Bronfenbrenner.
In his proposition, there are four systems that work in in the development of an individual. These
are the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem and latest edition was the chronosystem. The
microsystem is composed of the changes that take place within the individual; the mesosystem constitutes
the immediate environment of a developing child who has a direct influence to child such as the parents,
neighbor, friends, and school personnel; the exosystem is composed of social institutions that may have
indirect impact onto the child, like the school policies, employment set-up, mass media, and other similar
agencies; the macrosystem is sociological, political, cultural, and economic in nature that when modified,
may have impact on the development of the child. All these are encompassing in the chronological system
which pertains to the time component. For instance, when a law (macrosystem) is passed modifying the
number of working days of employees, it will have impact in the policies of labor organization (exosystem)
to which one’s parents may be employed. If this happens, parents (mesosystem) will be able to spend
more or less time with the child. Possibly, the child’s basic needs (microsystem) will be attended
appropriately. This change is bound only in a given period of time (chronosystem). After some time, it is
possible that this kind of employment set up will change according to the need of time.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
The beginning of development happens upon conception, that is the union of the egg and the
sperm cell. Subsequent changes brought about by the developmental changes can be traced in this crucial
period of life. The development covers cognitive, social, and physical domains. The rate of progress
depends highly on the configuration of one’s genetic make-up on these domains.
Central in the understanding of prenatal development are changes brought about by the biological
aspect. Genetic structures, hormonal activities, and physical readiness to pregnancy are directly affecting
the development of the child both in the period of pregnancy and after birth. These are critical factors as
they result to physical deformities, developmental delays, severe medical illness or condition, and even
death when little attention is provided.
The prenatal stage is considered to be one of the shortest periods of development, beginning from
the conception until birth, but can also be the most crucial of all the stages. Since the child’s survival
depends highly on the mother’s supportive behavior and attitude toward pregnancy, the child’s stable
development depends on capacity of the external environment to provide one’s needs.

The Beginning of Life

Depending on the menstrual cycle of a woman, a matured egg cell is released once a month by one
of the ovaries that eventually enters in the fallopian tube. This process is called ovulation. This is the
signal of the readiness of a woman of becoming pregnant when a sperm cell has penetrated the ovulated
egg cell. The union of egg and sperm cells is called fertilization, and the new cell becomes the zygote.
One of the major activities in this period, aside from travelling to the uterus wall, the zygote forms a
blastocyst. Primarily, its purpose is to become the protective membrane to the developing cell.
The prenatal stage typically covers 40 weeks or 280 days including the additional two weeks to
account for the last menstrual period and ovulation. Hence, the average human gestation is from 37-41
weeks. Infants that are born earlier than 37 weeks are considered pre-term while those that are born 42
weeks or more are called post-term. Both cases are threats to children’s survival, although recent
developments in the use of technology in medical science have drastically increased the rate of survival.
The zygote is a combination of the 23 chromosomes from each parent. These chromosomes contain
genes that specifically carry characteristics of an individual. The process of natural selection determines
the inherited characteristic of the child such as physical attributes (color of the hair, eyes, height,
complexion, muscular build), cognitive functioning (intelligence), personality characteristics (dispositional
tendencies), and health conditions (heritable illness and diseases). These characteristics are particularly
carried by genes. These set of genetic characteristics composing the zygote is called genotype. In the
natural selection process, not all genetic characteristics become observable. Instead, some of those
characteristics may either come out later in adulthood development (called maturation) or are not meant
to come out at all. Hence, those characteristics that become observable are called phenotype. The
phenotypic characteristics are actually a result of an interaction of the individual’s genotype and one’s
environment. Those characteristics that are not phenotypic remain dormant characteristics until such
generation that it will come out.
An example of these chromosomes are those that determine the sex of the zygote. The egg
chromosomes always have an XX combination which basically comes from the mother. The sperm,
however, can be either X or Y (XY combination) that comes from the father. When the x of the mother is
combined with Y of the father, it is expected that the sex of the child is male. Following the same cycle,
men do not lose the X chromosome which makes him, later on, capable of having the female child. This
same principle that happens in the other heritable characteristics like diabetes. It is possible that there
could be generational gaps in the occurrence of diabetes as it may not become phenotypic characteristics
or that there is a weak push for the environment for it to become observed. If this is inherited (genotype),
it can still be passed on to other generations later on.

Stages of Prenatal Development

The development that occurs throughout the prenatal are divided into three substages of development.
These are the germinal stage (fertilization to 2 weeks), embryonic stage (2 weeks-8 weeks), and fetal
stage (8 weeks – birth).
A. Germinal. In approximately 3-4 days, the zygote travels along the Fallopian tube and eventually
implants itself to the uterus wall. Mitosis (cell division) permits the development of blastocyst. Aside from
the protective function it serves at this stage, it is also the source in the development of the amniotic sac,
placenta, and umbilical cord.
B. Embryonic. The significant development in this stage is the formation of major organs that form
biological systems, such as respiratory, digestive, and nervous system. Before the end of the 8 th week,
limbs can be identified already that would appear like an underdeveloped fetus. This rapid development of
organs is also accompanied by more risk of spontaneous abortion (miscarriage) most especially during the
first trimester (first 3 months). In the whole period of pregnancy, this is considered the most crucial. It
develops in an intrauterine cavity through the amniotic sac composing of the amniotic fluid. This results in
the development of the umbilical cord and the placenta which supply the nutrients and other hormones
that are necessary during pregnancy.
C. Fetal. Considered the longest and final stage of pregnancy lasting until giving birth. Aside from having
all organs to be highly developing, senses are becoming more functional such as fetus being able to
respond to the heartbeat and voice of the mother while sense of olfaction develops at 14 th week.
Locomotion can be felt also by the mother, especially when the fetus is stimulated. Fetus also manifests
certain degree of memory, especially on the voice of the mother.

Factors Affecting Prenatal Development

A. Threats to Prenatal
1. Miscarriage. This happens when the baby is lost before the 20 th week of gestation. Beyond this, it is
already considered as stillbirth. There are several reasons why pregnant women will experience
miscarriage. But the most common reason for such is chromosomal abnormalities.
2. Ectopic Pregnancy. While it is expected that the zygote will implant itself in the uterus, there could be
instances where it is implanted along the fallopian tube or elsewhere outside the uterus. Since it is not
designed to grow a zygote, it is rather detrimental to have a successful pregnancy. The American
Pregnancy Association has identified four possible medical reasons for an ectopic pregnancy. These are
infection or inflammation of the fallopian tube, scar tissue from the previous infection or surgery, previous
surgery in the pelvic area, and abnormality in the tube’s shape. Without prior medical examination, this
can happen without noticing it.
3. Complication Associated with Pregnancy. Upon gestation, hormonal and biological changes are
expected rapidly. This may cause medical-related complications that can cause loss of pregnancy. Some of
them are gestation diabetes (sudden imbalance of sugar level), preeclampcia (high blood pressure), and
infections. When they are not treated medically, these can cause fatality.
4. Bleeding or Spotting. This is a blood discharge while on gestation most especially during the first
trimester. The danger of bleeding depends on the frequency as well as the amount of bleeding. One of the
primary reasons for the occurrence of bleeding is the implantation process. When the amount of bleeding
is extraordinarily plenty, this is something that should be reported immediately to the medical doctor as it
may signal irregularities to the development of the baby.

B. Factors Affecting Pregnancy

1. Maternal Context. The characteristics and readiness of the mother’s biological system can greatly
affect the quality of development that will take place. Since the zygote will collect nutrients from the
mother’s body, it is important that the mother is ready to provide what the zygote needs to achieve stable
development. As such, underweight mothers usually have dangerously smaller babies compared to those
with average weight. It is important for the mother to make the necessary adjustments in food intake in
order to address the feeding demands of the baby. This adjustment requires special attention since going
overweight may result in other complications. Aside from nutritional concern, it is necessary that the
mother is able to provide the needed vitamins and nutrients, such as folic acid, that will facilitate better
development. In addition to this factor is the age of the mother during pregnancy. Although full sexual
maturity is achieved during adolescence, women’s body is still considered premature in terms of
pregnancy. The number of physical activities the mother may engage in can also affect pregnancy. Many
births defects are actually associated to this maternal context factor.
2. Medical-related Concern. The kinds of medication the mother has taken before and during pregnancy
can possibly cause deformities, delayed development, and fatality. Among these medications are those
described as antidepressants which may cause an interruption to neurobiological activity and respiratory
failure. Possible miscarriage could be the effect when drugs that are primarily being used to treat cancer
and complication of leprosy are taken. Common among young parents are the consumption of alcohol,
which is a common cause of mental retardation, birth defects, disorders in central nervous system, and
many learning disabilities. Equally accessible to many young adults is cigarettes which contain nicotine.
Like the effects of alcohol, nicotine has many negative effects to the child during pregnancy such as
increased probability of miscarriage and still birth, mental retardation, neurological and cognitive-related
disorders, learning problems, short attention span, low IQ score, and among others. Other drugs that may
affect baby’s development are caffeine, marijuana and cocaine. The current medical procedure and
equipment are still not sufficient to fully account the extent of their effects.
3. Environmental Factors. The amount of social support provided by the immediate environment can
affect the quality of pregnancy experienced by the mother. This environment strongly stimulates the
release of hormones responsible for positive emotion.
4. Other Factors. Equally important is the quality of sperm that comes from the father. The genetic make-
up that nis shared by the father may result in deteriorating physical and cognitive functioning of the child.
Color blindness, for instance, is inherited exclusively from the genetic make-up of father and is common
among males. This condition is associated with the Y chromosome.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS LIFE STAGES

One of the most changes that happen in an individual due to development is the physical aspect.
While environment plays a significant role in one’s physical development, most of the observable changes
taking place can be sourced from the process of genetic unfolding. Since this area of development covers
both internal and external changes, it is expected that some of them can be noticeable while some may
unfold without noticing it. The physical changes in late adulthood are very obvious since one of the central
developments in that stage is the change in physical features of a person. Likewise, there could be
physical developments that, at a certain time, show rapid manifestation of changes. This happens most,
especially during adolescent stage where internal and external changes happen within a short period of
time.
In some instances, physical development serves as indicators for the readiness for social, moral,
and other developments. Whether this is social norm or not, physical changes allow people to have
transition from one stage of development to another. Consequently, this also serves as the basis or source
of expectations from other people on how one should behave. When it comes to adolescents’ full sexual
development, expect them to become more physically conscious, especially when it comes to clothing
trends. In the same manner, people may develop a negative attitude towards approaching late adulthood
due to physical limitations one may have when that stage has arrived.

THE BODY SYSTEMS

There are two main systems that directly affect the behavior of people. These are the endocrine
system that is in charge in the production of different hormones in the body and the nervous system that
controls the full functioning of the other body systems. In the case of endocrine system, the
undersecretion or oversecretion of certain hormones can have an immediate, long-term and short-term
effect on the person. The nervous system, on the other hand, affects a person’s behavior depending on the
trajectory of brain development, the main organ in the said system.

A. Endocrine System
This system is composed of glands that are attached to different parts of the body. These glands
secrete hormones directly to the bloodstream. Among these glands are the following:
1. Pituitary Gland is also called the master gland since it coordinates the activities of the other
glands. This secretes growth hormones that stimulate the growth and development of body cells.
The effect of this is obviously seen in the height of a person.
2. Thyroid Gland which secretes thyroxine that contributes in the growth and development of the
brain. Hence, deficiency on this hormone can result to mental retardation and other possible
learning problems.
 3. Adrenal Gland supports sexual motivation. Likewise, it aids in bone and muscular development.
4. Gonads are located in the sex organs, testes and ovaries, that are directly in charge in the
development of reproductive development. The testes are producing testosterone while ovaries
produce estrogen and progesterone. The production of these hormones become more prominent
during adolescent stage.
B. Nervous System
This system is a coordinating system of the body. Its function is necessary in synchronizing the
internal and external stimuli and response structure. The nervous system is composed of two different
major systems, the Central Nervous System (CNS) and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS). The CNS,
composing the brain and the spinal cord, controls major activities and makes the necessary behavioral and
non-behavioral responses. The PNS is composed of channels of connections that receive and send signals
from and to the CNS and different parts of the body. The interconnection between them is crucial in terms
of providing appropriate and immediate response to any stimulus. The brain, being the main organ of this
system, functions according to its readiness and development. After conception, it is still expected that
further developments happen in different parts of the brain such as in the cerebral cortex, the one that
controls higher mental processes. Most of the brain developments during this period is the increase in
neural connections called synaptogenesis, that will eventually facilitate sensory information. At around
five years old, the brain development is centered on lateralization, specialization of the hemispheres of the
cerebral cortex. It assumes that left hemispheres become more prominent in processing language
information while the right hemisphere controls more the spatial and creative aspect. Roughly about 90%
of the brain at this is about an adult weight. These changes are expected to continue and to reach the
peak of its development during adolescents. Expectedly, it is at this stage that pre-frontal lobe will finally
achieve its full development. This is the reason why adolescents appear to be impulsive with their actions.
The prefrontal lobe is the specific part of the brain that concerns critical and reflective mental processing.
The next stage that the brain is expected to undergo many changes is during late adulthood where
significant decrease of brain cells takes place. This can affect not only the mental processing of sensory
information but as well as the motor coordination, recalling, organizing, and maintaining memory
information, and other physiological functioning resulting in illnesses.
Brain functioning primarily happens through the different neural connections. With the help of
neurotransmitters, neuron’s activities can be inhibited or stimulated. The speed of firing responses
between neurons relies on the development of myelin sheath. Among newborn babies, the myelin sheath
is developing and due to its development, automatic responses are observed rather than voluntary and
controlled behaviors.
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT ACROSS STAGES
A. Infancy
A newborn typically communicates to the environment through reflexes. These are unlearned and
automatic responses to a specific stimulus. Primarily, the function of these reflexes is for survival given the
limited capacity to do so. An example of reflex that has great adaptive value is the sucking reflex that
sends much information about one’s nutritional needs. The changes in the amount of sucking is relative to
the nutritional needs of the newborn. The other reflexes are grasping, Babinski, moro, rooting, pupillary,
and among others. Despite their importance, some of them disappear due to the continuous development
of the brain. Some stay permanently, like eye-blinking, breathing, and pupillary reflex as they serve
continuous adaptive value.
In terms of motor development, it is expected that much of their locomotor activities are associated
with gross motor. These are movements that require the use of large muscles like walking and running.
Eventually, locomotor activities shift to fine motor. This requires the use of smaller muscles, thus needing
the capacity to control it. Writing and coloring need the use of smaller muscles, and they are challenging
for early graders to do them with much control needed in order to perform them.
B. Childhood
There are many observable physical changes among children coming from infancy. Specifically,
they begin gaining control over many of their activities such as having a stable capability to balance,
hence, to walk and run. Their senses are also functioning better than the previous stage, and they begin to
realize and utilize their respective functions. Muscular developments allow them to engage in more
complex physical activities and games. This can also be attributed to the increased proportionality of their
head and body having more adult-like structure on the latter age of childhood.
C. Adolescence
It is during this period that growth spurt is expected to take place, most especially in the physical
domain. They undergo changes that are both physically obvious and otherwise. Male and female, however,
commence their development not at the same time. Girls begin the growth spurt at around 10 reaching the
peak at 12 while boys at around 13 and peaks at 14. For girls, it is also the age where menarche is
expected to take place, their first menstrual period which further accelerates the sexual development of
girls. Due to sudden increase in the production of testosterone for boys and progesterone for girls, several
physical changes take place significantly. They both develop more mature sexual organs, gain muscle
mass, and increase in their height. More than physical, these changes place adolescents to more
psychological issues such as issues on self-esteem, body image in relation to self-expression, identity, and
heightened sexual interest.
D. Adulthood
Adult physical development can be both characterized as the peak of physical maturation and
physical deterioration. The early adulthood stage primarily focused on strengthened physical capabilities,
most especially during the early 20s while weight seemed to decline during the early 60s. This is due to
the declining capacity of the various systems of the body to sustain engagement to physical activities.
Unfortunately, they begin to experience many illnesses related to physical deterioration. Due to the sex-
related hormones secreted during adolescence, early adulthood stage becomes more sexually active than
ever. The quality of sperm and egg cells are also produced in this period of adulthood. Women, however,
on the middle years of adulthood may experience menopause which ends the menstrual period. This may
have many implications to the hormonal balance that menstrual period brings in the body of the women,
such as in controlling one’s emotions. Although men do not experience menopause, their ability to
becoming a father may decrease due to the less active sperm cells.

INFLUENCES ON PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT AND PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

The pace of physical development can be attributed to many factors. Genetic readiness and its
processes of unfolding, referred to as maturation, and provisions in the environment are essentially
determinant of physical development. Due to one’s inherited characteristics, whether physical or not, are
expected to become evident at a specific period of time. Others may manifest these developments early
on, while some will have them later in the developmental stages. This experience is found to be positively
correlated with one another. Opportunities in the environment are likewise important source of physical
development. Activities, interaction with people and objects, and learning experiences can be sources that
skills are required.
There are external factors that may contribute to the physical development of a person, regardless
of his/her age. It is important to note these factors may have varying degree of effect depending on the
stage of development. For instance, parental impact is more prominent during childhood compared to
during adulthood. In the same way, cultural expectations are more prominent during adolescents and
adulthood compared to during the childhood period.
The external factors that contribute to physical development can be classified in several aspects
such as parental contribution, psychosocial opportunities, physical environment, and nutritional concern.
These factors are rather interconnected with one another and may have effect on each other. For instance,
nutritional concern can be traced from the beliefs and practices of parents on what food is healthy and
those that are not.