IKS UNIT 1 Dr.

Ajay Choudhary

Guide to Transliteration
All Sanskrit words used in this subject are presented using roman scripts as transliteration.
The transliteration schema used in this subject is based on International Alphabet of Sanskrit
Transliteration (IAST). IAST is a transliteration scheme that allows a lossless romanization
of scripts as employed by the Sanskrit language. The details are given below.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

UNIT 1- IKS
DEFINING INDIAN KNOWLEDGE SYSTEM
Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) is a generic phrase that covers practically everything about
India. For nation with more than 5000 years of recorded history, abundant cultural and
archaeological artifacts, literature, and social and community practices defining what
constitutes Indian Knowledge is itself a huge challenge. Literature, cultural and social
practices, historical evidence, and other such knowledge assets available in all Indian
languages, dialects, and geographical regions will all technically fall under the ambit of IKS.
The other aspect of the issue is the time dimension. Knowledge is continuously synthesized
by any society. Knowledge assets available in India from the pre-historic times to the current
day will all qualify to be part of the IKS. Therefore, it requires an unambiguous scope for
defining IKS..

Arguably, IKS can evoke different meanings to different stakeholders. The term IKS has
three words in it. To better understand what we mean by IKS, we shall analyse each of these
words separately.

Indian

By this term, we mean the indigenous sources of knowledge generated by the Indian society.
The current political formation called 'India' is of recent origin and it alone does not qualify
to be called 'Indian'. The term 'Indian' points to the undivided Indian subcontinent (Akhanda
Bhārata). We mean the geographical area spanning from Burma on the east to modern-day
Afghanistan in the west and Himalayas in the North to the Indian Ocean in the south. This
region has common cultural, literary, and social practices, and has witnessed a continuous
exchange of people, and ideas among them throughout the history of undivided India. A
second aspect to this is only such knowledge synthesized, codified, and made available by the
'Indians' is considered Indian knowledge.

Knowledge

The second component of IKS is the 'knowledge', which is always tacit. It primarily arises in
the form of the wisdom of the knowledge seekers. It is obtained by the insights gained by
personal experiences with life situations, facing problems, and coming up with means of
solving them. At other times, one obtains knowledge by means of intense observation of
events, experimentation, conjecturing, and analysis. Knowledge may or may not be converted
to a literary format. The tacit knowledge can be preserved and transmitted through an oral
tradition without loss. Knowledge pervades all three domains: spiritual, religious, and others
addressing social and day-today issues. We can summarise the term 'knowledge' as that
emanating from the wisdom and insights arising out of deep experiences, observation,
experimentation, and analysis and validated, improved, and augmented further.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

System

By 'System' in IKS, we mean a structured methodology and a classification scheme to access

the available corpus of knowledge. By its inherent nature, knowledge could be accessed in
any manner depending on the interest, purpose, and capacity of the seeker. Therefore, the
available knowledge needs to be collected, grouped, and arranged logically. Codification and
classification of the available knowledge using a definite framework would constitute one
dimension of the word 'System' in IKS.

IMPORTANCE OF ANCIENT KNOWLEDGE

Ancient knowledge is the accrued knowledge over several generations and preserved in
formal and informal means.

Ancient knowledge provides a head start to a society to march on the highway of innovation
and new knowledge creation

The thinking patterns and the repository of knowledge created by the forefathers in any
society enable the current generation to understand the thought processes and frameworks of
the previous generations. It will allow them to analyse the received wisdom in a
contemporary context and identify new opportunities to assimilate the accrued wisdom and
synthesize new knowledge.

FIGURE Importance of Ancient Knowledge)

Identity

The quintessential value that ancient knowledge brings to society is the identity it provides to
fellow members of the society. Essentially it defines the context for several aspects of the
day-to-day living of every individual. The social practices and norms have continuity as most
of them are transmitted from generation to generation through practices and supporting
knowledge repositories.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Culture

Culture has several dimensions. In a direct sense, it is the manifestation of human intellectual
achievement regarded collectively by society over time. From a social perspective, culture is
nothing but the set of ideas, customs, and behaviour of society. In other words, culture
provides a sense of identity at a societal level by providing a common medium for
communication and the transaction of ideas. The prevailing knowledge and the literary
traditions play a significant role in shaping the culture of the society.

Received Wisdom

Knowledge and innovation are in a continuum. Innovation and new knowledge creation in
any society is 'path-dependent'. What it essentially means is that the road travelled so far
determines the future path. Without the continuity of thoughts, it is very difficult to make
further progress in terms of new ideas. The other equally important issue is the risk of
reinventing the wheel. When the benefit of prior knowledge and the thought process is lost by
society, it will lead to reinventing the wheel, making innovation and new knowledge creation
inefficient. In this context, ancient knowledge plays the valuable role of 'received wisdom'
and provides a head start to a society to march on the highway of innovation and new
knowledge creation.

Economic Value

One of the compelling arguments in support of the ancient knowledge systems is the huge
potential it offers from an economic value standpoint. The emerging world order puts greater
emphasis on knowledge society. The prevailing 'military power' will give way for 'knowledge
power' and such nations who demonstrate the superiority of knowledge traditions are bound
to lead the rest of the world. Transforming knowledge into economic value has been fully
formalized with the global intellectual property rights regulations and patent laws. Therefore,
the ancient knowledge system will be beneficial to a country like India.

Let us see an example to understand this aspect. The US patent and trademark office granted
patent rights on knowledge of the usage of pigeon pea extracts for treating diabetes,
hypoglycemia, obesity, and arthero-sclerotic cardiovascular disease (clogged arteries) to
Insmed Inc, based in Richmond in Virginia. The company claimed its novelty in the
invention of pigeon pea extracts for treating these diseases. In the patent applications, Insmed
acknowledged only a handful of uses of pigeon peas in traditional medicines by citing some
references of journal articles that appeared in 1957 and 1968 that describe the effects of
pigeon pea and its extracts on blood sugar. The patent application did not include references
to the traditional use of pigeon peas in the treatment of the mentioned diseases.

Pigeon pea (botanical name Cajanus cajan) is commonly known as arhar or red gram in India.

There are several instances of the use of pigeon pea extracts in traditional medicines in India.
A study of plant medicines by researchers in the department of pharmacology at the All-India
Institute of Medical Sciences (AIIMS) tested pigeon pea extracts as they are used to treat
diabetes in Ayurvedic medicines. The scientists at the Council of Scientific and Industrial
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 IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Research (CSIR) observed that there is a need to gather strong evidence from our traditional
texts to challenge such patent rights. Unless we preserve and be aware of the ancient
knowledge, we will not be able to prevent the spill over of our economic value arising out of
our ancient knowledge¹.

Definition of Indian Knowledge Systems: Indian Knowledge Systems (IKS) refer to

the vast reservoir of wisdom, practices, and knowledge systems that have been developed and
preserved over millennia within the diverse cultural and intellectual landscape of India. These
systems encompass various domains such as philosophy, science, mathematics, engineering,
technology, agriculture, medicine, arts, architecture, psychology, and more. Rooted in ancient
texts, oral traditions, and experiential learning, IKS reflect the deep understanding of human
existence, societal harmony, and sustainable living and development that have been integral
to Indian civilization.

Nature of the Indian Knowledge System:

• Holistic Approach:
IKS emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things, viewing knowledge as unified whole
rather than fragmented disciplines.
• Emphasis on Ethics and Values:
IKS is deeply rooted in human values like compassion, respect for nature, and the pursuit of
truth and righteousness.
• Oral and Written Traditions:
IKS has been passed down through both oral and written traditions, with the Vedic texts
forming a core foundation.
• Interdisciplinary Nature:
IKS encourages interdisciplinary research and the application of traditional knowledge
across various fields, including arts, science, technology, and management.
• Focus on Practical Application:
IKS emphasizes the practical application of knowledge for societal benefit and individual
well-being.

Importance of the Indian Knowledge System:

• Addressing Contemporary Challenges:
IKS provides valuable insights for addressing issues like sustainable development, holistic
health, environmental conservation, and mental well-being.
• Promoting Ethical Leadership:
IKS cultivates ethical values and leadership qualities, fostering a more compassionate and
responsible society.
• Revitalizing Indian Culture and Identity:

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Integrating IKS into education and other sectors can rejuvenate Indian culture, boost self-
esteem, and foster a sense of national pride.
• Enhancing Creativity and Innovation:
IKS can inspire creativity and innovation by drawing upon diverse perspectives and
approaches to problem-solving.
• Fostering a Sense of Harmony with Nature:
IKS promotes a deep understanding of nature and its cycles, encouraging sustainable
practices and a harmonious relationship with the environment.
• Developing a Unique Indian Perspective:
IKS offers a unique perspective on various subjects, enriching global knowledge and
contributing to a more diverse and inclusive worldview.

Caturdaśa vidyāsthāna-s: 14 branches of learning in ancient India

The ancient Indian educational system was comprehensive and multifaceted, encompassing
various fields of knowledge. These fields were collectively known as the Caturdaśa
vidyāsthāna-s, or the 14 branches of learning. These branches formed the foundation of
traditional Indian education and were considered essential for a well-rounded intellectual and
spiritual development.

The 14 Branches of Learning (Caturdaśa Vidyāsthāna-s):

1. The Four Vedas (Śruti - revealed knowledge):

• Rgveda-Hymns and praises dedicated to deities

• Yajurveda - Rituals and sacrificial procedures
• Samaveda - Musical and melodic chants
• Atharvaveda Spells, incantations, and practicalknowledge

2. The Six Vedāngas (Auxiliary sciences for understanding the Vedas):

• śikṣā - Phonetics and pronunciation

• Vyākaraṇa - Grammar (Pāņini's Astādhyāyī is a key text)
• Chandas - Prosody (study of meters)
• Nirukta - Etymology (interpretation of difficult words)
• Jyotișa - Astronomy and astrology
• Kalpa - Rituals and ceremonies (Sūtras guiding Vedic rituals)

3. The Four Upāngas (Supplementary disciplines):

• Mīmāmsā - Interpretation of Vedic texts and rituals

• Nyaya-Logic and reasoning
• Purāņa - Mythology, history, and legends
• Dharmaśāstra - Law, ethics, and social conduct

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The 64 Kalas

The 64 Kalas (skills or arts) are a traditional list of skills that are considered important for a
well-rounded education in ancient Indian culture. These arts cover a wide range of practical,
creative, and intellectual activities. Here is the list of the 64 Kalas with a brief explanation for
each:

1 .Geet vidya (गानविद्या) Art of singing.

2. Vadya vidya (िाद्यविद्या) - Art of playing musical instruments.

3. Nritya vidya (नृत्यविद्या). Art of dancing.

4. Natya vidya (नाट्यविद्या) Art of theatrics and drama.

5. Alekhya vidya (अलेख्यविद्या) - Art of painting.

6. Visheshakacchedya (विशेषकच्छे द्यविद्या) vidya Art of painting the face and body with colors
and cosmetics.

7. Tandula kusuma bali vikara (तण्डु लकुसुमबवलविकार). Art of preparing offerings from rice
and flowers.

8. Pushpastarana (पुष्पास्तरण). Art of making a bed using flowers.

9. Dasana vasthara (दन्तधािन) – Art of preparing toothpicks and making decorative patterns
on teeth.

10. Manibhumikarma (मवणभूवमकमम ). Art of inlaying precious stones and metals.

11. Shayana rachana (शय्यारे चना).Art of preparing beds.

12. Udaka vadya (उदकिाद्य).Art of musical using water as a instrument.

13. Udaka ghata (उदकघात). Art of splashing and playing with water.

14. Chitra_yogya (वचत्रयोग). Art of making designs and drawings.

15. Malya granthana vikruti (माल्यग्रंथनविकृवत). – Art of making and wearing garlands.

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16. Kesha sheka (केशशेख) - Art of arranging hair.

17. Nirmiti vidya (वनवममवतविद्या) - Art of creating various crafts.

18. Ranga (रङ्ग). Art of decorating with colors.

19. Kusuma shayana (कुसुमशय्य). Art of making beds with flowers.

20. Udaka ghatika (उदकघविका) - Art of understanding water-related architecture.

21. Aksara mushtika kathana (अक्षरमुविककथन) – Art of reciting or playing games with
alphabets.

22. Mlechita kriya (म्लेच्छच्छतकृत्य) - Art of secret writing and communication.

23. Desha bhasa vigraha (दे शभाषाविग्रह). Art of knowing and understanding different
languages and dialects.

24. Pushpa kasta (पुष्पकाष्ठ). Art of preparing flowers and wood.

25. Shuka shuka narikela (शुकशुकनारीकेल). – Art of training parrots and mynahs.

26. Upakarika vidya (उपकारीविद्या). Art of making ointments and pastes.

27. Keshmarjana (केशमर्मन). Art of cleansing and beautifying hair.

28. Akshara mushtika kathanam (अक्षरमुविककथनम् ) - Art of secret writing.

29. Dharana matra (धारणामात्र). Art of mnemonics. A mnemonic is a technique or device for
remembering information. Mnemonics can be made up of words, mental pictures, body
movements, physical objects, or just about anything that can help you remember information.

30. Desha bhasa jnana (दे शभाषाज्ञान).Art of knowledge of different languages.

31. Vaijayanti vidya (िैर्यन्तीविद्या). Art of preparing knowledge scrolls.

32. Vriksha ayurveda (िृक्षायुिेद) – Art of Ayurveda related to trees and plants.

33. Anka shastra (अंकशास्त्र) - Art of understanding and numbers. mathematics

34 .Dharana matra (धारणामात्र).Art of memory training.

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35. Mani bhandha (मवणबन्ध) - Art of gem-studded ornaments.

36. Mudrakhya (मुद्राख्य) - Art of seal-making and sealing.

37. Vastra (िस्त्र) - Art of making and dyeing clothes.

38. Takshanam (तक्षणम् ).Art of carpentry and woodcutting.

[Link] shastra (िास्तुशास्त्र) – Art of architecture and construction.

40. Takshan vidya (तक्षणविद्या). Art of carpentry.

[Link] (व्यर्नाद्य). Art of fanning and waving.

42. Kavya (काव्य) - Art of poetry and literature.

43 .Nati katha (नाविकथा). Art of storytelling and narration.

[Link] damuraka vadya (िीणादमरुकिाद्य). Art of playing the veena and small drums.

45. Prahelika (प्रहे वलका). Art of solving riddles and puzzles.

46. Durvacaka yoga (दु िाम चकयोग).Art of mispronunciation for humor.

47. Vrihanna ketu (िृहन्नकेतु). - Art of concealing. (लपविण्याचीकला)

48. Balaka kridanaka (बालकक्रीडनक).Art of making children's toys.

49. Vaijayanti shastra (िैर्यन्तीशास्त्र).Art of preparing magical or alchemical substances.

50. Khida (च्छखडा) Art of various games and sports.

51. Karnapatra bhanga (कणमपत्रभङ्ग). Art of making ear ornaments.

52. Sugandhadiyoga_(.सुगन्धावदयोग).Art of using perfumes and aromatics.

53. Bhushanayojana_(भूषणायोर्ना).Art of using jewelry and adornments.

54. Indrajala (इन्द्रर्ाल) Art of illusion and magic.

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55. Kautukika (कौतुवकका).Art of making fun and amusements.

56. Vainayaki vidya (िैनायकीविद्या).Art of enforcing discipline.

57. Kushalata (कुशलता).Art of skillfulness in various tasks.

58. Hasta laghavam (हस्तलाघिम् ).Art of sleight of hand.

59. Chitrayoga (वचत्रयोग).Art of making decorations.

60. Malya grathana (माल्यग्रहण). – Artof garland making.

[Link] vidya (मवणबन्धविद्या).Art of making bracelets.

62. Sharira madhya (शरीरमाध्यम) Art of beautifying the body.

63. Chitra shala (वचत्रशाला).Art of painting galleries.

[Link] rachanam (िस्त्ररचनम् ).Art of designing clothes.

These 64 Kalas collectively represent a holistic approach to education, blending artistic,

practical, and intellectual pursuits to develop a well-rounded individual.

Shilpa Śāstra:

Shilpa Shastra is an ancient Indian text that teaches the art of sculpture, architecture, and
iconography. It guides how to build temples, create statues, and depict deities with beauty
and spiritual meaning. It's about preserving cultural heritage and creating art that uplifts the
spirit.
1. Overview and Principles
Shilpa Shastra, which translates to "science of sculpture and architecture," is a traditional
Indian science that encompasses architectural design, sculpture, and decorative arts. It
provides detailed guidelines for the construction of temples, palaces, and other structures.
Key aspects include:
• Architectural Forms: Shilpa Shastra describes various architectural styles and forms,
including temple layouts, palace designs, and residential structures. It outlines the
proportions and dimensions that should be used in construction.
• Proportional Systems: The Shilpa Shastras employ a system of proportions and
ratios to ensure aesthetic harmony and structural integrity. These proportions are often
based on sacred geometry and cosmic principles.

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• Sculptural Elements: The integration of sculpture and decorative arts into

architecture is a major focus. Shilpa Shastra provides guidelines for the creation of
ornamental features, including statues, carvings, and friezes.

2. Applications in Temple Architecture

• Temple Layout: Shilpa Shastra offers detailed guidelines for designing temples,
including the layout of sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha), the assembly hall
(mandapa), and the tower (shikhara). Each component is designed to reflect cosmic
principles and enhance spiritual experience.
• Sculptural Integration: The incorporation of sculptures into temple architecture
follows precise rules to maintain aesthetic and spiritual balance. Sculptures of deities,
mythological figures, and symbolic motifs are meticulously designed and positioned.
3. Cultural and Artistic Significance
• Artistic Expression: Shilpa Shastra highlights the importance of artistic expression in
architecture. The detailed craftsmanship in carving and decoration reflects the cultural
and religious values of the time.
• Symbolism and Rituals: The architectural and sculptural elements are imbued with
symbolic meanings, representing various aspects of the divine and cosmic order. This
symbolism is intended to elevate the spiritual experience of those who interact with
the space.

INTRODUCTION TO VEDAS
The word 'Veda', is generally derived from the Sanskrit root विद् (vid to know). The word
Veda can be derived from five verbal roots¹. These mean to exist, to know, to discriminate, to
obtain, and to make known. Veda indicates a vast body of knowledge concerning the eternal
spiritual values and principles and practices for gainful and happy living revealed to the rșis
through their deep meditation. The Hindu religious tradition has accorded the Vedas the
highest place in its canonical literature and is revered as the basic scriptures. The Vedas are
not merely considered as scriptures but as the fountainhead of Indian culture and human
civilization. It is believed in the Indian tradition that the Veda is the poetry of Gods and it
neither fades nor becomes stale by the passing of time. The actual dating of the Vedas has
been a subject matter for considerable debate. The latest date attributed by many modern
researchers falls a few millennia before the Common [Link] Vedic repository is preserved
and transmitted through an oral tradition. Hence, the Vedas are referred to as śruti, 'what is
heard'. .
The Vedas are the foundational source of knowledge within Sanatana-dharma literature and
are also referred to as Sruti, meaning "heard" rather than authored, as they were revealed to
the Vedic seers. These mantras were initially transmitted orally through a lineage of "Guru-
Sisya' (teacher-student). Other sources of knowledge are secondary

Their primary role is to expand and apply Vedic ideas to practical contexts and clarify the
Vedic intent through stories, explanatory notes, and daily life guidelines. The Upa-Vedas,

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closely associated with the Vedas, contain material derived from them and are thus integral to
the Vedic corpus.

THE FOUR VEDAS

Although the Vedas existed for a long time there was a need to organise them systematically
so that the available knowledge is put to correct use by society. The credit to organise the
Vedic repository in the manner we understand it today goes to Krsna-Dvaipāyana popularly
known as Vyāsa. Vyāsa organised the Vedic corpus into four major divisions: Rgveda,
Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvaveda. To ensure that the knowledge is passed down to
future generations without interruption, he taught these divisions to four of his primary
disciples and made each of them responsible to primarily propagate one of the four. Paila
was associated with Rgveda, Vaiśampāyana Yajurveda, Jaimini Samaveda and Sumantu
Atharvaveda.

[Link]

The Rgveda represents the earliest sacred book of India. It is the oldest and biggest amongst
all the four Vedas. All the features of classical Sanskrit poetry can be traced to the Rgveda. In
the Rgveda we find the origins of the religious and philosophical development of the most
ancient society. Thus, both for its poetry and its religious and philosophical importance. The
Rigveda is an ancient collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (sūktas) and is regarded as one of
the most sacred texts of Hinduism. Fascinating to scholars and historians for its profound
significance and antiquity, it is the oldest text in any Indo-European language, originating as
early as 1700 BCE. The Rigveda is systematically organized into ten books known as
Mandalas and encompasses a vast collection of aprpx.10,600 verses and 1,028 hymns. Its
enduring impact and foundational role in the Vedic tradition underscore its importance in the
study of ancient Indian literature and religious thought.

[Link]

Yajurveda confines itself to the major issue of conducting the sacrifices. The word Yajurveda
is derived from the root Yaj, meaning, the worship associated with sacrifice. This Veda
mainly focuses on yajña and a list of various yajñas is found in this Veda. The mantras in
Yajurveda are mostly in prose form although a small fraction is in the metrical form, among
these many are borrowed directly from the Rgveda.

Though the major topic of Yajurveda is Yajña, many other topics are discussed in it. These
include human anatomy, metals, constellation, seasons, numbers and geometry, grains, and
yogic insights.

The Yajurveda is divided into two branches: the Krsna (Black) and the śukla (White). The
distinguishing aspect is that the Krsna-Yajurveda is more ancient than the śukla-Yajurveda.

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Till the time of Sage Yājñavalkya, Yajurveda was a single scripture. Sage Yājñavalkya
learned Yajurveda from his guru Vaiśampāyana. Later, because of some misunderstanding
between them, Yājñavalkya is saidto have learned the new Veda which is known as śukla-
Yajurveda and the earlier one is known as Krsna-Yajurveda. Yājñavalkya transferred this
knowledge to fifteen of his disciples. The śākhās of Śukla-Yajuveda are named after these
disciples.

3.Sāmaveda

The word Samaveda is derived from the Sanskrit root, 'Sama' indicating 'to please, pacify or
satisfy'. Essentially, it refers to the singing of Rgveda mantras. The mantras in Samaveda are
typically referred to as 'Sāma'. It is a Rgveda mantra set to music. Sāmaveda currently has
three branches viz. Kauthuma, Raņāyanīya, and Jaiminīya. Sāmaveda is used to please the
devatās by singing mantras after making the offering.

Sāmaveda is divided into two parts: Pūrvārcikam and Uttarārcikam, consisting of a total of
1,549 mantras. Out of these, except 75 mantras, the rest are taken from the Rgveda samhitā.
There are more than 150 seers associated with Samaveda. Unlike the other three Vedas, the
mantras of the Samaveda, are related to musical scales, similar to the seven scales of classical
music. Therefore, in some ways, the origin ofIndian classical music lies in the Samaveda.

[Link]

The etymology of the word 'Atharvan' brings out the multi-faceted nature and characteristics
of this Veda. It means one which brings wellness, seen by sage Atharvan and one with no
falsehood or movement. As already mentioned, it is generally believed that the Atharvaveda
is a later addition to the original set of the three Vedas (Rg-Yajur-Sama), chronologically
speaking. The Atharvaveda priest is known as Brahman, whose main job is overall
coordination and monitoring of the Vedic ritual. Before starting any activity in the yajña,
Brahman's permission is sought. When there are deviations or changes, the Brahman steps in
and makes the necessary amendments. In other words, the Atharvaveda priest plays the
crucial role of quality control and compliance when rituals are performed. Viewed from this
perspective, the Atharvaveda priest must be a knower of all the other three Vedas to
flawlessly execute this task of overall coordination and quality control.

Originally, nine śākhās of this Veda are known to have existed, but only two are extant:
Pippalāda and Śaunaka. Of the two, it is only the latter that is available in a complete form.
The hierarchy of the arrangement of mantras in Atharvaveda is quite similar to what we see
in Rgveda. At the highest level, the Atharvaveda-samhitā is divided into fourbooks. There are
20 kändas or books in all. Except for Books 15 and 16, the text is in poem form deploying a
diversity of Vedic metres. Each kanda is again subdivided into sūktas or hymns, and the
sūktas into mantras. There are 6,077 mantras, in 736 sūktas. About a sixth of the Atharvaveda
texts adapts verses from the Rgveda. In particular, the last kāņda, i.e., the 20th, has borrowed
heavily from the Rgveda-samhitā.

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A Summary of the Content in the Four Veda

Rg Veda Yajur Veda Sama Veda Atharva Veda

[Link] Mantras 10,552 7,154 1,549; only 75 6,077 (last

(Samhita) Kışņa: unique kända is heavily
Taittiriya, borrowed from
Kathaka, Rgveda)
Maitrāyaṇīya
śukla:
Väjasaneya
(Madhyandina,
Käņva)

Šākhās 21, only 5 Krsna: 85, only 1000, only 3 9, only 2

available now 4 available now available now available now
Šukla: 17, only
2 available now

Aranyakas Aitareya, Kışņa: Taittirīya Talavakāra or None

Śāņkhāyana śukla: Jaiminīya
Brhadāranyaka

Brahmanas Aitareya, Kışņa: Taittiriya 9 Brahmanas Gopatha

Kausītaki Śukla: Śatapatha (Tändya-mahā- Brahmana
brāhmana
important)

Major Aitareya, Kışņa: Chandogya, Praśna,

Upanisads Kausītaki Taittiriya, Kena Mundaka,
Kathopaniṣad Mändükya
Šukla:
Brhadaranyaka,
Iśāvāsya

Messages in the Vedas

Vedas are the quintessential wisdom that forms the foundation for the Sanatana-dharma and
is considered as the ultimate reference for every aspect of living in India. The subject matter
covered in the Vedic repository is vast. The details about performing several rituals to
propitiate the devatās form a major component, however, several other issues are addressed.
These include, for example, inquiring into the origin of the Universe, human beings' intricate
relationship with nature, reflecting on some observed celestial happenings leading to
astronomical insights, marriage, health and wellness, and larger questions such as our
purpose in life, and many methods of inquiring into these subjects. There is a rigor with
which several aspects of life are inquired into.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

THE FOUR DIVISIONS OF EACH VEDA

Close scrutiny of the Vedic corpus reveals to us certain aspects of the knowledge presented.
Some portions of the Veda are hymns sung in praise of the devatās while certain others
consist of specific know-how, instructions, and dos anddon'ts related to conducting of yajña
and related rituals. Other components provide food for thought encouraging deep inquiry into
human nature, and our relationship with the Universe and God. Clearly, the intended
audience for these is different and so are the objectives. There were different groups of
devatās addressed in these portions as well. Sage Vyāsa organised each Veda into distinct
portions considering these issues. These divisions in each Veda were based on the material
presented, the primary objective and use of the material, the target audience, and the focus.
Accordingly, each Veda is further sub-divided into a two-level hierarchy. At the first level,
we have the Mantras and Brāhmaņas. While the Mantras portion, also known as Samhitā has
the hymns in praise of devatās, the Brāhmaņas have the remaining portions of the Veda.
While the Brahmaņas have substantive content addressing the ritualistic aspects, one can still
distinctively cull out two other portions within the Brahmaņas, namely Āranyakas and
Upaniṣads.

We can therefore divide the Vedas into four portions:

Samhitā, Brāhmaņa, Āranyaka, and Upaniṣads.

Samhitā

Samhită constitutes the main portion of each Veda and consist of a certain number of mantras
presented in metrical form. For example, in the Rgveda-samhitä, there are 10,552 mantras.
The rsis who discovered these mantras are identified in the sūkta itself. The sūkta also
indicates the devatā to whom it is addressed, and the metre used to compose these mantras. In
the Rgveda-samhita, we find a mention of over 400 rsis and several categories of devatas.
Four main devatās, viz., Indra, Agni, Varuņa, and Mitra have been given the pride of place in
the hymns. Nearly one-third of the mantras are addressed to Indra and a quarter to Agni. The
rșis are identified with a first name and a second (perhaps last) name. For example, the names
of rsis found include Viśvāmitra Gāthin (male rşi) Daksiņā Prājāpatyä (Female rsi). Figure
below shows the organisation of the Rgveda-samhita. There were over 25 women rșis who
have composed hymns in the Rgveda.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Brāhmaņas

Brāhmaņas does not relate to the modern word 'Brahmin', used to denote a caste. These are a
collection of knowledge mainly confined to the issue of rituals and rites written in prose. If
we go by the sheer volume, Brāhmaņas form a large portion of the Vedic repository.
Typically, one or more Brāhmaņas are associated with every Veda and contain commentaries
and explanatory notes pertaining to the mantras used. They describe different types of yajñas
with all the ritualistic details. For example, the Aitareya-brāhmaņa describes the Soma
sacrifice, Agnihotra, etc. Similarly, the Kausītaki-brāhmaņa provides details on food
sacrifice, full-moon sacrifices, and sacrifices of the seasons. In the Śatapatha-brāhmaņa
details of Agnicayana, Aśvamedha-yajña, Upanayana, and Svādhyāya are explained.

FIGURE -Organization of Rgveda Samhitā

Aranyakas

Aranyakas form the third portion of Vedas and their content appears to be similar to that of
Brahmanas, as both of them discuss yajña practices.

Aranyakas inquire into the philosophical aspects of a yajña.

Aranyakas are considered as bridge between Brahmanas and Upaniṣads.

Aranyakas represent the Upāsanā kända of the Vedas.

Arayanaks: Aranyakas often referred to as the "Forest Books," play a crucial role in Vedic
literature by interpreting sacrificial rituals in a symbolic and philosophical manner. These
texts delve into the deeper philosophical aspects of yajna (ritual sacrifice) and serve as a
bridge between the Brahmanas and the Upanishads.

Representing the "Upasana Kanda" of the Vedas, Aranyakas focus on the devotional and
meditative aspects of Vedic practice, offering insights into the ritual's deeper significance and
its connection to spiritual practices.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Upaniṣads

The word Upaniṣad means sitting near a Guru and receiving his wisdom through a teaching-
learning process. The Upaniṣads have taken different approaches to impart knowledge.". The
Indian emblem 'Satyam Eva Jayate' is a bold proclamation in the Mundaka-upaniṣad.

Notwithstanding these differences in the styles of presentation, the common theme of the
Upaniṣads seems to be focused on the knowledge of the Brahman. The Upaniṣads contain the
Mahā-vākyas (meaning the ultimate pronouncements or sentences of truth).

Originally over 1,180 Upaniṣads were supposed to have been part of the Vedic corpus.
Unfortunately, as in the case of other components of the Veda, several of them are lost.
Currently, we have been able to locate around 200 Upaniṣads. These are found mostly in the
Brahmaņa portion of the Vedas. It lists the 108 Upaniṣads under the four Vedas. Among the
available Upaniṣads, 10 are considered principal Upaniṣads as they have been commented
upon and often used to support arguments in related subjectsby great spiritual masters in the
country. Besides, another 4-5 Upaniṣads are also popular as they too have been frequently
mentioned by the spiritual masters.

FIGURE -108 Upaniṣads in the Four Vedas

The Upaniṣads not only provide deep spiritual and philosophical insights into life. They also
serve as a fountainhead of knowledge and wisdom for us to leada successful life in this world
as we pursue material benefits for a happy life. A case in point is the last anuvāka in
śikṣāvallī of Taittirīya-upaniṣad that has a typical setting of the final address by the Guru to
his batch of students as they pass out of the gurukula. This can be considered equivalent to
the modern-day convocation address. A reading of this portion reveals to us that there are
seven waves of thought that the Guru wants to leave with the students as they step into the
outside world. These are summarised below:

• Advice on one's own mode of living with reference to society and oneself
• Regulating one's relationship with the previous generation and the present elders
• Relationship with oneself and one's teachers
• One's attitude towards the learned and the wise in society
• Charity and the laws of giving

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

• Remedy for doubts regarding one's own duty and conduct in life
• Doubts regarding one's relationship with others falsely accused in the world

VEDANGAS

One can identify six complementary requirements for the preservation of Vedic corpus and
the practices prescribed therein and the proper use of them.

• Vedic texts being oral in nature have to be preserved in their original form. This
requires listening to the sounds properly and reproducing them the same way they
were heard.
• The words and sentences of the text had to be understood, without any ambiguity.
• The metres to which the mantras are set had to be systematically understood and their
rules followed properly.
• There is a need for a complete guide to lead a life as prescribed in the Vedas. This
requires unambiguously spelt out practices and norms for various activities to be
performed.
• A properly structured set of instructions to perform the rituals prescribed in the Vedas,
right from building the yajña-śālā to carrying out elaborate rituals such as the soma-
yāgas need to be established.
• A method to fix the time to do all these prescribed activities is also necessary.

There are six Vedāngas; śikṣā, Vyākaraņa, Nirukta, Chandas, Kalpa, and Jyotișa
addressing these roles.. The seeds of all these Vedāngas are found in Vedas

Role of the Vedangas

1. śikṣā -The word śikṣā means 'to acquire knowledge'. This was the first thing students
were taught in the ancient educational system; hence it is called śikṣā. This has been
described in Taittirīya Upaniṣad very briefly. It was further elaborated in śikṣā-śāstra.
śikṣā essentially is the science of pronunciation. As preserving the Vedic text from
any form of corruption is the most important thing, śikṣā directs our attention to all
the details of the process involved in pronunciation. śikṣā-śāstra, therefore, is a
systematic approach to the art and practice of phonetics. It defines the characteristics
of the basic units of the sound of the language known as varņa and explains what

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causes the sound pertaining to avarņa to emanate. There are several books on śikṣā-
śāstra. The most popular work today is 'Pāņinīya-śikṣā' which is attributed to Panini,
the famous [Link] nada (sound) generated by the confluence of air and
space (in the vocal cord) takes the form of a varņa (the smallest component of a
language) by the contact made between various parts of the tongue and the places of
articulation10. With these fundamentals of origin of the sound from the oral cavity, it
further describes the process of pronouncing the varņas.

[Link]ākaraņaGrammar is the foundational aspect of any language. Therefore, to

understand the Vedic repository, rules of grammar are required. Vyākaraņa is one of the
Vedāngas that deals with this issue. The tradition of Vyakaraņa dates to the Vedic period.
However, the credit goes to Pāņini for presenting a structured work of the Sanskrit
Vyākaraņa. Despite several otherworks on Vyākaraņa, Panini's Astādhyāyī became
popular because of its brevity. Another great master of Vyakarana, Patañjali wrote a
commentary on Aşțādhyāyī, known as Mahā-bhāsya, which provided logical and
philosophical support to the work and firmly established the monumental work of
Pāṇ[Link] term Vyakaraņa essentially means to divide, separate, and analyse. Sanskrit
grammar is unique in that it devises unambiguous and rule-based methods to construct a
word. Vyākaraṇa is highly structured and rule-based that it has several features that
parallel what has been applied in the modern-day data processing. These include methods
of creating lists-based processing logic, the use of an algorithmic approach to process
language, application of recursive logic to process data, etc. A unique feature of Panini's
work is that he gave the rules of svaras, which are very essential in determining the
meaning of Vedas. Even a small change in the intonation can bring about a significant
difference in the meaning at times. Out of 4000 sūtras, Pāņini has dedicated over 400 to
give the rules of svaras.

3. Nirukta - Nirukta is etymology, which is extracting the meaning of a word using

linguistic theories and considering phonetic changes. While issues with understanding the
meaning of the Vedas areaddressed by vyākaraṇa-śāstra, Nirukta engages in the same task
with a different approach. The objective of vyākaraņa is to ascertain a correct form of a
word to express a certain meaning. On the other hand, Nirukta analyses a given word to
extract its meaning. Yāska, wrote Nirukta in the 5th century BCE, which is a commentary
on Nighantu, a collection of rarely used words in the Vedas. Nighanțu can be equated
with a thesaurus, where synonyms of various genres are collated. Some of these words are
used in a totally different sense in a Vedic context. Therefore, the study of the Nirukta is
indispensable for the understanding of the Veda. Like other Vedāngas,this developed as a
major discipline on its own in later times. It appears that 'Nirukta' is the most ancient
work available on etymology anywhere in the [Link] are 1770 words grouped in
three parts namely Naighantuka-kānda consisting of three chapters, Naigama-kānda, and
Daivata-kāņda each consisting of one chapter. Naighantuka consists of 69 groups of
synonyms. Words with multiple meanings are organised in each of these groups. The
need for a work such as Nirukta arises primarily on account of different meanings
associated with words in the context of Vedic texts. In the absence of this,there is a

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danger of associating a word with a wrong meaning and interpreting the Vedic text
wrongly. Sometimes, the error can mislead the knowledge seeker and present the Vedic
corpus in poor light simply on account of ignorance. (See box for an example of this)

Organisation of Nighaṇṭu

Kanda Adhyāya No. of Words Contents

Naighantuka 1 415 17 groups of synonyms

2 516 22 groups of synonyms

3 410 30 groups of synonyms

Naigama 278 Words with multiple meanings in 3

groups

Daivata 151
Names of Devatās in 3 groups

In the process of arriving at the meanings associated with the words, a four-step approach is
employed:

• Observe the repeated occurrence of letters of a group of letters in different words

• Observe the repetition of the same meaning in different words
• Map repeating sounds with the repeating meanings
• Assign meaning to the component of a word

4. Chandas

Rhythm is the key aspect of an oral tradition be it Vedic mantras or music. The samhita
portion of the Vedas are almost entirely in prosody. Therefore, the study of the metres to
which they are set is important. Chandas is the metre of poetic composition. There are many
references to these metres and their characteristics in Vedic texts themselves. The major
treatise on Vedic metres currently in usage is Chandah-śāstra by Pingala written around 300
BCE. This also lays the foundation for many other metres used in classicalSanskrit literature.

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The Hierarchical Structure of Metre

Metres in the Vedas

There are seven main metres used in the Vedas. The majority of these metres have four
quarters in them. Some metres have three. There are also some exceptions with varying
numbers of pādas. The Vedic metres differ from one another on two counts; the number of
pādas that constitute a metre and the number of syllables in each pada. Chandas plays a
crucial role in the preservation of the Vedic corpus and loss-lesstransmission down the
generations. Any addition or removal of even a single syllable from a mantra will become
evident at once as the rhythm of the mantra will be lost. Thus, chandas helps in preserving
intact not only the Vedic texts but also any literature set in prosody. This also helps in
removing the doubts in meaning and makes the recitation of mantras joyful.

Three Level Hierarchy of a Metre - An Illustration

Mantra ---स्वावदष्ठयामवदष्ठयापिस्वसोमधारया।इन्द्रायपातिेसुतः॥svādiṣṭhayā madișthayā pavasva

soma dhārayā | indrāya pātave sutah

Metre -- Gayatri Metre

Pādas (3) each of 8 syllables --

Pada 1: स्वावदष्ठयामवदष्ठया (svādisthayā madişthayā);

Pāda 2: पिस्वसोमधारया (pavasva soma dhārayā);

Pāda 3: इन्द्रायपातिेसुतः (indrāya pātave sutah);

Syllables (24) -- svā-di-stha-yā-ma-di-stha-yā-pa-va-sva-so-ma-dhā-ra-yā-in-drā-ya-pā-ta-ve-

su-tah

Details Pertaining to Vedic Metrers

Chandas Number of pādas Number Syllables per pāda

Gāyatrī 3 8 + 8 + 8 = 24

Uşnih 3 8 + 8 + 12 = 28

Anuştup 4 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 32

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Brhatī 4 8 + 8 + 12 + 8 = 36

Pankti 5 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 + 8 = 40

Tristup 4 11 + 11 + 11 + 11 = 44

Jagatī 4 12 + 12 + 12 + 12 = 48

5. Kalpa

Kalpa focused on several operational aspects of the issues discussed in the Vedic corpus. In
simple terms, Kalpa can be thought of as a guide or a user manual that provides instructions
and directions to lead all aspects of life including personal, family, and social dimensions. A
study of the Kalpa-sūtras sheds light on all important aspects of ancient Indian life as it
covers household life, ceremonies, and law. One can see elaborate descriptions of different
types of yajñas and methods of performing these, their frequency, etc. There are vivid
descriptions of how to prepare the Agni, the types of people involved, and their roles, the
type of offerings to be made, and other resources required.

Components of Kalpa

There are different schools of Vedic studies and each of these schools has its own set of basic
instructive texts called Kalpa-sūtras. These comprise four types of texts:

• Śrauta-sūtras - Guide for Vedic rituals

• Śulba-sūtras Rules for measurements and construction of fire altars, sacrificial place,
etc.
• Grhya-sūtras Deals with house-hold ceremonies
• Dharma-sūtras - Guide for social duties

Śrauta-sūtra provides details of various rituals prescribed in the Vedas. These are to be
performed at various intervals. Some of them are quite elaborate and require a large number
of people to perform (such as Aśvamedha or Rājasūya-yajña). These are invariably done by
kings as the outlay is huge. Some rituals are performed for many days and months. The role

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of Śrauta-sūtras is to provide some sort of an operations manual laying out minute details. It
systematically describes all the activities in a ritual, the roles to be taken by various people,
the sequence of various activities, etc. Some of the major rituals prescribed are as follows:

• Agnihotra - this is a ritual the custodian of the three fires has to perform twice every
day. An offering of ghee and milk is made into the sacrificial fire.
• Darśapūrņamāsa-işți a ritual This is performed on the day after the full moon and no
moon days. It involves several people other than the yajamāna. Rice puddings baked
in the sacrificial fire are the main offerings in this ritual.
• Cāturmāsya-işți - As the name suggests thisritual is performed once in four months.
• Various types of SomayāgasThese are the long rituals that go for more than a week.
A sixteen-member team is involved, and it is an elaborate ritual.

Śulba-sūtrais the manual to build a sacrificial room and altars.śulba means a thread. The
measurement of various parts of the yaga-śālā is done with the help of a thread and two
nails. As we know, with a nail and a thread we can only generate a circular shape.
However, Vedic altars had complex shapes (for example a flying falcon). Ancient Indians
devised interesting construction methods using circular constructions. Therefore, we can
infer that they had a good understanding of cyclical geometry. Expectedly, Śulba-sūtras
contain minute and basic details about measurement and construction of sacrificial place:
िेदी (vedī), वचवत (citi), मण्डप (mandapa). These involved details on the construction of
squares, rectangles, circles, etc. Further, minute details ensuring accurateconstruction of
the altar (vedī) including orientation, size, shape, and areas are specified. The Kalpa
specifications also require that altars of very different shapes need to be of the same area.

Grhya-sūtra is a guide to perform domestic ceremonies. Everyday rituals such as

sandhyā-vandanam, the sixteen samskāras, sacraments of a person to be performed right
from garbhādhāna (insemination) to antyești (last rites), the five mahāyajñas are some of
the topics covered here. To perform these domestic ceremonies, the householder
(Grhasta) is required to maintain the Agni (Grhyāgni) from marriage unto death for all
household rites. These rites are meant to worship the Gods through a variety of yajñas to
obtain material benefits, good health, and progeny. The ceremonies are also performed
for the achievement of targeted desires and results and the welfare of society in general.

Dharma-sūtra is the overall guide for an individual to be part of the society in a gainful
manner. Dharma-sūtra is mainly concerned with rules of conduct that an individual needs
to follow so that he/she can have a harmonious living in society. The rules for the people
of different occupations, duties of an individual at various levels of his life, guidance
forthe rulers to rule the state are some of the important topics described here. These
evolved as systematized laws which were in the form of customs. It covers issues such as
lawful occupations of the class of society, stages of life, dietary laws, punishments, forms
of government, taxation administration, and army. In a way, these sutras provide details
on public policy, governance, and administration.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

A Typical Set of Altars for Śrauta Rites

6. Jyotişa--Like several other ancient civilizations, Indians were using the natural calendar
which is based on keenobservation of the sky with moon and stars. This knowledge of the
movement of stars and planetary bodies is called jyotișa. In India, the lunar and the solar
cycles play a very important role in the cultural and spiritual development of the Vedic
people. These practices continue even today as all the festivals and practices are inextricably
linked to the Moon, the Sun, and other stars and constellations. Having studied several
aspects of the Vedic life, Lagadha composed Vedānga-jyotișa 13 during which sun was in
Dhanisthā nakşatra during the winter solstice.

Jyotișa occupies a special place in the Vedangas, and it is compared to the jewel on the hood
of the snake and the crest of the peacock.

Jyotișa-śāstra is classified into vaidika (related to Vedas) and laukika (related to the world).
The Jyotișa which is connected to Vedas is called Vedānga-jyotișa, which was followed by
the people during the Vedic period. Vedānga-jyotișa is classified into two recensions:
Rgvedic Vedānga-jyotișa - 36 verses and Yajurvedic Vedānga-Jyotișa 43 verses. The
Atharvana-jyotișa is known to be taught by Prajāpati to Kaśyapa. Jyotișa-śāstra is further
classified into three parts and each of those further into two each

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Classification of Topics in Jyotișa Śāstra

Siddhānta deals with the various measures of time; planetary theory, arithmetical
computations as well as algebraical processes, location of the earth, the stars and the planets,
and description and usage of instruments.

Samhita consists of the scientific and mathematical concepts of astrology. Although listed as
one of the three divisions. In reality, the issues discussed are included in all the three
skandhas (Siddhānta, Samhitā, and Horā). It can be divided into three sections. Section 1
deals with the movement of the planets in the several Rāśis (zodiacs). These are ascertained
through mathematical computation, known as tantra. In Section 2, horoscope and nimitta
(Omens) issues are discussed. Section 3 provides details to precisely locate the correct
position of lagna, which is the first step in Jātakarma. In addition to these issues, Samhitā
deals with many aspects of human life..Jyotișa is intricately connected to astronomy.

The Breadth of Topics Discussed in Samhitā

No. Topic Discussed Details

1 दै िज्ञ-लक्षणम् (Daivajña-lakşaņam) Qualities of an Astrologer

2 ग्रहाणां चार-विचारः (Grahānām cāra- Planetary Movements

vicāraḥ)

3 भूकम्पोल्कावद-लक्षण-विचारः Characteristics of Earthquakes, Meteors etc.

(Bhūkampolkādi-laksana-vicārah)

4 िास्तु -विचारः (Vastu-vicāraḥ) Architecture

5 र्लान्वेषण-विचारः (Jalānveşaņa-vicāraḥ) Exploration of Water Springs

6 दे िालय-प्रवतमावद-वनमाम ण-क्रमः(Devālaya- Temple Construction and Sculpture

pratimādi-nirmāņa-kramaḥ)

7 शकुनावद-विचारः (Sakunādi-vicāraḥ) Omens

8 शरीर-लक्षणावद-विचारः(śarīra-lakşaņādi- Body Parts -Characteristics

vicāraḥ)

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

INDIAN PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS -DEVELOPMENT AND UNIQUE FEATURES

Phrases such as 'happiness' require 'individuals' as the unit of analysis. Further, as one
inquires deep into this question, the focus shifts to the Universe, which provides the context
for the individual to make his inferences and choices in life. Inevitably, the notion of an all-
pervading Universal force (known as the Divinity or God) also becomes another
importantdimension in this analysis. Therefore, the study of these aspects invariably happens
in a context consisting of three aspects: an individual (Jīva), the Universe (Jagat), and the
God (Iśvara).

The beginning of the philosophical inquiry in India can be traced to the Vedic literature. The
Rgvedic seers enquired about the forces causing natural phenomena such as rain, day and
night, growth of life and recognised these forces as devatās (gods). Hence, we see several
mantras in praise of these Devatās, describing their nature of these Devatās. They realised the
concept of 'Puruşa', all-encompassing supreme being, and proclaimed, all this is nothing but
the Puruşa' (पुरुषएिेदंसिं Puruşa evedam sarvam). According to them, knowing the Puruşa is
the path to overcome death, and there is no other way to go.

Two generic classes of philosophical systems could be thought about; Vedic schools of
philosophy (which has six schools of thought as we will see shortly), and Non-vedic schools
(Jaina philosophy, Buddhist philosophy, and the Cārvāka philosophy).

The ultimate goal of the human life is clearly spelt out and the path for attaining the same is
also articulated in all the darśanas. However, the darśanas have divergent opinions on the
specifics of these.

Since darśana is all about knowledge, the term knowledge (Jñāna) and other related
terminologies are well defined. Furthermore, all the Indian schools of philosophy also employ
epistemological tools (Pramāņa) for the establishment of valid knowledge. However, each
school differs from the other in the set of epistemological tools considered for analysis.

One of the Vedic schools, Nyāya provided a de facto framework for all other schools to
engage in such intellectual debates. In fact, the ontologies of Samkhya and Vaiśeşika schools
have been adopted by most other schools with little modifications to suit their theories.

There are historical accounts of several such debates that took place throughout the country
for several centuries, which continue even today. Thus, several schools of philosophy have
flourished in India, interacted extensively with each other, and have organically co-existed
for millennia. Figure provides a schematic of the classification of the Indian philosophical
systems into Vedic and non-Vedic systems.

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VEDIC SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

All the vedicschools of philosophy have a common goal, i.e. to answer questions such as,
"Who am I?" and "What is the process for final liberation? To know oneself and escape from
the cycle of birth-death and get liberated, correct knowledge needs to be obtained. The
schools differ in presenting how to obtain the right knowledge and use it as the means for the
ultimate liberation of the 'self'. The context for the philosophical discussion is the three inter-
related concepts of God - Universe - Individual". All schools have employed several
constructs involving these three entities in discussing the path for self-evolution and
liberation. The six schools differ in the approachtaken to reach the goal. In the case of
Samkhya and Yoga systems, there is the centrality of the role of the 'matter' in this journey. A
good understanding of the evolution of nature leading to the context paves the way for
liberation. On the other hand, Nyāya and Vaiśeşika systems have prominently focused on the
importance of obtaining the 'right knowledge' in the journey of liberation. Therefore, these
systems elaborately focused on getting the right knowledge of oneself and the other entities.
On the other hand, Mīmāmsā and Vedānta proposed that the Vedic repository provides
guidance for an individual in his journey of liberation. While Mīmāmsā stressed on the
importance of the ritualistic part of the Vediccorpus (Karma-kānda), Vedānta emphasised on
the knowledge leading to self-experience (Jñāna-kānda).

The Six Vedic Schools Some Salient Aspects

SAMKHYA AND YOGA SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

The Sämkhya-Yoga philosophical system begins with the basic premise that Prakrti, the
source of the physical Universe and the 'self' are sub-ordinate to a larger force called Puruşa
and liberation of the 'self' involves getting to know the right knowledge of the Puruşa and
Prakrti and their relative role.

Samkhya school does not acknowledge the existence of an ultimate God (Iśvara).

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On the other hand, Yoga acknowledges the existence of a supreme being. Yoga has an
emphasis on a more structured, practical methodology for cessation of all activities of the
mind. To facilitate this process, the Yogasystem of philosophy provides a practical step-by-
step approach for this journey. On the other hand, Samkhya school emphasises more of
contemplation and analysis leading to experiential knowledge.

Samkhya-darśana
Although sage Kapila is supposed to be the author of the Samkhya system, there is no
available evidence or material to substantiate this. The earliest authoritative material available
on Samkhya is the Sāmkhya-kārikā by Īśvarakışņa. This is a work in seventy verses and has a
lucid exposition of the Sämkhya system. Sāmkhya argues that the root cause of all pains and
sufferings is the lack of the correct knowledge (Samkhyā). By a proper understanding of the
ontology of Samkhya-darśana, the causes of pain and the way to end it can be explained.

Puruşa and Prakrti

According to the Sämkhya system, two basic elements constitute everything in this world,
matter (Prakrti) and spirit (Puruşa). Puruşa is the pure consciousness, sentient, changeless,
eternal, and passive. Prakrti on the other hand is the root cause of all activities including the
entire creation. When the Prakrti comes in association with the Puruşa it assumes diverse
shapes and forms, gross and subtle, and manifests as body, senses, and the mind. Prakrti is
made of the three basic constituents namely sattva, rajas, and tamas. These are also called
gunas and are known only through inference. Sattva is the faculty that is light and causes
knowledge and pleasure. Rajas is the one that causes movement and is the cause of pain.
Tamas is heavy, causes ignorance, and causes indifference. Before the manifestation of the
Prakrti its constituents, sattva, rajas, and tamas are in equilibrium.

The evolution of the Prakrti results in creating the following elements:

• 'Mahat', which is also called 'Buddhi'

• Ego or Self-consciousness (Ahankara), which introduces the sense of 'I' and 'mine'
• Mind (Manas), the master of the organs and the conduit between the internal and
external instruments
• Five sense organs (Jñānendriyas): ears, skin, eyes, tongue, and nose
• Five organs of action (Karmendriyas): the mouth (speech), hands, feet, sex organs,
and anus
• Five generic classes attributable to objects perceived through sense organs
(Tanmātras):
sound, touch, form or colour, taste, and smell
• Five gross elements (Bhūtas): ether, air, fire, water, and earth.

Figureillustrates the evolution of Prakṛti described above. When the Puruşa is conditioned by
the twenty-three elements, it perpetuates this process wherein Puruşa goes from one body to
another. This is the cause of all mundane existence, and this continues so long as it does not

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discriminate the difference between Puruşa and Prakṛti². Once the conscious self comes out
of this ignorance, through the actual knowledge, he realises that he is separate from the
Prakṛti and its manifestations, he does notfeel pleasure, etc. anymore. This is called liberation
(kaivalya, i.e. moksa) in the Samkhya doctrine.

FIGURE Prakṛti and its Evolution into Matter

Yoga-darśana
Yoga as a school of philosophy is said to have been founded by Patañjali through his yoga-
sūtras. Some Indologists assign a date of 5th century CE for this work, while many others
associate this work with Patañjali, who wrote the Mahābhāşya for Panini's grammar. In that
case, it will be dated to the 2nd century BCE. Yoga serves as a methodology to the realisation
of the difference of Prakrti and Puruşa.

The Yoga philosophy rests on the basic premise that if a person wants to understand his true
nature, and experience bliss eventually, he must focus on the physical, psychological, and
moral states of his being and make simultaneous progress on all thethree. To achieve this, the
basic prescription is to develop the capacity for single-pointed concentration of the mind.
Therefore, Yoga-sūtras begin with the definition that 'Yoga is the cessation of mental
modifications'. Unless a person arrives at this stage, it will not be possible for him to
understand the notion of 'existence' and the secrets of nature may not get revealed. While
Samkhya prescribes a method of analysis and contemplation, yoga argues for mind control
through sustained practices as prescribed. Yoga system provides an eight-step process to
gradually attain complete cessation of the activities of mind.

The details of the eight steps follows:

Yama: The ultimate journey to complete cessation of the activities of the mind starts with the
first step which is forbearance or control over mind, body, and speech. Five activities are
prescribed for practice in this stage; abstaining from harming (Ahimsā),speaking the truth
(Satya), not stealing others' belongings (Asteya), keeping away from lust (Brahmacarya), and
resisting from accumulating wealth (Aparigraha). According to Patañjali these are to be
followed irrespective of time, place, and status by a sādhaka and this is called mahāvrata
(greatest of all austerities).

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Niyama:The five kinds of forbearances, specified in the previous step relate to abstaining
from negative injunctions. On the other hand, in the second stage, five kinds of observances,
which are positive commands are prescribed. The five niyamas include cleanliness of body
and mind (Śauca), being happy with what one possesses (Santoșa), tolerating heat, cold and
other physical difficulties and purifying the senses and the body (Tapas), the study of Vedas
and other scriptures (Svādhyāya) and the meditation of Īśvara (Īśvara-pranidhāna). These two
stages are to be practiced by an individual (sādhaka) at all times.

FIGURE Astanga-yoga - Eight Step Process

Āsana: A meditative posture where one can sit comfortably for a long time. Various modesof
keeping the body in position at the time of performing Yoga are prescribed in this stage. As
per Yoga-sūtra, the sitting posture must be firm and comfortable for the sādhaka. Henceforth,
all the aspects are of the meditation process.

Prāṇāyāma: This stage focuses on controlling the breath. Breath is directly connected to the
mind, hence having it in control is the key to controlling the activities of the mind. Patañjali
prescribes four types of prāṇāyāma practices meant for controlling the mind.

Pratyāhāra: The next stage of practice iswithdrawing the cognitive senses from their
objects, bringing them to a state as if they were not in contact with their [Link] first five
stages are external in terms of effort (bahiranga-prayoga) and help the practitioner purify the
thoughts and regulate or moderate the inner self by avoiding various distractions. Once this
stage is reached, it will be possible to focus on internal efforts (antaranga-prayoga). The last
three stages of the 8-step process provide details on this.

Dhāraņā: Focusing the mind on an object, not letting it perceive other objects by constant
practice is the next stage of this process.

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Dhyāna: Meditating continuously on an object without break is called dhyāna. It is achieved

by fixing the mind on something, external (such as a picture, OM sign, a deity) or internal
(using the tip of the nose, and the space between the two eyebrows as a reference to focus
inside or visualising OM in the mind).

Samadhi: The final step in this process is being completely absorbed into the object of
meditation, known as samādhi. Once a person reaches here the activities of his mind
completely cease, leading to the realisation that he, the conscious 'self' is separate fromPrakrti
and thus becomes liberated, free from all pains.

Cessation of all mental activities of the mind, the final goal of Yoga has a very useful bye
product. On account of the journey in the path of mind control, Yoga can help an individual
address the vexing problem of stress-induced lifestyle leading to health and wellness
challenges that modern society is facing. We have briefly touched upon this aspect in the
chapter on health, wellness, and psychology. The current popularity of Yoga globally stems
from this aspect of Yoga practices. However, it must be understood that Yoga is a way of life,
with a grand purpose of realising the true nature of oneself and liberate one from the
limitations of the mundane world arising out of the duality of pain and pleasure. We should
never lose sight of this ultimate objective of Yoga as a darśana.

NYĀYA AND VAIŚEŞIKA SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

The Nyaya-Vaiśeşika school begins the analysis with the world that an individual
experiences. By experience, it means all varieties of valid knowledge, whether perceptual or
non-perceptual. Therefore, it starts with the assumption that whatever is obtained by
uncontradicted experience must necessarily be real. The first is about the 'ways of knowing
the reality' and the second is about the 'objects in the reality that is knowable'.

Nyaya-darśana
The original theory of Nyaya school is found in the Nyaya-sūtra, a set of aphorisms
developed by Gautama.

The Nyaya philosophy starts with the proposition that one attains liberation only when he
acquires the knowledge of the truth. The knowledge of the truth drives away miseries and an
individual escapes the cycle of birth-death leading to final liberation. The Nyāya system,
therefore, placed enormous emphasis on the means of obtaining 'right knowledge'. Therefore,
the unique contribution of Nyaya school is its detailed inquiry of knowledge (Pramā) and
valid cognition and its means (Pramāņa). The elucidation of the correct way of thinking and
arriving at the right conclusions, the art of debating, well laid out rules for a debate to arrive
at the most reasonable conclusion are the main contributions of the Nyaya school. On account
of this, Nyāya is commonly understood as 'argumentation'. Nyāya concepts and the art of
debating to establish true knowledge became a useful tool for all philosophical systems. Ithas
over time assumed the de facto methodology to establish valid knowledge. The goal of a self
is not to gain pleasure but to be liberated from all kinds of pains once for all. This is
liberation according to the Nyāya school. Īśvara or the God is the creator of this universe. An

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individual self must try to gain the correct knowledge of the self, i.e., he is not the body, or
the mind or the senses, which often people mistake 'the self' out of delusion. Then he ceases
to have attachment for the fruits of his actions, as all actions an individual does are aimed at
gaining worldly pleasure. When he gives up the desire for the results of his actions, he no
more accumulates the effects of his actions, good or bad, which are the cause of the birth and
death cycle. When an individual has finished experiencing the effects of his past actions there
is no reason for his birth and he will be free from the birth-death cycle. Ultimately, he will be
free from pain.

Vaiśeşika-darśana
Vaiśeşika was propounded byKaņāda and his work was organised into aphorisms in ten
chapters, each consisting of two sections. A lucid exposition of the Vaiśeşika-sütras is
available in the commentaries Kiraņāvalī (Udayana, 984 CE), Kandali (Śridhara) and
Upaskāra (Šamkara Miśra, 1650 CE).

The word Vaiśeşika is derived from the word 'Viśeṣa', meaning difference or unique
attributes in a thing. According to this school, diversity, not unity is fundamental to the
Universe. Although the multitude of forms and shapes exist they can be reduced to certain
types. It is by virtue of this that 'knowables' are divisible into three classes of dravya, guņa,
and karma, but also into sub-classes such as cows, redness, or moving. While there is some
sense of 'alikeness' in the manner described above, it must be remembered that if there are
two things that resemble each other in every aspect, there must be something distinctive since
there are 'two' of them. This is the basic concept of Visesa. The Vaiśeşika school proceeds
along this line to systematically present the 'knowables' that form all the 'real' entities in the
universe using certain categories.

Sāmānya is a very important aspect in the scheme of classification. When we classify many
things into one category, consider the similarities. For example, we designate a particular set
of animals 'cow' because they bear some common features in them. Thatcommon quality,
which we shall say 'cowness', is the reason for all such animals being referred to as a cow. It
is an inherent property that all these animals carry by their nature. This is called sāmānya or
jāti. Because of this sāmānya, we can group, categorise or generalise [Link] to
Kaņāda, six sub-categories constitute existence, and knowledge of them is considered the
essence of the supreme goods. The final liberation or salvation comes as a result of real
knowledge produced by proper understanding of the six categories listed out in the sūtra. The
desire to end the misery of the birth-death cycle leads one to acquire the knowledge of the
categories from a master. This knowledge removes ignorance once and for all and the
individual is free from love, hate, etc.

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PŪRVA-MĪMĀMSĀ AND VEDĀNTA SCHOOLS OF PHILOSOPHY

The Pūrva-mīmāmsā school has established its tenets based on the karma-kāņda and the
Vedanta school has established its tenets based on the Jñāna-kānda. The Vedanta school is
also known as Uttara-mīmāmsā on account of its reliance on the latter portion of the Vedic
corpus.

Both the schools share common beliefs in several of the philosophical principles. This
includes the notion of ātman, the existence of karma, rebirth, and long and seemingly endless
cycles of birth-death. Therefore, the common goal of these two systems is to liberate the
atman from the clutches of birth-death. However, the major difference lies in the pathto
liberation. In the case of the Purva-mīmāmsa school, it is believed that ultimate liberation is
obtained only by engaging in various rituals that purify the karma and extinguishing them
eventually. In the case of the Vedanta school, it is argued that total detachment from worldly
activities is the only way to exhaust all the karma. With a purified mind one will then
experience the ultimate knowledge 'within' to liberate.

Pūrva-mīmāmsā-darśana
The word 'Mīmāmsā' conveys different meanings: reflection, consideration, profound
thought, investigation, examination, and discussion. In the context of the Pūrva-mīmāmsā
school of philosophy, Mīmāmsā means 'reflection' or 'critical investigation' and is primarily
based on a tradition of deep contemplation on the meanings of Vedic texts which it relies on
as the authority for its principles.

The Pürva-mimämsä school was established by Jaimini, who is said to be the student of Veda
Vyāsa. Jaimini presented his aphorisms numbering over 2500 in twelve chapters, which are
further divided into sixty sections. The text provides rules for the interpretation of the Vedas
and also provides philosophical justifications for the observance of Vedic rituals, by offering
meaning and significance of Vedic rituals. to attain Moksa

The main aim of the school is to ascertain the meanings of the Samhita and Brāhmaņa
portions of Veda which lay importance on the karma, performing rituals, and thereby
attaining dharma, a quality that is acquired by an atman which prompts him to the respective
results such as svarga (heaven). Eventually, with purified actions, such a person attains
liberation (moksa). If one does not resort to dharmic actions, then he is likely to continue in
the cycle of birth and death). Hence it is also called 'dharma-mīmāmsā. Along with
ascertaining the intended meaning of the Vedic texts in this context, the school provides a
philosophical explanation as to how a ritual performed results in the desired outcome. Thus, it
holds the status of a darśana or school of philosophy.

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FIGURE Pūrva-Mīmāmsā – The Path to Liberation

The ultimate goal of human beings is to seek joy and happiness in this life and the next. The
Purva-mīmāmsā school of philosophy argued that this is possible only when one engages in
actions that are considered as dharmic. Such actions are prescribed by the Vedic texts, and it
is important to properlyinterpret and understand the Vedic sentences, words, and meaning.
Therefore, it is not surprising that the Pūrva-mīmāmsā school was centrally concerned with
the philosophy of language and correct interpretation. The laws of interpretation formulated
by Jaimini and his successors are quite general and applicable to literary works outside the
Vedas too. Pūrva-mīmāmsā principles are widely utilised for arriving at a right interpretation
of all old texts, particularly legal treatises, and the legal fraternitycould greatly benefit from
the knowledge of Purva-mīmāmsā.

Vedānta (Uttara-mīmāmsā-darśana)
All Vedanta schools of philosophy derive a considerable part of their material from the
Upaniṣads. In general, the Vedanta schools look upon Brahman as the absolute and are
predominantly philosophical in their approach. In this section, we shall briefly see the salient
aspects of Advaita, Viśişțädvaita, and Dvaita schools of Vedanta.

Advaita-vedānta

Śankara (688-720 CE) propounded a monistic philosophy, known as Advaita, with the
conception of the attribute-less God (Nirguna-brahman) as the ultimate reality. The
Upaniṣads describe Brahman as one without form, name, and attributes, known as Nirguņa-
brahman.

Advaita-vedānta postulates oneness of Jīva and Īśvara and in its scheme of things, the Iśvara
and the Jīva deploy similar mechanisms to create the world. Īśvara represents the macrocosm
with Māyā as the mechanism to create the physical universe. In the same manner, the Jīva
uses avidyā (ignorance) as the mechanism to create its own world constituting a parallel
microcosm. Viewed in this manner, the Māyā is the cosmic illusion for the Iśvara to create
the world out of himself and avidya the source of illusion for the Jiva.

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Śaņkara proposed a two-stage approach to realise 'true' knowledge. By merely engaging in

the world of activities, one does not obtain the 'true' knowledge. In the first stage, we need to
engage with the world and perform the required activities to purify the mind. This is the
karma yoga that Bhagavadgīta advocates. Once the mind is purified, the second stage is to
engage in deep contemplation and self-reflection on one's real nature which will reveal the
'true' knowledge7. Liberation in Advaita-vedānta is not reaching something new but
recognising what isone's inherent nature. The two-stage approach indeed leads an individual
towards this goal.

Viśiştādvaita-vedānta

Rāmānuja (1017-1137 CE) proposed the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita. Viśiṣṭādvaita combines

the bhakti (devotion) to a personal God, who has name, form, and shape and who saves his
devotees from all miseries of the world and the impersonal God as espoused in the Upaniṣads
into a single school of thought. Brahman or the ultimate reality is also referred to as Vişnu,
etymologically meaning that which pervades everything. The attribute-less Brahman held by
the Advaita school is rejected as metaphysical abstraction and Brahman is conceived by
Viśiṣṭādvaitin as God with attributes like possessing a bodily form, with infinite good
qualities and glories.

According to Viśişțădvaita school, the cycle of birth and death and the associated sorrows are
due to the forgetfulness of an individual of the relation between them and Narayana. One
attains freedom by gaining knowledge of the nature of self and attaining the feet of the Lord
in his abode, Vaikuntha. However, in order to gain this knowledge, each Jīva has to put forth
the effort to attain liberation. The nature of the effort to be invested requires a continuous and
unwavering meditation with love on the Supreme Being. This is referred to as Bhakti in the
Viśişțădvaita school. Bhakti is generated with total observance of religious duties as
prescribed in the scriptures. The concept of total surrender to the Lord (Prapatti) is also
considered as the direct means to liberation. In fact, according to Viśiştādvaita, both bhakti
and prapatti are two sides of the same coin and hence they function as the direct means to
attain the feet of the Lord.

Dvaita-vedānta

Madhvācārya (1238-1317 CE) is the founder of the Dvaita-vedānta school. Madhvācārya

established Udupi as the center of the Dvaita-vedanta. Like the other schools of Vedānta,
Madhva derives his philosophical tenets from prasthānatraya, the purāņas and Mahābhārata.
The quintessential aspects of Dvaita-vedānta are that Vişnu (Hari) is the supreme God, the
world is real and there is a difference between God and the jīvas. All jīvas are dependent
upon Vişņu, and liberation consists in the enjoyment of bliss that is inherent in oneself.
Finally, pure devotion is the means of attaining it.

The Dvaita school clearly admits two independentand mutually irreducible substances that
make up the Universe: the Jīva and the Iśvara. However, of the two, Iśvara is independent
whereas the jīvas are dependent on Iśvara. The matter making up the physical universe was
considered real, unlike illusory as in the case of Advaita. The Dvaita school also refuted the

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idea of Viśiṣṭādvaita that the matter and the jīvas are different yet form a part of Īśvara. For
Dvaita, there are clear differences among them, despite being dependent on Iśvara.
Difference (Bheda) is the very essence of Dvaita philosophy. Madhva advocated five-fold
differences: between Jīva and Īśvara, among jīvas, Jīva and matter, Iśvara and matter and one
material thing and another.

TABLE -A Comparison of the Salient Features of the Three Schools of Vedanta.

No. Criterion Αάναιτα Visistadvaita Dyaita

1 Basic reference for Upanisads, Upanisads, Upanisads,

establishing the Bhagavadgitä, Bhagavadgitä, Bhagavadgitä,
tenets Brahmasūtra Brahmasūtra Brahmasūtra

2 Concept of Iśvara One,attribute-less One, personal One, personal

(Nirguna-brahman) God (Saguna God (Saguna
brahman)-Visnu brahman)-Visnu
or Näräyana, or Hari,
Independent. Independent,
Ultimate Ultimate

3 Concept of Universe Not real, mere illusory Real, made of Real, made of
(Jagat) experience,made of Prakrti and Prakrti end
Prakiti and Gunas Gunas Gunas

4 Jiva-jagat-livara All are one and the same All are part and All are uniquely
relation Brahman parcel of Isvara, different, Jiva
Jiya and Jagat and Jagat
depend on depend on
Iśvara Isvara

5 Valid means of Perception, inference, Perception, Perception,

knowledge comparison, verbal inference, verhal inference, verhal
(Pramanas) testimony, presumption, testimony testimony
non-apprehension

6 Liberation Experience oneness Attaining the knowledge of

with Brahman feet of the Lord the greatness of
livara

7 Path to liberation Jňana-yoga,Karma-yoga Bhakti and Bhakti-yoga,

as a pre-requisite Prapatti, Bhakti Grace of Iśvara
yoga, Karma-
yoga and Jääna-
yoga as pre-
requisites

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NON-VEDIC PHILOSOPHICAL SYSTEMS

There are other philosophical systems that lie outside of the realm of the Vedic corpus. These
philosophical systems did not consider the Vedas as an authoritative text and are called Non-
Vedicphilosophical systems. These schools do not also accept the entity Īśvara. Jaina,
Bauddha, and Cārvāka schools are prominent among them.

JAINA SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY

The word 'Jaina' is derived from the Sanskrit root 'ji', to conquer, essentially indicating
someone who has successfully subdued his passions and obtained mastery. Though it is
widely believed that Vardhamana Mahavira (599 B.C.527 B.C.) founded Jainism, the Jain
tradition maintains that he was the 24th Tirthankara of Jainism, "Rishabhadeva" was the first
Tirthankara, "Parshvanatha" was the 23 Tirthankara.
The two main sects of Jainism are:
1) Digambara
2) Shwetambara.
The Digambaras believe that a monk must give up all property including clothes and then
only they get moksha. They also deny the right of women to moksha.
Jainism is both a philosophy and a religion. It is a heterodox philosophy in the sense that it
does not uphold the authority of the Vedas. It is atheist and does not accept the existence of
God. Jainism rejects the concept of a Supreme Being or the Brahman as the creator of the
world. The Tirthankaras are the liberated souls. The followers offer prayers to the
Tirthankaras.
Jainism believes that the universe is eternal and boundless (infinite). The Jains classify all the
things into two groups: 'jiva' and 'ajiva'. Jiva is what is known as the soul or the 'atman' or the
purusha' in other systems. Jiva can be considered as 'the composite unit of body and soul.'
The soul manifests itself in a material body. Its essential character is consciousness. The jivas
or the souls are innumerable and are divided into many grades or categories depending on the
sense-organs they possess. The jiva is not permanent. Its magnitude keeps on changing from
body to body. The soul of an elephant is bigger than that of an insect.

Bauddha School of Philosophy

The Bauddha (or Buddhist) school of philosophy is largely based on the teachings of
Gautama Buddha. Buddha was born as Siddhārtha during the 4th-5th Century BCE. Although
Buddhism originated in ancient India, it later spread to several parts of Asia. There are two
forms of Buddhism: the northern form and the southern form. The form of Buddhism
prevailing in Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, Vietnam, Taiwan, Singapore, and Japan is called
northern Buddhism (also synonymous with Mahāyāna) while the form prevailing in Sri
Lanka and other parts of Southeast Asia including Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Thailand
is called Southern Buddhism (also known as Theravāda).

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Buddha's philosophy focuses on the means of ending the suffering of the individuals. It is
based on four noble truths (catvāri-ārya-satyāni). Figure graphically illustrates this. These are
elaborated as follows:

1. There is suffering: According to Gautama, "Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, illness is

suffering, death is suffering. The presence of objects we hate is suffering, not able to obtain
what we desire is suffering." The Buddhist philosophy argues that the human being is a
compound of five aggregates and clinging to them leads to suffering. The five aggregates
include the following:

a. The form made of four elements (earth, water, fire, and air), five sense organs, five
attributes of matter (smell, form, sound, taste, and touch), two distinctions of sex (male,
female), three essential conditions (thought, vitality, and space) and two means of
communication (gesture and speech)

b. Consciousness

c. Feeling: Sensations of pleasure and pain

d. Formation

e. Perception and Potentialities which lead to good or bad results. These five aggregates
include all physical and mental elements and powers of man and are impermanent in nature.
Consciousness arises from other aggregates and mental factors from the contact of
consciousness and other aggregates.

FIGURE The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism

2. There is the cause of suffering: In Gautama's words, "Thirst leads to rebirth accompanied
by pleasure and lust, thirst for pleasure, thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity".

3. The cessation of suffering: The cessation of suffering will be possible with the complete
cessation of thirst, which amounts to the absence of passion and complete destruction of
desire.

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4. There is a path to end the suffering: Buddhist philosophy prescribes a holy eight-fold
path that enables one to lead a holy moral life and that will lead one to the final goal of
liberation. The eightfold path includes right views, right resolve, right speech, right conduct,
right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.

The ultimate goal in Buddhist philosophy is to reach Nirvāņa. Nirvāņa is not a state reached
after death, but something that is attainable in this very life. It is the sinless calm state of
mind attained due to freedom from desires and passions, a state of perfect peace, goodness,
and wisdom. Once a person reaches Nirvana, the cycle of birth and death ends, which is the
final goal leading to liberation.

The root cause of the suffering is ignorance. Due to ignorance, the impressions of the
previous birth lead to initial consciousness. The body and the mind and the sense organs
evolve out of this consciousness. Once the sense organs are in contact with the senses and
gather the experiences of life, the thirst for enjoyment drives the process leading to rebirth
and suffering. Therefore, the only way to break this cycle of suffering is to remove ignorance
by acquiring the right knowledge. The fourth noble truth provides the path for removing
ignorance.

FIGURE The Cycle of Suffering

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Cārvāka School of Philosophy

Cārvāka school of thought closely maps to the trait of materialism, which emphasises alife of
enjoyment based on certain principles and assumptions about life. The word Cārvāka literally
means 'sweet-tongued' (cāru-vāka), in a way signifying that the ideas appear attractive at the
outset. This is because the system only advocates two of the four puruṣārthas, pleasure and
wealth as objectives of living. This school is also called Lokayata. The Cārvāka school
considers matter as the ultimate reality and rejects the idea that there is a divine or a
transcendental power behind the matter, called Prakṛti conceptualised by the Samkhya-Yoga
school.

No text of the Carvāka school is available to us today which discusses its tenets in totality.
The absence of canonical texts and a lineage of followers who were able to establish the
tenets of the system by constantly engaging in intellectual debates to establish their tenets
were perhaps responsible for its decay. Current discussions on this school of thought are
based on the scanty fragments available for some analysis. The available material is from
texts such as Sarva-darśana-sangraha where, during the discussion of these schools, some
verses are quoted. Mostly we get to know about this system through refutations from its
opponents.

One of the major differences of the Carvāka school with that of the Vedic schools of
philosophy pertains to what is the accepted means of valid knowledge. Unlike all other
schools, Cārvāka school considers only direct perception through senses as pramāņa.
Essentially this implies that whatever is directlyperceivable can only be accepted as valid
means of knowledge. This has significant implications for metaphysics. On account of this,
Cārvāka school considers matter as the only reality using which the world is made of.
Furthermore, the world is constituted of only four basic categories, namely, earth, water, fire,
and air, which are all physical and directly perceivable. Ether or space is not accepted as the
fifth element because it is not perceivable. Other entities such as the sky, atman, mind, īśvara,
dharma, reincarnation, svarga, and moksa that the other schools have accepted are rejected in
the Cārvāka system. In essence, all transcendental entities are dismissed using the argument
that only direct perception provides valid knowledge.

There is nothing called ātman other than the body. Cārvāka considers the four basic elements
of the world as the basic constituents of the body too. When the individual constituents exist
in a disjointed state, they are bereft of life and consciousness. However, when these come
together the body is formed, and by a peculiar combination of these constituents, the life-
breath and consciousness appear in the body. The concept of rebirth and other world is
completely dismissed in this system. The arguments primarily stem from the limitation of
using only direct perception asthe means of valid knowledge.

There are no means available for determining the existence of the 'other world'. Moreover,
there is no 'other world' because of the absence of any 'otherworldly' being. Since the
existence of consciousness in the other world cannot be substantially established through

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direct perception, which is the only means available for valid knowledge, these ideas are
dismissed.

Once a person dies, there is no afterlife. Pleasure and pain are felt in no other place than the
body, hence there is no need to accept something called the atman which is not confirmed by
the pramāņa. Since there is no ātman and there is no rebirth the highest goal of human life is
to have pleasure in one's lifetime. Once the body is confined to the flames and burnt to ashes,
how can it ever return, therefore enjoyment 'here and now' is the goal of living in this school
of thought.

FIGURE- Salient Features of the Cārvāka School

PURĀŅAS – AN ENCYCLOPAEDIC WORK

In the history of Indian literature, Purāņas occupy a unique position. Purāņas are literary
sources of ancient and medieval Indian history and culture. The larger purāņic repository
provides valuable insights into the history of philosophy and religion and is a storehouse that
provides deep insights into all aspects and phases of the society, culture during the ancient
and medieval times in India. Purāņas may be described as a popular encyclopaedia of ancient
and medieval religious, philosophical, historical, personal, social, and political aspects of the
society.

On account of the diversity of people and issues discussed in the puranic repository, purāņas
have significantly contributed to maintaining cultural pluralism in India. They played a role

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in influencing classical art forms such as dance and music and promoted social practices such
as the celebration of various festivals. The spread of the cultural heritage among the masses
has to a large extent possible only because of the puraņas. Moreover, they have played a
pioneering role in motivating and practice of ethical and moral values in the life of the people
of Indian society using stories as a powerful medium to communicate the ideals. In
[Link], Puranas have provided means by which socio-cultural values can blend with
religious values and dharmic living.

The literary beauty and story-based narration of ideas through a living tradition called 'Hari
Katha'have perennially attracted the masses towards the purāņas. On account of this, purāņas
enjoy a unique position in the sacred literature of ancient India. They closely align with the
epics in form and substance. Purāņas enable us to know the true import of the ethos,
philosophy, and religion of the Vedas and are companion texts to help understand and
interpret the Vedas. Therefore, knowledge of purāņas is considered very important as evident
from the following observations in some of the purāņas¹:

Skanda-purāņa - Śruti (Vedas), Śmṛti (Rāmāyaņa, Mahābhārata, Manu-smrti, etc.) and

Purāņas are the three eyes of a scholar. One who sees the world with his three eyes is indeed
a part of the supreme God.

Vişnu-purāņa - One who is a scholar of all the four Vedas, with its limbs and Upaniṣads in it
and has no knowledge of purāņas cannot be ever considered as a complete scholar.

As in the case of the knowledge repository in ancient India, purāņas have been handed down
the ages through oral transmission. Therefore, it is difficult to establish the period to the
authorship of the purāņas as there is no explicit mention. The current version available to us
may be the work of several authors over the centuries.

Mahā-purāņas, Upa-purāņas and Sthala-purāņas

The purāņic repository can be broadly divided into three: Mahāpurāņas (Major Purāņas),
Upa-purāņas (Minor Purāņas), and Sthala-purāņas (Regional Purāņas).

Mahā-purāņas, the largest ever composed literature in the history of mankind is very
extensive. There are 18 mahā-purāņas and they are estimated to contain among them about
400,000 verses. The text in the purāņas is in the form of several stories, anecdotes,
clarificatory concepts, and rules and observances in a narrative style, often in the form of a
reply to some issues raised during a dialogue between the narrator (usually a sage) and the
audience (usually a group of sages, king, etc.). It enumerates stories of different forms of
God, various kings, rsis, etc. Usually, each purāņa focuses on one form of the trinity
(Brahma, Visņu, Śiva) and celebrates the chosen trinity by narrating events centred around
the trinity. For instance, Bhagavata-purāņa and Vişnu-purāņa hold Vişnu as a supreme being,
and Linga-purāņa holds Śiva, etc. Some major purāņas have discussed indetail a focused
theme. For example, the Skanda, Padma and Bhavisya purāņas deal mainly with pilgrimage
to holy places (Tirta-māhātmyas). The purāņas cover a wide range of issues including the

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

creation process and the geographical details, various rituals and their importance, certain
scientific aspects, etc.

Upa-purāņas are similar to the mahā-purāņas but are smaller in size. The number of Upa-
purāņas cannot be established with certainty, though about 100 of them can be enumerated
from different sources. However, it is generally believed that there are eighteen of them
which are prominent. The list of upa-purāņas differ in the verses found in various purāņas.
So, it is difficult to list the names of eighteen upa-purāņas exactly.

Sthala-purāņas are a class of sacred works which provide a connection between the land and
the Divine in many forms. Each sthala-purāņa is focused on a specific geographical place
(usually a famous temple in a city) and weaves information centred around the presiding
deity. Various local cultural practices, customs, festivals, and other social practices form part
of the narration. There are many Sthala-purāņas, in different languages of India, most of them
in Sanskrit.

FIGURE The Puranic Repository

Contents of the Purāņas

There are five key characteristics of purāņas, known as pañca-lakşaņas.

Sarga (Creation of the Universe). Bhāgavata describes the process as, "from the agitation of
the original modes within the unmanifest material nature, the mahat-tattva arises. From the
mahat-tattva comes the element false ego, which divides itself into three aspects. This
threefold false ego further manifests as the subtle forms of perception, the senses, and the
gross sense objects. The generation of all these is called creation"2.

Prati-sarga (Destruction and re-creation). It means the creation after creation, i.e., the
continued creation of primitive matter. Just as a seed produces additional seeds, activities that
promote material desires in the performer produce moving and non-moving life forms.

Vaṁśa (Dynasties of kings). Bhāgavata-purāņa defines Vamsa as the present, past and future
lineage of kings created by theBrahman11.

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Manvantara (Times of different Manus). It is a time span that plays an important role in the
understanding of human history. Purāņas give the detailed explanation of the various
activities that happened and different people (king, rsis) that existed during the time of each
Manu12.

Vamśānucarita (Stories of the dynasties). It also includes the stories of the rșis and kings
born in those dynasties.

FIGURE Five Key Characteristics of a Purāņa

Table provides a compact summary of the issues discussed in the 18 mahā-purāņas

other than those covered under the purāņa-lakşaņas described above.

Sl. No. Purāņa No. of Topics Discussed

(Alphabetical) Verses

1 Agni 16,000 Rules for worship of various deities, installations

of images in temples, astrology, Bhagavata
Bhavişya
architecture, sculptures, medicine, toxicology,
principles of dramaturgy, human physiology,
figures of speech

2 Bhāgavata 18,000 Most authoritative text dealing with Śrī Kṛṣṇa's

life, cosmic form of God, Creation of the world,
Uddhava-gītā, list of kings who ruled after Krşņa,
a graphic description of Kaliyuga
3 Bhaviṣya 14,500 Sixteen Samskāras, Rules concerning the studies
of Vedas, Varņāśrama Dharma, Vratas, Types of
Dana, Genealogy of the king who will come in
future and the way they will rule the country.
4 Brahma 10,000 What is available seems to be more a compilation
of chapters from Mahābhārata, Vişnu,
Mārkandeya and Vayu purāņas
5 Brahmāņda 12,000 The subjects of creation, Geography of earth and

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Bhāratavarşa, 14 worlds, types of hells, Balineese

translation of this purana has been found in the
Bali island.
6 Brahmavaivarta 18,000 Ayurveda, Sandhyā ritual, Śāligrāma worship,
Kaliyuga, Greatness of Tulasi leaves, Code of
conduct for married women and widows,
Greatness of Bhārata-deśa, building construction.
7 Garuda 18,000 Cosmography, astronomy, astrology, omens,
portents, medicine and knowledge of precious
stones, journey of Jiva after death, rites to be
performed during and after death, Torments of
hell, encounter with pretas, Yamaloka.
8 Kürma 18,000 Duties of four Varņas and Āśramas, evolution of
Prakṛti, Description of physical features of the
world and of Jambūdvīpa, Division of Vedas,
after death rites, Prāyaścittas, Pralaya.
9 Linga 11,000 Music and its propagation, Danas and their fruits.

10 Mārkandeya 9,000 Descriptions of hell, karma and its fructification,

Some aspects of Yoga, Geographical description
of Bhārata and Śrāddhas.
11 Matsya 14,000 Vratas, Dānas and their fruits, Greatness of holy
places like Prayāga, Vārāņasī and river Narmadā,
Duties of Kings, Omens, iconography, building
construction.

12 Nāradīya 25,000 Vratas, Duties of the people of various Varņas

and Āśramas, Six Vedāngas, Ritualistic
workshop, Fasting on Ekādaśī days.
13 Padma 55,000 Description of the various worlds of goblins,
gandharvas, heaven and so on, Varņāśrama
dharmas, Vratas and religious vows, various types
of Śrāddhas.

14 Skanda 81,000 Detail descriptions of several places of pilgrimage

such as Kāśī, Puri and Ujjaini, Advaita-vedānta,
Various aspects of Lord Śiva, and methods of
meditations, Satyanārāyaņa-vrata
15 Vämana 10,000 Certain vratas, doctrine of karma.

16 Varāha 24,000 Dharma śāstra, pilgrimage, Dāna, images of

deities and their worship, Aśouca, Śräddha, theory
of karma, hells, cosmology, sins
17 Vāyu 24,000 Geographical descriptions of places, importance
and greatness of Gaya, famous places of
pilgrimage, details of Śrāddha ceremony, Science
of music.
18 Vişnu 23,000 Four Varnas and Aśramas, the impact of Kali,
philosophical ideas of the Vedas, Description of
Kaliyuga, Bhakti as main Sādhanā.
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ITIHĀSA AS A SOURCE OF WISDOM

The etymology of the word 'Itihāsa' provides us some clues about the nature of the work and
its contents. It consists of three components, Iti + ha + āsa (verily did exist thus). For
example, 'Rāma lived thus', 'Rāvana lived thus', 'This happened thus', etc. The literature
which explains such examples is considered as Itihāsa. This gives us a sense that the word
Itihāsa points to 'history'. However, other definitions convey a wider meaning:

• The text which teaches the four goals of life Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Mokşa, and
which deals with the stories of historical happenings is called Itihāsa.
• The text explains the story of the past.
• According to Kautilya history (Purāṇa, Itivṛtta), tales (Akhyāyikā), illustrative stories
(Udāharana), Dharmaśāstra, and Arthaśāstra are (known by the name) Itihāsa

Therefore, Itihāsa is not merely a collection of stories related to some past events but an
attempt to see the events through the lens of the four puruṣārthas. Though several literary
works are considered as Itihāsa, only Rāmāyaņa and Mahābhārata, also known as the great
epics, have earned the fame of two major Itihāsas.

RĀMĀYAŅA – KEY ISSUES AND MESSAGES

Rāmāyaņa consists of seven books which are called as Kāņdas, organized into 645 sargas
(chapters), and 23,672 verses. Rāmāyaņa is a vast history of Rama but also consists of
many other related instances. In India, we have more than 40 versions of Rämäyaņa in
different languages like the Ramacaritmānas in Avadhi, Kamba-Rāmāyaņa in Tamil,
Madhava-Kandali in Assamese, Goņa Budha's Ranganatha-Ramayana in Telugu,
Jagamohan-Ramayana in Oriya, Narahari-Ramayana in Kannada, etc. The story of Rama
is very well known in most parts of the world. It has been directly written in various
languages in different countries. The Välmīki-Rāmāyaņa is translated into many
languages. There are reportedly around three hundred versions of Ramayana.

Rāmāyaņa takes a 'normative' approach while Mahabharata takes a 'descriptive' approach

to present events and decisions.

Indian drama, dance, and other performing arts have been greatly. influenced by the two
epics.

The Ramayanņa has played a significant role in cultural transmission between Indian and
other Asian countries. It has travelled from India to other parts of Asia such as China,
Turkestan, Burma,Thailand, Java, Cambodia, and Vietnam during the first millennium in
the common era. It is interesting to note that almost all countries of Southeast Asia have
the Rama story, albeit in varied forms and content. From the thirteenth century onward,
several Thai kings assumed the title Rama, and the tradition continues. According to
Rāmāyaņa, Rāma is not merely a human being but an embodiment and a living entity of

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the concept of Dharma. Through several characters, Rāmāyaņa provides a rich

opportunity to understand important aspects of peaceful co-existence and successful
living.

Bāla-kāņda deals with the birth and childhood of Rāma and his brothers. Viśvāmitra
takes along with him Rāma and Laksmaņa through the forest and eventually to Mithila
leading to the marriage of Sītā to Rama. One of the key messages that we can glean from
this section is the importance of knowing the reality of life in the country by the king-to-
be. Rāma's journey with Viśvāmitra through the forest and villages provided an
opportunity for him to develop this awareness. This reminds us of an important principle
stated in modern management parlance. In organisations, great leadership requires a good
knowledge of the issues and realities facing the organisation. This is obtained only when
the leader can connect to the people and situations in the organisation physically and
mentally.

Ayodhyā-kāņda describes the fast turn of events in which an attempt to coronate Rama
as the next heir apparent to the throne by Daśaratha was aborted and instead Rāma was
sent to the forest for 14 years. The desire of Kaikeyī, the mother of Bharata, to install him
as the prince went futile and Daśaratha died of shock and grief. This part of the epic
provides an important message to the young that life can be a roller coaster ride. There is
a need to understand that events in everyone's life can turn adversarial at any time. Rāma
demonstrates that to be successful in life one needs to develop mental equanimity to
handle such unforeseen events in one's life. The conversation between Bharata and Rāma
in the final portions of this section contains a wealth of information on public policy and
administration and larger issues of life. We shall see some aspects of this in Chapter 14 of
the book.

Aranya-kāņda marks the large-scale elimination of demons in the forest in response to

the request from the sages and seers, who were constantly harassed by these people. It
also portrays the forceful and deceitful kidnapping of Sītā by Rāvana. The epic reminds
us that goodness needs to be protected from evil forces, lest it becomes unsustainable.
The conversation between Mārīca and Rāvaņa brings out an important message that while
removing a poisonous snake that entered into a freshwater lake,the only source of
livelihood for a village, 1000's of good fishes will die for no fault of theirs. It reminds us
of the fact that an evil action by an individual will eventually trigger a bigger reaction
from the system and in the process of eliminating the evil, several good aspects may also
get destroyed.

Kişkindhā-kānda describes the efforts on the part of Rāma and Laksmaņa to find Sitā,
who was abducted by Rāvana. The grief that they underwent was unparalleled as they
were not even aware of what happened to Sītā and who took her away. The meeting of
Sugrīva through the good offices of Hanuman instilled a ray of hope in their search. The
epic brings out the importance of friendship, especially during periods of great distress. It
also reminds us of the importance of wise counselling to wade through the challenges that
we face in our life.

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IKS UNIT 1 Dr. Ajay Choudhary

Sundara-kända describes the heroic efforts of Hanuman to cross the ocean to locate Sitä
and repose confidence in her. It also describes the horrifying state of affairs for Sitä and
the grit and determination with which she faced the situation. The epic beautifully
demonstrates the strength of the character of Sitä, with which she discovered unlimited
courage within and faced the adversity with grace and purpose, which can inspire the
womenfolk. Other messages include statecraft, dealing with ambassadors, and the
presence of mind and tact required for assessing the strength of an opponent.Rāmāyaņa
encourages one to contemplate the difference between 'goodness and 'greatness' and the
need to have both to succeed in life.

Yuddha-kānda describes the royal battle that erupted between Sugrīva's army and
Rāvaņa's army, eventually culminating in large-scale elimination of rākṣasas and their
king Rāvaņa as prophesied byMārīca. Before the war, Ravaņa bluntly dismissed several
attempts by his near and dear to instil a sense in him by pointing to the dangers of the
imminent war and the need to broker peace with Rāma by giving up Sītā. Kumbhakarņa
while advising Rāvaņa says, "One who takes the timely advice concerning Dharma, Artha
and Kāma, about the pros and cons of the deeds from his scholarly councilors never gets
into trouble23". Rāvana was very powerful but he flouted the advice given by his great
councilors and well-wishers like Vibhīṣaņa, Mārīca, Mālyavān, Mandodarī, and
Kumbhakarņa. This led to his downfall and death. The epic forcefully brings out the
benefits of wise counseling and the dangers of hastydecisions arising out of an inebriated
mind polluted with attachment to unreasonable and unethical desires.

Uttara-kānda has a collection of related stories not necessarily in chronological order as

in the case of the previous books. It discusses certain events in Rāvana's life not
mentioned in the other books, the birth of Lava and Kuśa and the departure of Rāma and
Sītā from this world.

The epic throughout depicts Rāma and Rāvaņa in equal measure when it comes to
'greatness'. While describing the final encounter between Rāma and Rāvaņa, Vālmīki
remarks that it is impossible to find a simile to describe this, "Just as the vastness of
thesky has no simile and the majesty of the ocean also does not have a simile, in the same
manner, there is no analogy to the war between Rāma and Rāvana"24. Unfortunately, in
terms of 'goodness' Rāvaņa was no match to Rama. The epic encourages one to
contemplate the difference between 'goodness' and 'greatness' and the need to have both
to succeed in life. Greatness without 'goodness' is a definite recipe for eventual disaster as
demonstrated by Rāvaņa. On the other hand, 'goodness' without 'greatness' may not
enable one to cover much ground in his life.

Rāma lived as a human being and faced the day-to-day situations and conflicts of life
from an ordinary human plane. This makes Rāmāyaņa special and realistic. The
Rāmāyaņa describes situations where there are moral dilemmas and conflicts between
two rights. Rāma was a perfect role model, who lived through the good and enjoyable
aspects of life yet in a detached fashion. He was detached from power, wealth, greed,
fame, and desire. He was kind and even minded to even those who opposed him. His

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ability to face difficult situations in life and to gracefully handle success and tragedy is an
excellent example to follow.

The Valmiki Rāmāyaņa beautifully depicts the dharma of personal life, family life, and
social order. The human characters in Rāma, Laksmaņa, Bharata, Kausalyā, and Sītā
bring out the principles of idealliving. It emphasises the ideal relationships between father
and sons, between brothers, and between husband and wife. The concept of dharma as the
way to a meaningful life could be a powerful theme for positive mental health. Many
conflicts in life can be resolved using this perspective. These anecdotes, the conflicts, and
the situations are the real nuggets of wisdom for the people.

MAHĀBHĀRATA - A SOURCEBOOK FOR WORLDLY WISDOM

Mahābhārata is one of the greatest poems in the world composed by Krsna-Dvaipāyana

(Veda Vyāsa). According to the available information, the original and first version of
Mahābhārata which was named Jaya consisted of only about 8,000 verses and then the
second version had 24,000 verses which was named Bhārata25. It was later extended to
up to 1,00,000 verses and was named Mahābhārata. There are multiple versions of the
epic available. It consists of more than 89,000 verses organised under 18 [Link]
editions and redaction of the original text of Mahabharata may appear to be a cause of
concern. However, the leading incidents and characters of the epic have not been affected
and modified by these changes. Mahābhārata depicts the trials and tribulations that
various kings of the lunar dynasty went through. To a large families, the Kauravas and the
Pandavas. The story unfolds steadily in the text but is interspersed throughout with a
variety of topics including law, philosophy, religion, custom, and to some extent,
geography and cosmography combined with several episodes and legends adding to the
richness of the message. Mahabharata presents the reality extent, the story focuses on the
dispute between two Nitis are the guidance to take a person to the path of Dharma by
providing the right perspectives about life and life goals.

The issues are discussed in the under five major heads:

• Birth, Childhood, and Rivalry: The first two books (Adi Parva, Sabha Parva) of
Mahābhārata describe in detail the ancestral details of the Kauravas and the Pandavas,
their birth, the early childhood and the growing rivalry between the cousins of the two
families. The growth both in terms of the popularity of Yudhisthira and his brothers,
their material richness, and the respect that they commanded was seeding jealousy in
Duryodhana and his brothers and it reached a flashpoint in winning a dubious game of
dice and ill-treating Draupadī. Ironically, several elders, well-wishers, and wise
people were party to this treacherous act, directly or otherwise.
• Banishing of Pandavas: The next two,books (Aranyaka-parva, Virāța-parva) of
Mahābhārata vividly describe a variety ofevents that unfolded when the Pandavas
were asked to go to the forest as a compromise to restore their kingdom if they
successfully complete the tenure. The possibility of unfair treatment on their return
ought to have loomed large in their minds, based on their past experience of dealing

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with the Kauravas. Therefore, Pandavas make use of this time to gather enough
strength and support, and blessings from the Gods to face any eventual war.
• Failed peace parleys leading to war: The next seven books starting from Udyoga-
parva describe the failed efforts from both the Pandava side and the Kaurava side to
avert the war. It is followed by the description of the great war that erupted which
resulted in total decimation of the Kaurava side, killing of Duryodhana and all his
Kaurava brothers and several prominent people on both sides of the army and ends
with the lamentations of the widows and the ladies.
• Post-war conversation between Yudhisthira and Bhīşma: The next two books
(Śānti-parva, Anuśāsana-parva) deals with the detailed conversation between
Yudhisthira, who is going to be coronated as the king and Bhīṣma, who was waiting
to give up his mortal [Link] section has a wealth of information on several aspects
of life, public policy and administration, spiritual and materialistic aspects of life,
dharma, and the other puruṣārthas.
• The exit of the characters: In the last five books starting from Āśvamedhika-parva,
the epic discusses the role of Yudhisthira as a king. This is followed by the exit of all
the remaining main characters, including Pandavas, Draupadī, Krsna, Dhṛtarāstra, and
his cohort Gandhārī, and Kunti.

At a cursory level, Mahābhārata comes across asmerely a historical account of two

warring factions of the Pandavas and Kauravas. However, a deeper understanding of the
epic will reveal to us several hidden treasures of wisdom. Rather than presenting an ideal,
'textbook' like character, the epic presents the reality of life and allows the reader to pick
up their lessons for living. The epic presents almost all the characters in different shades
of grey bringing out the reality of decision making and the dilemmas that one faces in
life. Even Krsna, who is considered omnipotent and worshipped as a god is portrayed
objectively. There is no attempt to conceal the faults of the characters, be it the venerable
characters such as Bhīşma and Droņa or others such as the Pandavas.

For example, as a part of the dying declaration, Duryodhana puts to shame some acts of
the Pandavas and points to the instances wherein they had cheated.

The topics in Mahābhārata has such a wide canvas that it covers several aspects of human
life. Therefore, it is observed, "whatever knowledge related to Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and
Mokşa found in the Mahābhārata may be found elsewhere; but what is not here may not
be found elsewhere". Unlike the Rāmāyaņa, the stories in Mahābhārata are several, rich in
their content and cover a wide range of issues of interest to the society. Anuśāsana-parva
provides several interesting insights on governanceand administration. In the conversation
with Bhīşma, Yudhisthira brings forth the moral conflicts and ethical dilemmas that he
faces in administration and seeks advice from Bhīṣma. In this Parva, several principles
related to Dharma and Artha could be found, which will find relevance in modern-day
economics. It also deals with the issue of charity and provides guidelines for individual
duty and code of conduct.

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Summary of Some Salient Aspects of the Two Epics

Rāmāyaņa Mahābhārata

645 chapters, 23,672 verses 1,00,000 verses, over 2,000 chapters

Normative approach-Ideal 'textbook' Descriptive approach - Characters

like characters of life present the 'reality' of life

All countries in SE Asia have the Rama Rich collection of deeply nested stories
story

Descriptions of dharma of personal and. Many niggets of wisdom-Yakşa Praśna,

social life and social order. Vidura Nīti, Sanat-sujātīya, Bhagavad Gita

Notion of 'Goodness' vs 'Greatness'

NĪTI-ŚĀSTRAS - COLLECTION OF SNIPPETS OF WISDOM

Nītis are the guidance to take a person to the path ofDharma by providing the right
perspectives about life and life goals. The role of Nīti-śāstras lies in providing us helpful
directions to resolve such conflicts by providing snippets of wisdom culled out or distilled
from past experiences. It utilises verses set in poetic metres to concisely communicate the
message.

In the ancient Indian tradition, our ancestors have identified four principal categories of
goals in human life, i.e., Dharma, Artha, Kāma, and Moksa. Dharma is the enabling
framework for leading a life that is self-fulfilling, sustainable, and allows us to peacefully
co-exist with other human beings and other entities in the Universe. It is the nearest
explanation for modern-day sustainability and provides us a broad set of dos and don'ts to
achieve our life goals. It is the basic edifice for us to build our mansion of life. Artha
provides the material wherewithal to fulfil our life goals, needs, and wants. It addresses
the larger issues of health, well-being, and wealth required to satisfy our basic needs and
other wants not in conflict with dharma. Kama on the other hand, is the set of desires,
spanning across biological, physiological, and intellectual dimensions that one wants to
attain in this lifetime. Moksa is the liberation of an individual from the clutches and
limitations of life and a means to realize one's true potential and nature.

Nīti texts take into consideration the very basic rule that all puruṣārthas are generally
guaranteedto the individuals by the Universe. It is when he realises all the four types of
goals his life is comprehensively successful. Nīti acknowledges this fact and helps people
in attaining the same. However, Nīti-śāstras predominantly focus on the first three goals.
It is assumed that once an individual perfects the art of managing the first three goals in a
non-conflicting manner, his transition to the fourth will happen seamlessly and naturally.
In practical life, human consequences are so varied that it is not so easy to pursue one

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goal at a time. There arise conflicts between various goals and one finds it difficult to
resolve decision-making dilemmas in such situations. To steer individuals forward in
these tough situations, Nīti-śāstra provides helpful guidelines that help in the trajectory of
an individual's life such that such conflicts are reduced to the minimum.

Though there is no specific classification of nīti texts, from the available works we can
broadly classify the repository into two: Nitya or Sāmānya-nīti and Rāja-nīti.

The unit of analysis in the case of Samanya-nīti is the individual. These texts focus on
the good aspects of living and provide helpful insights on the code of conduct, differences
between a wise person and others, good andevil, and success and failure in life pursuits. It
also emphasises the need for harmonious living in society. For example, the Nīti-śataka,
which is an example of a text dealing with sāmānya-nīti is about various aspects of
conduct in this world, such as the nobleness in adhering to a promise, the value of
learning, self-respect, valour, moral courage, and large-mindedness. Besides, it inculcates
the importance of industry, the traits of a true friend, and a contrast of the conduct of a
virtuous and noble-hearted man with that of a selfish and little-minded individual.

Rāja-nīti, on the other hand, focuses onthe political and administrative tasks and provides
ideas on several dos and don'ts for a king. Arthaśāstra of Kautilya is an important text in
this category. Other works such as Pañcatantra, Nīti-sāra of Kamandaka are inspired by
Kautilya's work. The Śānti-parva of Mahābhārata is a nīti text as it has considerable
material on both Rāja-nīti and Samanya-nīti. Similarly, the kaccit sarga in Ayodhyā-
kānda in Rāmayāņa has a good discussion on Rāja-nīti. Strict separation of a text into one
of the two may not be possible always. For example, Vidura-nīti and Pañcatantra have
topics relevant to both. However, within any text, we can delineate these two themes
unambiguously..

TABLE - Some Selected Nīti Texts

Sl. No. Name of the Work Brief Description of the

Work

1 Bārhaspatyam śukra-nīti Must be considered only as

redactions of the śāstra by
later scholars since both
these belong to oral tradition.
Many of the chapters and
contents are extinct.

2 Vidura-nīti (Part of Consists of 700 verses-

Mahābhārata) response to Dhṛtarāstra's
questions discusses elements
of good living, personal
values, governance and
administration, etc.

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3 Pañcatantra (Vişnu Śarmā) Uses a series of fables to

impart principles of ethical
and moral living as well as
elements of Rāja-Nīti.

4 Hitopadeśa (Nārāyaņa Inspired by Pañcatantra,

Pandita) follows a similar style of
using fables to impart
principles of ethical and
moral living and elements of
Rāja-nīti.

5 Nīti-śataka (Bartṛhari) A collection of 100 verses to

impart various aspects of
Sāmānya-nīti.

SUBHĀŞITAS – A COLLECTION OF INSIGHTS FROM VARIOUS TEXTS

The concise poetry which communicates the valuable message for the society with some
interesting examples is called Subhāṣita. These are nothing but a systematic collection of
insightful observations, examples, and principles of life from a wide range of existing
repositories of literary works. The motivation for putting together an interesting collection of
ideas from various texts comes from certain traditions of the great Indian poets. The poets
had two objectives in mind while composing kāvyas; one is to narrate the chosen story, the
otheris to contextually bring worldly wisdom using the opportunity of narrating certain
incidents in the story. Consider the following examples:

EXAMPLE 1: In the first chapter of Sundara-kānda,Vālmīki vividly narrates the journey

Hanuman takes in crossing over the seas to reach Laņkā in search of Sītā. As soon as
Hanuman reaches the other side of the shore Välmīki makes an interesting observation about
the qualities required to achieve success in one's pursuits:

O Lord of vānara he in whom these four qualities, fortitude, vision, intelligence, and dexterity
exist, as in you, will achieve his mission and not get lost.

EXAMPLE 2: In Kirātārjunīya, a mahākāvya by Kavi Bhāravi, one finds several valuable

messages for us to imbibe. Consider the following messages:

A blade of grass bends due to a lack of strength. It flies away due to a lack of weight. A
person without honor is just like grass - without inner strength or weight.

If a person does not deal with a crook in a crooked manner, he is bound to face defeat. They
must be paid back in their coin. Just like how an arrow most certainly hits (and hurts) that
part of the body (however small) that is not covered by the armor, such deceitful people
search and hurt only those people who are innocent and incapable of deceit themselves.

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When Bhīma was impatient and angry and was keen to take revenge on Kauravas,
Yudhisthira had to calm him and at this point, the following message appears:

One should not act in haste. Action without thinking leads to big problems. Wealth chooses
that person by itself who acts after thinking properly.

EXAMPLE 3: In the Udyoga-parva of Mahābhārata we find the following interesting

message:

There are five kinds of people who one must listen to and respect - knowledgeable people,
pious people, close friends, well-educated people, and the elderly. Such a person will never
tread along the wrong path due to ignorance.

It follows from the above examples, that it may beworthwhile to cull out such insightful
messages from the existing repository and present such a collection in a single work.
Subhāṣitas are such classified messages, usually organized under specific themes. For
example, all ideas on friendship from various texts could be arranged into one section, the
value and importance of dharma into another, and so on. The themes and messages found in
subhāṣitas are so varied that it forms nearly an encyclopaedic material when it comes to
inculcating values, ideas, and principles for sensible living and addressing several issues that
we may face in our lives. The genre is also varied ranging from prayers to the almighty,
imparting serious values through curt messages, fun- filled verses, pun, and riddles. We shall
see some examples.

Verses Teaching Morality, Philosophical Truths

Scriptures and disciplines are many, obstacles are many during learning those and the
lifespan is very less. So, one must try to learn the quintessence of the scriptures like the way
the swan takes (separates) milk from the water.

Sorrow is involved in both earning the wealth as well as protecting it. There is a pain in gain
and pain in loss. Alas! Wealth is always the resort of grief.

The flowers in the palms make both the palms fragrant. Similarly, the affection of people
with a kind heart isequal on both sides. They never differentiate one from another and respect
and love all equally.

Verses for Pure Entertainment

O king of doctors, the brother of Yamarāja (lord of death) salutations to you. Yama only
takes life, but you take both lives as well as the money.

Brain Teasers, Puzzles Based on a Pun

This is a poem in which there is a dialogue between Gopi and Kṛṣṇa where Gopi is enquiring
something and Krsna answers that. Whatever Krsna answers have two meanings and Gopi
takes the second meaning and plays with Krsņa:

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(Gopi): Who is tapping the door with the finger?

(Krsna): O! crooked one! (I am) Madhava. (also means spring season).

(Gopi): Is it the spring season?

(Krsna): No, (I am) Cakrapāņi the one with the Discuss in hand (also means a potter).

(Gopi): Is it a potter?

(Krsna): No, I am the one bearing the world.

(Gopi): Is it the serpent Śesa (who is said to bear the world on his head), the king of the
snakes?

(Krsna): Not me, (I am) the one who controlled the frightful snake (Kāliya).

(Gopi): Are you Garuda, the king of birds? (and enemy of snakes).

(Krsna): No, (I am) Hari (also means a monkey).

(Gopi): Are you the chief of the monkeys?

In this manner, Lord Padmanabha who was not smart and was unable to respond to the Gopi
may protect me.

Though the messages contained in the subhāṣitas are relevant to all the ages in the Indian
tradition these are specially taught to the children so that they can imbibe these ideas while
they are young and can make use of this wisdom all through their life.

As a part of subhāṣitas, they are taught the value of Dharma, knowledge, truthfulness,
friendship, love towards nation, etc.

Selected Subhāşitas on Friendship from Niti-śataka

There are several subhāşitas that extol the virtues of friendship, the value, and true attributes
of good friendship. We shall see some of them from Niti-śataka here:

आरम्भगुिीक्षवयणीक्रमेणलघ्िीपुरािृच्छिमुपैवतपश्चात्।वदनस्यपूिाम िमपरािम वभन्नार्ायेिमैत्रीखलसज्जनानाम्॥

Arambha-gurvi kşayiņi kramena laghvi purā vṛddhim-upaiti paścat | dinasya pūrvārddha-

parārddha-bhinna chayeva maitri khalasaj janānām ||

In the morning the shadows are long but get shortened as the day advances. In the afternoon
shadows are short but they get longer and longer as the Sun gradually sets. The friendship
with wicked persons and the noble ones decreases and increases accordingly.

संतप्तायवससंच्छथथतस्यपयसोनामावपनश्रूयतेमुक्ताकारतयातदे िनवलनीपत्रच्छथथतंदृश्यते।अन्तःसागरशुच्छक्तम
ध्यपवततंतन्मौच्छक्तकंर्ायतेप्रायेणाध्धममध्यमोत्तमर्ुषामेिंविधािृत्तयः ||

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samtaptāyasi samsthitasya payaso nămápi na śrūyate muktākāratayā tadeva nalini-patra-

sthitam dṛśyate |

antah sägara śukti madhya patitam tan mauktikan jayate prayenadhama madhyamottama
juşamevam vidhā vṛttayah ||

A drop of water instantly gets burnt up when it falls on a hot piece of iron. But when it falls
on a lotus leaf it shines like a pearl. When it falls into an oyster shell in the ocean on Swati, it
becomes a real pearl. The quality of contact determines the result of such a company.

दु र्मनःपररहतमव्योविद्ययालंकृतोऽवपसन् | मवणनाभूवषतःसपमःवकमसौनभयंकरः ||

durjanaḥ parihartavyo vidyayalamkṛto'pi san | maņinā bhūṣitaḥ sarpaḥ kimasau na

bhayamkarah ||

A wicked person should be avoided even if he is learned. Is not a Cobra dangerous even if it
is wearing a jewel on its head?

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