Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

BLOCK Solid analytic geometry

3
Introduction
In this block, we will study the main parts of solid analytical geometry.
We will start by elementary problems of solid analytic geometry and
then we will establish the different equations of straight lines and
planes. The relative positions between point-straight line and plane are
examined in details. The block ends by the study of second order
surfaces by considering their canonical equations, simplification of the
general equation and providing the Euclidean classification.

What is in this block?

This block is in 4 sections:
Section 3.1 Elementary problems
Section 3.2 The plane
Section 3.3 The straight line
Section 3.4 Quadric surfaces

Estimated study time

The minimal duration for reading understanding and doing the activity
is 15 hours.

Learning objectives
By the end of this block you should be able to:
 calculate the distance between two points;

 find the volume of a tetrahedron;

 determine the relative position between point-straight lines

and planes;

 reduce a general equation of a quadratic surface to standard

form;

 classify quadric surfaces.

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Section 3.1: Elementary problems

Let A3 be a three dimension affine euclidean space endowed with an
orthonormal frame F (O; e1 , e2 , e3 ) and P be an arbitrary point of A3
such that: OP  xe1  ye2  ze3

3.1.1 Distance formula

Keywords

P1 x1 , y1 , z1  Centroid of a system

of a material point
P2 x2 , y2 , z 2  Volume
Tetrahedron

Figure 3.1
The distance between the points P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) is

given by d ( P1 , P2 )  P1 P 2  ( x2  x1 ) 2  ( y2  y1 ) 2  ( z2  z1 ) 2

(3.1)

The following properties are satisfied:

i. d ( P1 , P2 )  0( 0, P1  P2 ) ii. d ( P1 , P2 )  d ( P2 , P1 )
iii. d ( P1 , P3 )  d ( P1 , P2 )  d ( P2 , P3 )

3.1.2 Dividing of a line segment in a given ratio

y ● P2 x2 , y 2 , z 2 

M x, y, z 

Px1 , y1 , z1  z

Figure 3.2
1 2 in the ratio  , where
If the point P ( x, y, z ) divides the segment PP
P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) , then:

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x1   x2 y   y2 z   z2
x ;y 1 ;z  1 (3.2) If P is the
1  1  1 
midpoint of PP
1 2 , then:

x1  x2 y  y2 z z
x ;y 1 ;z  1 2 (3.3)
2 2 2

The proof of the formulas (3.2) and (3.3) is done in similar way as it
was done for the case of the plane analyticl geometry. The co-ordinates
of the centroid, of a system of material points Pi ( xi , yi , zi ) with respective
masses mi (i  1, 2,..., n) are given by:
n n n

 mi xi  mi yi m z i i
x i 1
n
; y i 1
n
; z i 1
n
(3.4)
m
i 1
i m
i 1
i m
i 1
i

3.1.3 Volume of a tetrahedron

● P1 x1 , y1 , z1 

P4 x4 , y4 , z 4 

P3 x3 , y3 , z3 
P2 x2 , y2 , z 2 

Figure 3.3
The volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are, P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ,
P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) P3 ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) and P4 ( x4 , y4 , z4 ) is given by:
,

x1 y1 z1 1
x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
1 x y2 z2 1 1
V  AV
. 2  AV
. x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1 (3.5)
6 x3 y3 z3 1 6
x4  x1 y4  y1 z4  z1
x4 y4 z4 1

where A.V means absolute value.

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The points P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 are coplanar if and only if :

x1 y1 z1 1
x2 y2 z2 1
0
x3 y3 z3 1
x4 y4 z4 1

Activity 3.1 
1. Given the vertices of the tetrahedron A2,1,0 , B1,3,5 , C 6,3,4 and
D0,7,8
a. Find the coordinates of the centroid of the face ABC.
b. Find the volume of this tetrahedron

Section 3.2: The plane Keywords

Vector equation
3.2.1 Equations of a plane in a space Parametric equations
Normal vector
Proposition 2.1: Let in the plane  , be given a point P0 and two non
co-linear vectors u and v . The point P belongs to the plane if and
only if there are two real numbers  and  such that P0 P   u   v

Proof: The point P belongs to the plane  if and only if the vectors u ,
v and P0 P are coplanar. The co-planarity of these three vectors implies

that the vector P0 P is a linear combination of u and v . Thus, we can

find two real numbers  and  , such that

 
P0 P  u   v (3.6)

The equation (3.6) is called the vector equation of the plane  .

Denoting r0 and r the radii vectors of the points P0 and P respectively,

the equation (3.6) is written as

 : r  r0   u   v (3.7)

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Using coordinates by putting: P0 ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) , u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ,

v  (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and P( x, y, z) , the matrix form of the equation (3.7) is
written:

 x   x0   u1   v1 
 :  y    y0    u2    v2 
      (3.8)
 z   z0  u3   v3 

The equation (3.8) is called parametric equation of the plane 

In terms of determinants the equation (3.8) is written:

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
 : u1 u2 u3  0 (3.9)
v1 v2 v3

Expanding the determinant we get:

:  : A( x  x0 )  B( y  y0 )  C ( z  z0 )  0 or

 : Ax  By  Cz  D  0 (3.10)

u2 u3 u u u u
where , A  ; B  3 1 ; C  1 2 ; D   Ax0  By0  Cz0
v2 v3 v3 v2 v1 v2

The equation (3.10) is called the general equation of the plane.



Remark 2.1: The vector N ( A, B, C ) is perpendicular to the plane

and is called "normal vector to the plan  ". In vector form the
equation (2.5) can be written as:

 : r  r0 , N  0 (3.11)

The direction cosines of the vector N are given by:

A B C
cos  ; cos   ; cos 
A2  B 2  C 2 A2  B 2  C 2 A2  B 2  C 2

 If D  0 , the plane  passes through the origin of co-

ordinates.

If A  0  0 or B  0, or C  0  , the plane is parallel to axes Ox

(Oy, or Oz) respectively

If A  B  0  or A  C  0, or B  C  0  , the plane is parallel to

plane Oxy (Oxz, or Oyz) respectively

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The normal equation of the plane  is given by:

 : x cos   y cos   z cos   p  0 (3.12)

where p is the distance from the origin of the axes of the co-ordinates
to the plan  .
If the plane  intersects the axes of coordinates 0x,0 y,0z at the
point P1 (a,0,0), P2 (0, b,0) and P3 (0,0, c) respectively, then the equation of
 is given by:
x y z
:   1 (3.13)
a b c

The equation (2.8) is called the equation of the plane in intercept

form.
The equation of the plane  passing through non collinear 3 points
P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) and P3 ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) is given by:

x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
  x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1  0 (3.14)
x3  x1 y3  y1 z3  z1

or in the compact vector form:

 : (r  r1 , r2  r1 , r3  r1 )  0 (3.15)

Let 1  A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1  0 and  2  A2 x  B2 y  C2 z  D2  0 be two

intersecting planes. A pencil of planes generated by the plans  1
and  2 is a family of the planes passing through the intersection points
of the plans  1 and  2 .It is given by the equation:
A1 x  B2 y  C1 z  D1   ( A2 x  B2 y  C2 z  D2 )  0 (3.16)

All planes of the pencil can be obtained by varying the parameter  in

the interval ,  .

If   1 and  1 ;  2 are given by their normal equations, the equation

of the pencil gives the equations of the bisecting planes of the plans  1
and 2

3.2.2 Relative positions plane-plane and point-

plane
The angle between two planes
1 : A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1  0 and  2 : A2 x  B2 y  C2 z  D2  0 is given by
the angle between their corresponding normal vectors

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N1 , N 2
cos(1 ,  2 )  (3.17)
N1  N 2

where N1  ( A1 , B1 , C1 ) and N 2  ( A2 , B2 , C2 )

Two planes  1 and  2 are intersecting if and only if  N1 , N 2   0 ,

parallel if and only

A1 B1 C1 D1 A B C D
if    and coincident if and only if 1  1  1  1
A2 B2 C2 D2 A2 B2 C2 D2

The distance between two parallel planes 1 : Ax  By  Cz  D1  0 and

 2 : Ax  By  Cz  D2  0 is given by:

D1  D2
d ( 1 ,  2 )  (3.18)
A  B2  C 2
2

The distance from the point P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) to the plane

 : Ax  By  Cz  D  0
is given by

Ax0  By0  Cz0  D

d ( P,  )  (3.19)
A2  B 2  C 2

Activity 3.2 
Given the tetrahedron whose vertices A(2, 1, 0), B (1, 3, 5), C(6, 3, 4) and D(0,-7, 8)
1. Write down the equations of the faces ABC and ABD
2. Calculate the angle between the faces ABC and ABD

3. Calculate the length of altitude dropped from the vertex D

Section 3.3: The straight line

Keywords
3.3.1 Equation of a straight line Vector equation
Parametric equatio

In a three dimensional space, a straight line (d ) can be defined as Canonical equation

intersection of two planes. Skew lines
Thus the equation of that straight line can be written as follows:

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 A1 x  B1 y  C1 z  D1  0
 (3.20)
 A2 x  B2 y  C2 z  D2  0
In vector form, (3.1) can be written

r N1  D1  0
(d ) :  (3.2)
r N 2  D2  0

 B1 C1 C1 A1 A1 B1 
The vector  N1 , N 2    , ,  is the direction vector
 
 B2 C2 C2 A2 A2 B2 
of the line (d ) .

The vector equation of the straight line (d ) with direction vector

u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and passing through the point P ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) with radius

vector r0 is written:

(d ) : r  r0  u (3.21)

(3.21) is In co-ordinates (3.21) is written:

 x   x0   u1 
(d ) :  y    y0    u2 
    (3.22)
 z   z0  u3 
(3.4) represents the parametric equations of the line (d )

Excluding the parameter  , (3.22) can also be written in the form:

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
(d ) :   (3.23)
u1 u2 u3
(3.23) is the canonical equation line (d )

The equations of the line (d ) passing through two points

P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) in canonical and vector forms are given
respectively by
x  x1 y  y1 z  z1
(d ) :   (3.24)
x  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1

(d ) : [r  r1 , r2  r1 ]  0 (3.25)

3.3.2 Relative positions of two straight lines

Let ( d1 ) : r  r1  u and (d2 ) : r  r2  u be two lines. The following
properties are satisfied:
a. (d1 ) and (d 2 ) are parallel if and only if the vectors u and v are
collinear: u , v   0

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b. (d1 ) and (d 2 ) coincide if and only if the vectors u , v and

r2  r1 are collinear
c. (d1 ) and (d 2 ) are concurrent if and only if the vectors u , v and
r2  r1 are coplanar i.e. (r2  r1 , u , v )  0
d. (d1 ) and (d 2 ) are skew (there is no plane containing both them)
if and only if (r2  r1 , u , v )  0

3.3.3 Distance from a point to a line

Proposition.3.1 The distance from a point P0 of radius vector r0 to the
line (d ) : r  r1  u is given by:

 r1  r0 , u 
d  P0 , (d )   (3.26)
u

Proof. The distance from the point P0 to the line (d ) tis equal to the
altitude of the parallelogram spanned by vectors r1  r0 and u .This
altitude is equal to the area A of this parallelogram divided by the
A  r1  r0 , u 
base with length u Thus d  P0 , (d )   h  
. u u

Po
  
r0 r0  r0 h

r1 (d)

u
Figure 3.4
In co-ordinates; r0  ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) r1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and; u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) the
formula (3.26) is written:

y1  y0 z1  z0 z z x1  x0
2 2
x x y1  y0
2

 1 0  1 0
u2 u3 u3 u1 u1 u2
d  P0 , (d )  
u12  u22  u32

(3.27)

Proposition 3.2: The distance between two skew lines Let

(d1 ) : r  r1  u and (d2 ) : r  r2  u (d1 ) (i.e, the length of common
perpendicular to the both lines) is given by:
(r2  r1 , u , v )
d  (d1 ), (d 2 )   (3.28)
u , v 

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(d2)


v

 
r2  r1

u (d1)
Figure 3.5
Proof: The distance between two skew lines (d1 ) and ( d 2 ) is equal to
the distance between two parallel plans containing these two lines. This
distance equals to the height of the parallelepiped spanned by the
vectors r2  r1 , and v (fig.3.5).This height is equal to the quotient of
the volume of this parallelepiped and the area of its surface of the base.
(r2  r1 , u , v )
Thus: d  (d1 ), (d 2 )  
u , v 
In co-ordinates form; r1  ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) ;
r2  ( x2 , y2 , z2 ) ;and u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ); v  (v1 , v2 , v3 ) , we have:

x2  x1 y2  y1 z2  z1
u1 u2 u3
v1 v2 v3
d  (d1 ), (d 2 )   (3.29)
2 2 2
u2 u3 u u u u
 3 1  1 2
v2 v3 v3 v1 v1 v2

3.3.4 Relative position of a straight line

and a plane
Proposition 3.3: Let consider the plane  : Ax  By  Cz  D  0 and
the straight line (d ) : x  x0  tu1; y  y0  tu2 ; z  z0  tu3 . Three cases are
possible:
a. (d )      iff Au1  Bu2  Cu3  0 and
Ax0  By0  Cz0  D  0
b. (d ) and  have a single common point iff Au1  Bu2  Cu3  0
c. (d )   iff Au1  Bu2  Cu3  0 and Ax0  By0  Cz0  D  0

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Proof: Let denote N ( A, B, C ) the normal vector to  and u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) ,

the direction vector of (d )

a. (d )     if and only if N , u  0 and an arbitrary point

P0 of (d ) does not belong to 
b. (d ) and  have a unique common point if and only
if N , u  0

(d )   if and only if N , u  0 and an arbitrary point P of (d ) is a point

of  . These results are obtained by solving the system:
 Ax  By  Cz  D  0
 x  x  tu
 0 1

 y  y 0  tu 2
 z  z0  tu3

The angle between the line (d ) : r  r0  u and the plan

 : r , N  D  0 is given by the formula:

N,u
sin  (d ),    (3.30)
N u

If u  (u1 , u2 , u3 ) and N  ( A, B, C ) , then:

Au1  Bu2  Cu3

sin  (d ),    (3.31)
A2  B 2  C 2  u12  u22  u32

(d ) is parallel to  iff N , u  0 and (d ) is perpendicular to  iff

N,u   0
 

Activity 3.3 
1. Write the equations of the straight line passing through the point P(2, -3
and perpendicular to the lines:
x  2 y  3 z 1 x4 y0 z 4
 d1  :   ;  d2  :  
1 1 1 2 1 3
2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the point P(4,-3,1) parall
the straight lines
x 1 y  3 3  4
d1  : x  y

3
; d 2  :  
6 2 3 5 4 2
3. Find the angle between the straight line
d  : x  2  3t, y  1  t, z  4t and the plane   : x  2 yPage
 z 93 1  0
4. Find out whether
x2 y4 z4 x  3 y 1 z  3
 d1  :   and  d 2  :  
2 2 1 1 2 3
are skew lines. If they are skew, find the distance between them.
Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Section 3.4: Quadric surfaces

3.4.1 Sphere
A sphere is the set of all points in a space equidistant from a given
point called the centre. The distance from the center to an arbitrary
point of the sphere is called the radius.
A sphere (S ) of radius R with center at point C ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) is the set of
all points P( x, y, z) in space satisfying the condition: d (C , P )  CP  R
Applying the distance formulae, we have:
R  ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y0 ) 2  ( z  z0 ) 2 . Squaring both sides of the
equality we obtain:

( S ) : ( x  x0 ) 2  ( y  y0 ) 2  ( z  z0 ) 2  R 2 (3.32)

(3.32) is the standard equation of the sphere (S ) of radius R with

center C ( x0 , y0 , z0 ) .

In particular, a sphere (S ) of radius R with center at the origin has

the equation: x2  y 2  z 2  R2
Mutual position of a plane and a sphere

The relative position of the plane ( ) : Ax  By  Cz  D  0 and the

sphere ( S ) : ( x  x0 )  ( y  y0 )  ( z  z0 )  R is obtained by solving the
2 2 2 2

system of equation

 Ax  By  Cz  D  0

( x  x0 )  ( y  y0 )  ( z  z0 )  R
2 2 2 2

Three cases can occur:

1. The system admits a single solution. In this case, the plane is

tangent to the sphere and the single solution is the intersection
point or the point of tangency.
2. The system has no solution. In this case, the plane passes out of
the sphere i.e he plane and the sphere do not intersect.
3. The system has infinity of solutions. In this case, the intersection
of this plane and the sphere describes a circle.

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3.4.2 Quadric surfaces in canonical form

a. Ellipsoid

The ellipsoid is a quadric surface given by the equation:

x2 y 2 z 2
   1, (a, b, c  0) (3.33)
a 2 b2 c2

The points (a,0,0);(0, b,0);(0,0, c) are called vertices of the

ellipsoid. The quantities a, b, c are called semi axes of the ellipsoid.
If a  b  c , the ellipsoid is transformed into a sphere with radius a
The ellipsoid is a symmetric about the plans of equations
x  0; y  0; z  0 and o the origin of co-ordinates. The part of ellipsoid
contained in the first octant is defined by the equation:

x2 y 2 x2 y 2
z  c 1  ; x  0; y  0;   1.
a 2 b2 a 2 b2

If a  b  c , then the ellipsoid is a bounded surface. It is containing in

a –ball with center at O .The co-ordinates ( x, y, z ) of an arbitrary point of
the ellipsoid satisfies the inequality:
x2 y 2 z 2
x  y  z  a ( 2  2  2 )  a 2 .1  a 2
2 2 2 2

a b c
The intersection of the ellipsoid and the plane z  h(c  h  c) is an
ellipse defined by:

x2 y 2 h2
  1  .
a 2 b2 c2

If two semi- axes are equal, the ellipsoid (4.2) is an ellipsoid of

revolution generated by revolving the ellipse around the third axis.

b. Hyperboloids
i. Hyperboloid with one sheet
The hyperboloid of one sheet is a quadric surface given by:

x2 y 2 z 2
   1, (a, b, c  0) (3.34)
a 2 b2 c2

The hyperboloid of one sheet is symmetric about the planes of

equations x  0; y  0; z  0 and the origin of the coordinates. The
points (a,0,0);(0, b,0) are vertices.

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

The section made by the plan z  h is an ellipse of

x2 y 2 h2
equation: 2  2  1  2 .
a b c
The sections made by the plane x  h ( y  h) are hyperbola s of the
equations:

y2 z2 h2 x 2 z 2 h2
  1  (   1  ).
b2 c 2 a2 a2 c2 b2

b
If h  a , those parabolas are transforming into two lines y   z
c
If h  a , the transverse axis of the corresponding hyperbola is a
straight line parallel to the Oy -axis.

If h a , we have a straight line parallel to the Oz -axis.

If a  b , the sections of surface (4.3) made by the plans z  h are

h2
circles with radii a 1  2 and the equation (4.3) gives the hyperboloid
c
of revolution of one sheet obtained by revolving the hyperbola
x2 z 2
  1, y  0 about z -axis.
a2 c2

ii. Hyperboloid with two sheets

The hyperboloid of two sheets is a surface defined by the equation:

x2 y 2 z 2
   1, (a, b, c  0) (a, b, c  0) (3.35)
a 2 b2 c 2

The hyperboloid of two sheets is symmetric about the planes

x  0, y  0 and z  0 and the origin of the co-ordinates. The equation
(4.4) can be written also in the form:

y2 z2 x2
  1  (3.35’)
b2 c2 a2

 
The section of (3.35) made by the plane x  h h  a is an ellipse of
equation:

y2 z2 h2
  1  2
b2 c2 a

h2
If h  a , the number  1 is strictly negative, the surface (4.4) and
a2
the plane x  h have no common point. The sections of (4.4) made by a
planes z  h or y  h are hyperbolas of equations:

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

x2 y 2 h2 x2 z 2 h2
  1  or   1  respectively.
a 2 b2 c2 a2 c2 c2

The points (  a,0,0) are the vertices of the surface (4.4).

C. Paraboloid
i. Elliptic paraboloid
The elliptic paraboloid is a quadric surface given by the equation

x2 y 2
  2 z ( p, q  0) (3.36)
p q

(3.36) is symmetric about the plans of equations; y  0 x  0

If p, q  0 , the quadric surface (3.36) is located in the half space z  0

The section of surface (3.36) made by the plan z  h(h  0) is an ellipse

of equation:

x2 y 2
  2h .
p q

When h varies from 0 to  , this ellipse describes the surface (3.36)

The section of (4.5) made by a plane x  h or y  h are parabolas of

equation:

 h2   h2 
y 2  2q  z   or x 2
 2 p  z   respectively.
 2p   2q 

If p  q , the surface (4.5) is a surface of revolution generated by

revolving the parabola x  2 pz around the Oz -axis. The point (0, 0, 0)
2

is the vertex of the elliptic paraboloid.

ii. Hyperbolic paraboloid

The hyperbolic paraboloid is a quadratic surface given by the equation

x2 y 2
  2 z ( p, q  0) (3.37)
p q

The surface (3.37) is symmetric about the planes x  0 and. y  0

The section of (3.37) made by the plane z  h is a hyperbole of

x2 y 2
equation.   2h
p q

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

If h  0 , the transverse axis of the hyperbole is parallel to Ox , if h  0 is

parallel with the axis Oy and if h  0 , the section consists in two
intersecting lines. The section of (3.37) made by the planes x  h or
x2 h2
y  h are parabolas of equation  2z  whose concavity is
p q
downward or upward respectively.

d. Quadric cone

The quadric cone is a surface defined by the equation

x2 y 2 z 2
   0, (a, b, c  0) (a, b, c  0) (3.38)
a 2 b2 c2

The surface (3.38) is symmetric about the planes; y  0 x  0 ;

z  0 and the origin of the co-ordinates.
The section of (3.38) made by a plane z  h is an ellipse of equation:
x2 y 2 h2
  .
a 2 b2 c2
The sections of (3.38) made by the plane x  h or y  h are
hyperbolas of equation:

z 2 y 2 h2 z 2 x2 h2
  or   respectively.
c2 b2 a 2 c2 a 2 b2

The section of (3.38) made by a plane y  hx consists a couple of

intersecting straight lines of equations:

1 h2
z  cx 
a 2 b2

e. Cylindrical surfaces

A cylindrical surface is generated by straight line which moves a long

fixed curve and remains parallel to a fixed straight line. The fixed curve
is called the directrix of the surface and the moving line is the
generatrix of the surface.

i. Elliptic cylinder
The elliptic cylinder is a surface defined by the equation

x2 y2
  1, (a, b  0) (a, b  0) (3.39)
a 2 b2

The straight line parallel with the z  axis is the generatrix and

x2 y 2
the ellipse   1 , z  0 is the directrix
a 2 b2
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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

ii. Hyperbolic cylinder

The hyperbolic cylinder is described by the equation:

x2 y 2
  1 (a, b  0) (3.40)
a 2 b2

The directrix is here a hyperbola and the generatrix is a straight line

parallel to the z  axis.

iii. Parabolic cylinder

The parabolic cylinder is described by the equation:

y 2  2 px ( p  0) (3.41)

The directrix is a parabola and the generator a straight line parallel to

the z  axis

f. Planes
i. Real intersecting planes
A couple of real intersecting planes is described by the equation:

a 2 x 2  b2 y 2  0 (3.42)

The directrices of the surface (3.42) are the lines of equation:

a
y x, z  0
b

ii. Parallel planes

A couple of parallel plans is described by the equation:

x2  a2  0 (a  0) (3.43)

The equation (3.43) defines two lines x  a in the plan x0 y .

iii. Coincident planes

A couple of coincident planes is described by the equation:

z2  0 (3.44)

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Sketch of some quadric surfaces

ellipspoid

hyperboloid of 1sheet
one sheet

hyperboloi of two sheets

cone

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

elliptic cylider

hyperbolic cylinder

two intersecting planes

elliptic paraboloid

hyperbolic paraboloid

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Two eigenvalues are nil or zeros

parabolic cylinder

2 parallel planes

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

3.4.3 Simplification of general equation of

quadric surfaces
The general equation of a quadric surface is given by

S  x, y, z   a11 x 2  a22 y 2  a33 z 2  2a12 xy  2a13 xz  2a23 yz  2a1x  2a2 y  2a3 z  a0  0

in which the coefficients aij are not all zero.

In terms of quadratic and linear forms (4141) can be

written S  x, y, z   q  x, y, z   2l  x, y, z   a0  0

Where:

q  x, y, z   a11 x 2  a22 y 2  a33 z 2  2a12 xy  2a13 xz  2a23 yz

l  x, y, z   a1 x  a2 y  a3 z
In matrix denotations, (3.45) may be written

S   X   X T AX  2aX  a0  0
(3.46)
or

  ˆ ˆ 0
S Xˆ  Xˆ T AX (3.47)

Where

X   x y z  ; B   a1 a2 a3  ; Xˆ   x y z 1
T T

 a11 a12 a13 a1 

 a11 a13  a a2 
a12
A   a12  a22 a23
a22 a23  ; A   12
ˆ
 a13 a23 a33 a3 
 a13 a23 a33   
 a1 a2 a3 a0 

Let denote r and r the ranks of A and A respectively ;  and  their

corresponding determinants.
The coordinate axes can be rotated so that the general equation (3.45)
in the coordinate system x, y, z has the form

S  x, y, z    1 x2  2 y2  3 z 2  2a1 x  2a2 y  2a3 z   a0  0 (3.48)

where 1 , 2 , 3 are the eigenvalues of A . The rotation can be

x  x 
   
accomplished by the substitution  y   P  y  ; where P orthogonally
z   z 
   
diagonalizes A
Theorem: By means of a rotation and a translation the general
equation of a quadric surface (3.45), can be reduced to one of the
following 5 forms:

1. 1 x 2  2 y 2  3 z 2  a0  0,  123  0 

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 Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

2. 1 x 2  2 y 2  2a3 z  0,  12 a3  0 

3. 1 x 2  2 y 2  a0  0,  12  0 

4. 1 x 2  2a2 y  0,  1a2  0 

5. 1 x 2  a0  0,  1  0 
Proof: Let examine all possible forms that equation (3.48) can take in
terms of different values of i , s and coefficients ai, s .

i. 12 3  0 : r  3; r  3, 4
After dropping the accents the equation (3.48) can be
2 2 2
 a   a   a   a2 a2 a2 
1  x  1   2  y  2    z  3    a0  1  2  3  
 1   2   3   1 2 3 
written:  1 x2  2 y2  3 z 2  a0  0

 1 x2  2 y2  3 z2  0

ii. 12 a3  0, 3  0; r  2; r  4
We have:

2 2
 a   a  a2 a2
1  x  1   2  y  2   2a3 z  a0  1  2  1 x2  2 y2  2a3 z  a0
 1   2  1 2
 a 
 1 x2  2 y2  2a3 z  a0  1 x2  2 y2  2a3  z  0   1 x2  2 y2  2a3 z   0
 2a3 

iii. 12  0, 3  a3  0, r  2, r  2,3

We have:
2 2
 a1   a2  a12 a22
1 x  2 y  2a1 x  2a2 y  a0  1  x    2  y    a0    1 x2  2 y 2  a0  0
2 2

 1   2  1 2

iv. 3  2  0, 1  0 : r  1; r  2,3 and one of the coefficients a2 , a3 is

not zero, We have

2
 a1  a12
1 x  2a1 x  2a2 y  2a3 z  a0  1  x    2a2 y  2a3 z  a0   1 x2  2a2 y  0,
2

 1  1
Where

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

a1
x  x  , a2  a22  a32
1
1  1 a12  
y   2
a y  a z   0
a  
a22  a32 
3
2 1  
1
z   a3 y  a2 z 
a2  a32
2

v. 2  3  a2  a3  0; 1  0 : r  r  1

2
 a  a2
We have, 1 x  2a1 x  a0  1  x  1   a0  1  1 x2  a0  0.
2

 1  1

3.4.4 Classification of quadric surfaces

Since the general equation of a quadric surface can always be reduced
to one of the five forms mentioned in the previous theorem, a complete
classification can be made by considering the possible values of the
coefficients.

I. 1 x 2  2 y 2  3 z 2  a0  0
a0 a0 a0
If a0  0, divide by  a0 and put  a 2 ;  b 2 ;  c 2
1 2 3
The signs being so chosen that a, b, c are real.
This gives the following four types

x2 y 2 z 2
I1.    1; ellipsoid
a 2 b2 c2
x2 y 2 B2
I 2 . 2  2  2  1; hyperboloid of one sheet
a b c
2 2
x y z2
I 3 . 2  2  2  1; Hyperboloid of two sheets
a b c
2 2
x y z2
I 4 . 2  2  2  1; imaginary ellipsoid
a b c
If a0  0, the reduced forms are:

x2 y 2 z 2
I5 .    0; imaginary cone
a 2 b2 c2
x2 y 2 z 2
I 6 . 2  2  2  0; real cone
a b c

II : 1 x 2  2 y 2  2a3 z  0.

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According as 1 and 2 have the same or opposite signs, the equation

x2 y 2

II 2 .  2 z; elliptic paraboloid
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
takes the form II 2 . 2  2  2 z; hyperbolic paraboloid
a b
III . 1 x 2  2 y 2  a0  0
If a0  0, this may be written in the form

x2 y 2
III1.   1; elliptic cylinder
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
III 2 .   1; imaginary elliptic cylinder
a 2 b2
x2 y 2
III 3 .   1; hyperbolic cylinder
a 2 b2

If a0  0, the equation takes the form

x2 y 2
III 4 .   0, pair intersecting imaginary planes
a 2 b2
x2 y2
III 5 .   0, pair of intersecting plane
a 2 b2

IV . 1 x 2  2a2 y  0
The equation of the surface takes the form

x 2  2 py; parabolic cylinder

V . 1 x 2  a0  0

If a0  0, according to the sign of a0 , the equation can be written

V1. x 2  a 2 , two parallel planes

V2 . x 2  a 2 , two imaginary parallel planes

If a0  0, we have : V3 . x 2  0, One plane counted twice

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

Activity 3.4 
1. Find the equation of the sphere with its center at point (3,6,-4) and tange
the plane  : 2 x  2 y  z  10  0
2. By completing squares in x, y and z, determine the nature of the surface
equation is:

a. 2 x 2  3 y 2  z 2  8 x  6 y  4 z  3  0
b. 3 x 2  4 y 2  2 z 2  6 x  16 y  8 z  13
c. 3 x 2  2 y 2  12 z  6 x  8 y  13  0
3. Determine the nature of the surface whose equation is:

1  2k  x 2  y 2  z 2  2kyz  1  0 -
4. Using a suitable orthogonal transformation, reduce to standard form

a. 7 x 2  6 y 2  5 z 2  4 xy  4 yz  6 x  24 y  18 z  30  0
b. x 2  5 y 2  z 2  2 xy  6 xz  2 yz  2 x  6 y  2 z  0
c. 2 x 2  2 y 2  3 z 2  4 xy  2 xz  2 yz  4 x  6 y  2 z  3  0

Feedback
Try and do this activity on your own. If you meet some difficulties, do not be
discouraged. You can ask for help to your colleagues or your Tutor during weekend
tutorials sessions. If difficulties persist, read the section again and retry the activity.
The answers are provided at the end of this block and you can compare them with
yours. If they are similar, go to the next block.

Block summary
The main topics covered in this block are related to the elementary
problems of solid geometry, to the mutual positions: points- straight
lines – planes. After a brief description of the canonical equation of
quadric surfaces the simplification of the general equation of a quadric
surface was done via orthogonal transformation and the classification
of the 17 types of quadric surface was done to the study and
systematic classification of the quadratic surfaces. The classification
was done using the same technique used in linear algebra in
classification quadratic forms.

References
Efimov, N. (1976), Eléments de géométrie analytique. Ed. Mir.
Fedorchk, V. (1990), Course of Analytical Geometry and Linear Algebra,
Mir Publishers.
Hakizimana Th. (2013), Linear and multilinear algebra. KIE

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 Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

Kayoya [Link]. &Hakizimana ,Th. &UwimanaC.(2010), Fundamental

mathematics II, KIE
Kindle, J.H. (1950), Plane and Solid Geometry, Schaum’s Outline
Series, McGraw-Hill Book Company
Monier, J.M. (1996), Algébre I, J’intégre, Dunod.
Nzotungicimpaye J. & J.D. Jairu (2006), Géometrie analytique, KIE
Postinikov, M. (1981,Leçons de géométrie, [Link].

Yakovlev, G et all. (1982), Geometry, Mir Publishers

 Answers to activities in block 3

Activity 3.1
1. The coordinates of the centroid G of the face ABC of the
tetrahedron is given by:

 x  xB  xc y A  yB  yC z A  zB  zC 
 
G x, y , z   A
 3
,
3
,
3




Thus: G x, y, z     2 1 6 1 3  3 0  5  4   7 
, ,    3, ,3 
 3 3 3   3 

2. The volume V of the tetrahedron is given by:

2 1 0 1
1 1 3 5 1 134
V  AV 
6 6 3 4 1 4
0 7 8 1

Activity 3.2
1. The direction vector of the face ABC are given by:

AB   1, 2, 5; AC  4, 2, 4
 The vector equation of the face ABC is:

ABC: v  A  AB  BC
 The parametric equations of ABC are:

 x   2  1 4
ABC :  y   1    2   2
   
 z  0 5  4

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

 The Cartesian equation of the face ABC is given by:

x  2 y 1 z
ABC :  1 2 5 0
4 2 4
Finally, we have:

x2 y 1 z
ABC :  1 2 5 0
4 2 4
The Cartesian equation of the face ABC is given by:

x  2 y 1 z
ABC :  1 2 5 0
4 2 4
Finally, we have:
ABC   x  12 y  5z  10  0

 The direction vectors of the face ABD are given by:

AB   1, 2, 5  : AD   2,  8, 8 
 The vector equation of ABD is


ABD : v  A   AB   AD
 The parametric equations are given by:

 x   2  1   2
ABD :  y   1    2   B  8 
     
 z  0 5   8 
The Cartesian equation of ABD is given by:

x  2 y 1
ABD :  1 2 5  0
2 8 8

Finally, we have ABD : 28x  y  6 z  55  0

The angle between ABC and ABC and ABD is given by the angle
between their respective normal vectors

The normal vector of ABC is given by: N ABC   1, 12,5

The normal vector of a ABC is given by: N ABD  28,1,6 

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

 
 N ABC , N ABD   70  70
Thus cos ABC , ABD      
N ABC . N ABD 170 821. 139570

  70 
  ABC , ABD   ar cos 
 139570 
2. The length of the height dropped from the vertex D equals the
distance from the vertex D (0,-7, 8) to the face ABC
Thus the height hD is given by:

 dx0  12   7   5  8  10
hD  d D, ABC  
134

 12  12 2   52 170

Activity 3.3
1. Let us denote the direction vectors of d1  and d 2 
 
by v1  1,  1,1 and v2  2, 1, 3 , respectively.
By the hypothesis, the required line is perpendicular to the given
  
 
lines, this means that the vector v  v1 , v2 may serve as its
direction vector.
 
i j k
     
Thus v  v1 , v 2   1 1 1  4i  j  3k
2 1 3

Consequently, the equations of the required straight line have

the form
x2 y3 z 4
d  :  
4 1 3
Let us denote the direction vectors of the lines d1  and d 2  by
   
v1 and v 2 respectively: v1  6, 2,  3; v2  5, 4, 2
Let M x, y, z  be an arbitrary point belonging to the required
plane, then PM   x  4, y  3, z  1
 
Since the vectors PM , v1 and v 2 are coplanar,

PM , v , v   0 or
1 2

x4 y3 z 1
6 2 3  0
5 4 2
Expanding the determinant, we sought for the equation of the
plane

Page 110
 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

 : 16x  27 y  14z  159  0

 
 v, N 
2. The angle between d  and   is given by sin d ,     
v.N
 
where v stands for the direction vector of (d) and N the normal
vector of 
 
v   3,  1,  4 ; N  1, 2,  1
 3  1   1  2   4   1 1 1
sin d ,  )    
 32   12   42 . 12  2 2   1
2 26. 26 2 39

3. The straight lines d1  and d 2  can be written in the vector form
as follows :
d1  : v1  A  u1
d 2  : v2  B  u2

where A  2, 4, 4 : u1  2, 3, 1; B  3,1,3 ; u 2   1, 2, 3

d1  and d 2  are skew iff the box product of vectors AB, and u1

and u 2 is different from zero.

AB  3,  1, 3  2, 4, 4  1,  5,  1

1  5 1
  

AB, u1 , u 2  2 3 1  35  0
1 2 3
Hence the given straight lines are skew lines
The distance between d1  and d 2  is given by:

AB, u , u 
d d1 , d 2  
1 2 35 5 3
 
u1 , u2  7 3 3

Activity 3.4
1. The radius of the sphere R is given by the distance from the
point P to the plane  .
Hence, the required equation is:

 x  3 2   y  6  2   z  4  2  16
or

x 2  y 2  z 2  6 x  12 y  8z  45  0
2.
a. By completing the squares in x ,y and z we have:

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

2x 2  4 x  4  3y 2  2 y  1  z 2  4 z  4  13
Or

2 x  2   3 y  1   z  2   18
2 2 2

Dividing the equation by 18, we obtain:

 x  2  y  1  z  2
2 2 2

  1
 6 3 2 
2 2
32

Our surface is an ellipsoid with the center at (2,-1, 2) and semi-

axes 3, 6 ,3 2
b. By completion of squares in x,y and z, we have:

3x 2  2 x  1  4y 2  4 y  4  2z 2  4 z  4  24

Or

x  12   y  22  z  22 1

8 6 12
This is a hyperboloid of ones sheet with center at (-1,2,2) and
axis parallel to the z-axis.
c. By completing the squares in x and y, we have:

3x 2  2 x  1  2y 2  4 y  4  12z  24

Or

3 x  1  2 y  2   12 z  2 
2 2

Or

x  12   y  22 
z2
4 6 1
This is an elliptic paraboloid with the vertex at (1,-2,-2)
3. The matrix A associated with the surface is given by

1  2k 0 0
A  0 1  k  ; det A  1,2k 1  k 1  k 
0 k 1

Central surfaces

 1
The surface has a unique center if k   1,1,  which is the
 2
origin (0,0,0).
The surface can be written in the form

1  2k x 2   y  kz 2  1  k 2 z 2 1

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

We have 3 eingenvalues: 1  1  2k ,  2  1; 3  1  k 2

If k  1 , we have two positive eingenvalues and one negative . In this

case, the surface is a hypeboloid of one sheet.
1
If  1  k  , the three eigen values are positive and the surface is an
2
ellipsoid.
If k  0 , the surface is a sphere.
1
If  k  1 , two eingen values are positive and one is negative. The
2
surface is a hyperboloid of one sheet.
If k  1 , two eingen values are negative and one positive. The surface is
a hyperboloid of two sheets.
Non central surfaces
If k  1, the equation of the surface can be written:

3x 2   y  z   1 .
2
This is an elliptic cylinder

1
If k  , the equation of the surface can be written:
2
2
 1  3 2
 y  z   z  1 . This is an elliptic cylinder.
 2  4
If k  1 , the equation of the surface can be written as:

 2 x 2   y  z   1 . This is a hyperbolic cylinder.

2

4.
a.

 7 2 0 3  x 
 2 6 2 12   y 
S  x, y, z  :  x y z 1    0
 0 2 5 9   z 
  
 3 12 9 30  1 
 7 2 0 
A   2 6 2  ,   det A  162; r  3
 0 2 5 
 7 2 0 3
 2 6 2 12 
A  ;   det A  972; r  4
 0 2 5 9 
 
 3 12 9 30 

Our quadratic surface has a unique center. The center of the surface is
found by solving

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

7 x  3 y  3  x  1 
    
2 x  6 y  2 z  12   y    2 
2 y  5 y  9
  z   1
7   2 0
PA     2 6   2   3  18 2  99  162
0 2 5  

PA         3   6    9  ; Sp  A   {3, 6,9}

The Eigen vectors associated with Eigen values 1  3; 2  6; 3  9 are

given by:

4 x  2 y  0 1  1 
   1 
1  3  2 x  3 y  2 z  0  v1  2   e1  2 
2 y  2 z  0 3
  2  2
x  2 y  0 2  2

2  6  2 x  2 z  0  v2  1   e2  1 
1
2 y  z  0 3
  2   2
2 x  2 y  0 2  2 
   1 
3  9  2 x  3 y  2 z  0  v3  2   e3  2 
2 y  4 z  0 3
 1  1 

x  1 2 2  1 

The transformation y 
 1   
  3  2 1 2   2  , leads to
 z   2 2 2   1

S  x, y, z    3x2  6 y2  9 z 2  6  0 

x 2 y  2 y  2
  1
2 1 2
3
we obtain an ellipsoid.
b.

1 1 3 1 x 
  
1 5 1 3  y 
S  x, y, z    x y z 1  0
3 1 1 1  z 
  
1 3 1 0 1 

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 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

1 1 3
A  1 5 1 ;   36; r  3
3 1 1
 1 1 3 1
 
ˆA   1 5 1 3  ;   36; rˆ  4
3 1 1 1
 
 1 3 1 0 
Our quadric surface has a unique center. The center is found by
solving

 x  y  3z  1 x   1
   1 
 x  5 y  z  3   y    2
3x  y  z  1  z  3  2 
    
1  1 3
PA     1 5 1      3   6    2  ; Sp  A  {3, 6, 2}
3 1 1 

The Eigen vectors associated with Eigen values 1  3, 2  6, 3  2 are

given by

2 x  y  3z  0 1  1 
   1  
1  3   x  2 y  z  0  v1  1  e1   1
3x  y  2 z  0 3
 1  1 
5 x  y  3z  0 1  1 
   1 
2  6   x  y  z  0  v2   2   e2   2 
3x  y  5 z  0 6
 1  1 
3x  y  3z  0 1  1 
   1  
3  2   x  7 y  z  0  v3  0   e3  0
3x  y  3z  0 2 
  1  1
 1 1 1   1 
 
3 6 2  x  3 
x      
   1
The transformation y  
2     2 
0   y  leads to
  3 6 3
 z     z   
 1 1 1     2 
 3 2   3 
 6
x 2 y  2 z  2
S  x, y, z   3x2  6 y2  2 z2  1     1;
1 1 1
3 6 2

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Module 4: Analytical and projective geometry

We obtain hyperboloid of one sheet

c.

 2 2 1 2  x 
  
2 2 1 3  y 
S  x, y, z  :  x y z 1  0
1 1 3 1  z 
  
 2 3 1 3 1 

2 2 1
A   2 2 1 ;   0; r  2
1 1 3
2 2 1 2 
2 2 1 3 
Aˆ   ;   125  0 ; rˆ  4
1 1 3 1
 
 2 3 1 3
We have a non-central quadric surface

2 2 1
PA     2 2 1   3  7 2  10
1 1 3
PA         5    2  ; Sp  A   {2,5, 0}
The Eigen vectors associated with the Eigen
values 1  2; 2  5; 3  0 are given by:

2 y  z  0 1  1 
   1  
1  2  2 x  z  0  v1  1  ; e1  1 
x  y  z  0 6
  2   2 
3x  2 y  z  0 1 1
   1 
2  5  2 x  3 y  z  0  v2  1 ; e2  1
x  y  2z  0 3
 1 1
2 x  2 y  z  0 1  1 
   1  
3  0  2 x  2 y  z  0  v3  1 ; e3   1
 x  y  3z  0 2
 0  0 
Putting

 1 1 1 
 
6 3 2  x
x   
   1 1 1   
 y   6 y
z   3 2   
   z  
 2 1 
 6 0 
 3 
Page 116
 Block 3: Solid analytic geometry

We get:

S  x, y, z    2 x2  5 y2  6 x  5 2 z   3  0

2
 6  9 
 2  x    5 y  5 2  z  
2

 4   20 2 
Printing

6 9
x  x  ; y  y, z  z  ,
4 20 2
We get

S  x, y, z    2 x2  5 y2  5 2 z  0.

The transformation reducing our quadric surface to canonical form is

 1 1 1   1
  
6 3 2  x  40 
x      
 y   1 1 1     19 
   6 y  
3 2     40 
 z    z    
 2 1   1 
 6 0 
 3   2 
Our surfaces is an elliptic paraboloid

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