Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, Greater Noida

Computer Networks (BMCA0302)

Unit: 1

Network Fundamentals

Tushar Gupta
School of Computer
MCA (3RD Sem)
Applications
SESSION 2025-26

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

1
11/28/2025
 Faculty Profile

• Tushar Gupta is a highly qualified professional. He has taught a variety

of subjects to [Link], BCA and MCA students for last 14 years. He is
Pursuing Phd from Noida International University. He obtained Master
of Computer Application Degree in June 2011 from GBTU (AKTU).he Has
written one book, “Web Technology”. He also written a couple of Scopus
Indexed Research Papers and 2 Patent.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 2

 Evaluation Scheme

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 3

 SYLLABUS

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 4

 SYLLABUS

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 5

 SYLLABUS

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 6

 COURSE OBJECTIVE

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 7

 COURSE OUTCOMES

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 8

 CO-PO Mapping

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 9

 End Sem Question Paper Template

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 10

 End Sem Question Paper Template

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 11

 End Sem Question Paper Template

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 12

 Introduction

Need for Communication

A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations.
Communication services & applications are everywhere.
Some examples are given below:

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

13
11/28/2025
 Components

Components: The components of a data communication are-

Message
Sender
Receiver
Medium
Protocol

A protocol is a set of rules that

governs data communications

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

14
11/28/2025
 What is Computer Network?

🞂 Computer Network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.
🞂 Connection can be either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer
network is the Internet.
wireless
Network Devices

wired

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

15
11/28/2025
 Advantages of Computer Network

File Sharing Flexible Access

Entertainment Better Communication

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

16
11/28/2025
 Advantages of Computer Network

Internet Access Inexpensive System

Instant and Multiple Access Resource Sharing

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

17
11/28/2025
 Applications of Computer Network

Email Services Teleconferencing

Business & Finance File & Directory Services

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

18
11/28/2025
 Types of Computer Networks

🞂 Computer networks can be categories by their size as well as their

purpose.
🞂 The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area.
🞂 Some of the different networks based on size are:

Network

Local Area Metropolitan Wide Area

Network Area Network Network
(MAN) (WAN)
(LAN)
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
19
11/28/2025
 Local Area Network

🞂 A local area network (LAN) is a computernetwork that interconnects

computers within a limited area such as a residence, school, laboratory, university
campus or office building.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

20
11/28/2025
 Metropolitan Area Network

🞂 A metropolitanarea network (MAN) is a computernetwork that interconnects with computer

in a metropolitan area like city.
🞂 MAN is a larger than LAN but smaller than the area covered by a WAN.
🞂 It is also used to interconnection of several local area network.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

21
11/28/2025
 Wide Area Network

🞂 A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that exists over a large-scale
geographical area.
🞂 A WAN connects different networks, including local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan
area networks (MAN).
🞂 It may be located with in a state or a country or it may be interconnected around the world.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

22
11/28/2025
 Types of Computer Networks

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 23

 Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture

Computer Network Architecture is defined as the physical and logical design of the software, hardware,
protocols, and media of the transmission of data. Simply we can say that how computers are organized and how
tasks are allocated to the computer.

The two types of network architectures are used:

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

24
11/28/2025
 Network Architecture

Peer-To-Peer network
•Peer-To-Peer network is a network in which all the computers are linked together with equal privilege and
responsibilities for processing the data.
•Peer-To-Peer network is useful for small environments, usually up to 10 computers.
•Peer-To-Peer network has no dedicated server.
•Special permissions are assigned to each computer for sharing the resources, but this can lead to a problem if
the computer with the resource is damaged

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

25
11/28/2025
 Network Architecture

Client/Server Network
•Client/Server network is a network model designed for the end users called clients, to access the resources
such as songs, video, etc. from a central computer known as Server.
•The central controller is known as a server while all other computers in the network are called clients.
•A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
•A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
•All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants to send some data to
client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission. The server sends the response to the
client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

26
11/28/2025
 Topologies

Topology refers to the layout of connected devices on a network.

Here, some logical layout of topology.
Mesh
Star
Bus
Ring
Tree
Hybrid

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

27
11/28/2025
 BUS Topology

A bus topology is multipoint.

Here one long cable act as a backbone to link all the devices are connected to the backbone by drop lines and taps.
Drop line- is the connection b/w the devices and the cable.
Tap- is the splitter that cut the main link.
This allows only one device to transmit at a time.
A device want to communicate with other device on the networks sends a broadcast message onto the wire all other
devices see. But only the intended devices accepts and process the message.

Advantages:
1. Ease of installation
2. Less cabling
Disadvantages:
1. Difficult reconfiguration and fault isolation.
2. Difficult to add new devices.
3. Signal reflection at top can degradation in quality.
4. If any fault in backbone can stops all transmission.
Applications:
Most computer motherboard

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

28
11/28/2025
 MESH Topology

Here every device has a point to point link to every other device.
Node 1 node must be connected with n-1 nodes.
A fully connected mesh can have n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.
Advantages:
1. They use dedicated links so each link can only carry its own data load. So traffic problem can be avoided.
2. It is robust. If any one link get damaged it cannot affect others.
3. It gives privacy and security.(Message travels along a dedicated link)
4. Fault identification and fault isolation are easy.
Disadvantages:
1. The amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required are very large. Since every device is connected to each
devices through dedicated links.
2. The sheer bulk of wiring is larger then the available space.
3. Hardware required to connected each device is highly expensive.

Applications:
1. Telephone Regional office.
2. WAN.(Wide Area Network).

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

29
11/28/2025
 STAR Topology
Here each device has a dedicated point-to-point link to the central controller called “Hub”(Act as a Exchange).
There is no direct traffic between devices.
The transmission are occurred only through the central “hub”.
When device 1 wants to send data to device 2; First sends the data to hub. Which then relays the data to the other
connected device.
Advantages:
1. Less expensive then mesh since each device is connected only to the hub.
2. Installation and configuration are easy. Less cabling is needed than mesh.
3. Easy to fault identification & to remove parts. No disruptions to the network then connecting(or) removing devices.

Disadvantages:
1. Even it requires less cabling then mesh when compared with other
topologies it still large.(Ring or bus).
2. Dependency(whole n/w dependent on one single point(hub).
When it goes down. The whole system is dead.
Applications:
Star topology used in LANs.
High speed LAN often used STAR

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

30
11/28/2025
 RING Topology

Here each device has a dedicated connection with two devices on either side.
The signal is passed in one direction from device to device until it reaches the destination and each device have repeater.
When one device received signals instead of intended another device, its repeater then regenerates the data and passes
them along.
To add or delete a device requires changing only two connections.
Advantages:
1. Easy to install.
2. Easy to reconfigure.
3. Fault identification is easy.
Disadvantages:
1. Unidirectional traffic.
2. Break in a single ring can break entire network.
Applications:
Ring topologies are found in some office buildings or
school campuses.
Today high speed LANs made this topology less popular

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

31
11/28/2025
 TREE Topology

Alternatively referred to as a star bus topology.

Tree topology is one of the most common network setups that is similar to a bus topology and a star topology.
A tree topology connects multiple star networks to other star networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer
setup on a network using the star topology.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

32
11/28/2025
 HYBRID Topology

A network which contain all type of physical structure and connected under a single backbone channel

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

33
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

Networking Devices: Is a devices that are used to connect connecte computer, printer etc. to a
network.
1) NIC,
2) Switch,
3) Bridge,
4) Hub,
5) Router, and
6) Gateway

1) NIC stands for network interface card.

- NIC is a hardware component
- used to connect a computer with another computer onto a network
- Every NIC Card has a uniques address this is know as MAC Address. It is a 6 byte
hexadecimal code
- It can support a transfer rate of 10,100 to 1000 Mb/s.
- The MAC address or physical address is encoded on the network card chip
which is assigned by the IEEE to identify a network card uniquely.
The MAC address is stored in the PROM (Programmable read-only memory).

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

34
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

There are two types of NIC:

1) Wired NIC
2) Wireless NIC (Wifi – Wireless Fidelity)
Wired NIC: The Wired NIC is present inside the motherboard. Cables and connectors are used with
wired NIC to transfer data.
The wireless NIC contains the antenna to obtain the connection over the wireless network. For
example, laptop computer contains the wireless NIC.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

35
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

2) Hub
- A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer.
- All the devices will check whether the request belongs to them or not.
- If not, the request will be dropped.
- A hub is less sophisticated than a switch,
- the switch can isolate data transmissions to specific devices.
- hubs are best suited for small, simple local area network (LAN)s.
- Hubs cannot provide routing capabilities
- they operate by forwarding packets across all ports indiscriminately,

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

36
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

Switch

-Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or

- a data link layer of the OSI model.
- They connect devices in a network and use packet switching
-to send, receive or forward
data packets or data frames over the network.
- A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
- When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch,
- it examines the destination address, performs necessary checks and
- sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).
- It supports unicast, multicast as well as broadcast communications.
- It uses MAC addresses (Media Access Control) to send data packets
to selected destination ports.
- A MAC address is 12 digit hexadecimal number , 48 bits in length, separated by colon
- example [Link]

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

37
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices
Router
- It is used to route the data packets to another network
- instead of transmitting the data to the local networks only.
- A router is capable of connecting the LAN and WAN.
- A router transfers the data in the form of packets.
- It sends data based on the IP address of a device.
- The router uses a routing table to send the data.
- A routing table is a set of rules, viewed in table format,
- that is used to determine where data packets traveling
- over an Internet Protocol (IP) network will be directed.
IP ADDRESS SUBNET MASK INTERFACE

[Link] [Link] S1

[Link] [Link] S2

[Link] [Link] S3

[Link] [Link] S4

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

38
11/28/2025
 Router

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

39
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

Bridge
- It stores and forwards Ethernet frames,
- It has to do with the MAC address rather than the IP address,
- they handle the hardware addresses.
- It examines the frame header and
- selectively forward frames based on MAC destination address,

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

40
11/28/2025
 Networking Devices

Bridge
- for example in figure
- Bridge 2 receives a packet then
- it will selectively decide whether to send it to LAN 2 or LAN 3.
- hosts are unaware of the presence of bridges,
- it appears to them as a single whole network.
- Bridges need not be configured
- they are plug-and-play and self-learning devices,
- a bridge has a learning table,
- they learn which hosts can be reached through which interfaces.
- the bridge boosts the signal strength like a repeater

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

41
11/28/2025
 Gateway

Gateway
-A gateway is a hardware which acts like a “gate” among the networks.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

42
11/28/2025
 Open System Interconnection
International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop an
architecture for computer communication.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is the result of this effort.
In 1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.
Term “open” denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the reference
model and associated standards.
The OSI model is now considered the primary Architectural model for inter-computer
communications.
The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application
programmes (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers
over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .
This separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
43
11/28/2025
 OSI Model

The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.
Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.
Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other computers.
The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are
concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.
The upper four layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—Layers 7, 6
and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.
Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the layers
before network transit.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

44
11/28/2025
11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 45
 OSI Model

Purpose of the reference model was to provide a framework for the development of protocols.
OSI Reference Model describes a seven-layer abstract reference model for a network
architecture.
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

46
11/28/2025
 Physical Layer (OSI)

Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

Defines rules by which bits are passed from one system to another on a physical
communication medium.
Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical
communication.
Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are defined
by physical layer specifications.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

47
11/28/2025
 Physical Layer (OSI)

Major responsibilities of Physical layer are:

Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: It defines the characteristics of the
interface between the devices and the transmission media. Also defines the type of
transmission medium.
Representation of bits: To transmit the bits, it must be encoded into electrical or
optical signals. It defines the type of representation how 0s and 1s are changed to
signals.x
Data rate: The number of bits sent each second
Synchronization of bits: Sender and the receiver must be synchronized at the bit level.
NOTE: Information flows from top to bottom at the sender and bottom to top at the
receiver.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

48
11/28/2025
 Data Link Layer (OSI)

The data link layer is responsible for hop-to-hop (node-to-node) delivery.

It transforms the physical layer a raw transmission facility to a reliable link.
It makes physical layer appear error free to the network layer.
The duties of the data link layer are:

Framing: It divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
Physical Addressing: If the frames are to be distributed to different systems on the
network it adds a header to the frame to define the receiver or sender of the frame.
Flow Control: If the rate at which the data absorbed by the receiver is less than the
rate produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
overwhelming the receiver.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

49
11/28/2025
 Data Link Layer (OSI)

Error control: Reliability is added to the physical layer by data link layer to detect and retransmit loss
or damaged frames. And also to prevent duplication of frames. This is achieved through a trailer added
to the end of the frame
Access control: when two or more devices are connected to the same link it determines which device
has control over the link at any given time.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

50
11/28/2025
 Network Layer (OSI)

The network layer is responsible for source-to-destination delivery of a packet across

multiple networks.
It ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its final destination. It does not
recognize any relationship between those packets.
It treats each one independently as though each belong to separate message.

The functions of the network layer are:

Logical Addressing If a packet has to cross the network boundary then the header
contains information of the logical addresses of the sender and the receiver.

Networking when independent networks or links are connected to create an

internetwork or a large network the connective devices route the packet to the final
destination
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
51
11/28/2025
 Transport Layer (OSI)

The Transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery that is source to

destination delivery of the entire message.
Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data
between two processes in different computers.
Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
Provides connectionless or connection oriented service.
Provides for the connection management.
Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

52
11/28/2025
 Transport Layer (OSI)

Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or

connection-oriented. A connectionless transport layer treats segment as an
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer. A connection-oriented
transport layer makes a connection with the transport layer at the destination
machine and delivers the packets.

Flow control: Flow control at this layer is performed end to end.

Error Control: Error control is performed end to end. At the sending side, the
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport
layer without error. Error correction is achieved through retransmission.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

53
11/28/2025
 Session Layer (OSI)

Session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and

synchronizes the interaction between communicating systems.

Specific responsibilities of the layer are:

Dialog Control: Session layer allows two systems to enter in to a dialog.

Communication between two processes takes place either in half-duplex or full-
duplex.

Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints into a

stream of data.
Ex: If a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, check points may be inserted
after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100 page unit is advised and
acknowledged independently.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

54
11/28/2025
 Presentation Layer (OSI)

It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between two
systems.
Responsibilities of the presentation layer are:
Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between the two
communicating entities.
Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

55
11/28/2025
 Application Layer(OSI)

It enables the user (human/software) to access the network. It provides user interfaces and
support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management and other types of distributed information services.

Services provided by the application layer are:

Network Virtual terminal. A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical

terminal and allows a user to log on to a remote host.
File transfer, access and management. This application allows a user to access files in a
remote computer, to retrieve files from a remote computer and to manage or control files in a
remote computer.
Mail services. This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory services. It provides distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

56
11/28/2025
 TCP/IP Model

This model was used earlier by ARPANET and then it is being used in the INTERNET. ARPANET was a
research sponsored by U.S. department of defence which include many universities and government
installations using the leased telephone lines.
This reference model uses two protocols TCP and IP.
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite is a very robust and flexible set of standards for large diverse networks.

Purpose of designing TCP/IP Model

To have an ability to connect multiple networks together in a seamless way.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

57
11/28/2025
 TCP/IP Model

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

58
11/28/2025
 OSI and TCP/IP

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

59
11/28/2025
 Application Layer (TCP/IP)

Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of TCP/IP model.
The application layer is the TCP/IP layer, which is closest to the end-user.
Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating component.
Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote login, etc.
The function of the Application Layers are:
Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource availability,
and synchronizing communication.

This layer provides various e-mail services

This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

60
11/28/2025
 Transport Layer (TCP/IP)
Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a process on a
source system machine to a process on a destination system.
It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. It helps ensure that data units are
delivered error-free and in sequence.
Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error control, and
segmentation or de-segmentation.
The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and sends the
next data in case no errors occurred.
Important functions of Transport Layers:
It divides the message received from the application layer into segments and numbers them to make
a sequence.
Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the destination
machine.
It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be retransmitted.
They work on Port Numbers
Eg port 1034
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
61
11/28/2025
 Internet Layer (TCP/IP)
Internet Layer
It is also known as a network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets
from any network, and any computer still they reach the destination irrespective of
the route they take.
The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various
networks.
Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.
They work on IP addresses like [Link]

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

62
11/28/2025
 Layers of TCP/IP

The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is also
called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent
using the network.
It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which directly
interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair
cables.
A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on
the same network.
They work on MAC addresses
Eg. 23-A3-45-68-D1-67

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

63
11/28/2025
 TCP/IP Model

Advantages of TCP/IP
It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of computers.
It operates independently of the operating system.
It supports many routing-protocols.
It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP
TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet Exchange).
Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

64
11/28/2025
 Difference between TCP/IP and OSI Model

OSI Layer model has seven layers while TCP/IP model has four layers.

OSI Layer model is no longer used while TCP/IP is still used in computer networking.

To define the functionality of upper layers, OSI uses three separate layers (application, presentation and
session) while TCP/IP uses a single layer (application).

Just like upper layers, OSI uses two separate layers (Physical and Data link) to define the functionality of
bottom layers while TCP/IP uses a single layer (Link) for the same.

To define the routing protocols and standards, OSI uses Network layer while TCP/IP uses Internet layer.

In comparison of TCP/IP model, OSI model is well documented and explains standards and protocols in
more details.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

65
11/28/2025
 Ethernet Technologies

In an Ethernet network, data is broken into packets, with each packet transmitted using the CSMA/CD
algorithm until it arrives at its destination without colliding with any other packet.
A device or node is either transmitting or receiving at any instant.
When sending data to another device on an Ethernet network, the MAC sublayer (data link sublayer):
- Encapsulates higher-level frames into frames appropriate for the transmission medium
- Adds a frame check sequence to identify transmission errors
- Forwards the data to the physical layer as soon as the CSMA/CD protocol permits, waiting
as necessary to avoid collisions.
- Is responsible for compensating for collisions by starting retransmission when a collision
(jam signal) is detected.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

66
11/28/2025
 Ethernet Technologies (CSMA)

Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

- is a network protocol for carrier transmission that
- operates in the Medium Access Control (MAC) layer.
-It senses or listens whether the shared channel
-for transmission is busy or not,
- and transmits if the channel is not busy.
- Using CSMA protocols,
- more than one users or nodes send and receive data
- through a shared medium
- that may be a single cable or optical fiber
- connecting multiple nodes,
- or a portion of the wireless spectrum.
Working Principle
- When a station has frames to transmit,
- it attempts to detect presence of the carrier signal
- from the other nodes connected to the shared channel.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

67
11/28/2025
 CSMA/CD

If a carrier signal is detected,

- it implies that a transmission is in progress.
-The station waits till the ongoing transmission executes to completion,
- and then initiates its own transmission.
-Generally, transmissions by the node are received
- by all other nodes connected to the channel.

Since, the nodes detect for a transmission

-before sending their own frames,
-collision of frames is reduced.
-However, if two nodes detect an idle channel at the same time,
-they may simultaneously initiate transmission.
-This would cause the frames to garble resulting in a collision.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

68
11/28/2025
 CSMA/CD

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 69

 CSMA/CD

Consider a scenario where there are ‘n’ stations on a link

- and all are waiting to transfer data through that channel.
- All ‘n’ stations would want to access the link/channel
- to transfer their own data.
- Problem arises when more than one station transmits the data
- at the same moment.
- In this case, there will be collisions in the data from different stations.

CSMA/CD is one such technique where different stations that follow this protocol
- agree on some terms and collision detection
- measures for effective transmission.
- This protocol decides which station will transmit when
- so that data reaches the destination without corruption.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

70
11/28/2025
 CSMA/CD

How CSMA/CD works?

•Step 1: Check if the sender is ready for transmitting data packets.

•Step 2: Check if the transmission link is idle?

- Sender continuously checks and senses transmissions from other nodes.
- Sender sends dummy data on the link.
- If it does not receive any collision signal,
- this means the link is idle at the moment.
- If it senses that the carrier is free and
- there are no collisions,
- it sends the data.
- Otherwise, it refrains from sending data.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

71
11/28/2025
 CSMA/CD

•Step 3: Transmit the data & check for collisions.

- Sender transmits its data on the link.
- CSMA/CD does not use an ‘acknowledgment’ system.
- It checks for successful and unsuccessful transmissions
- through collision signals.
- During transmission,
- if a collision signal is received by the node,
- transmission is stopped.
- The station then transmits a jam signal onto the link and
- waits for random time intervals before it resends the frame.
- After some random time, it again attempts to transfer the data and
- repeats the above process.

•Step 4: If no collision was detected in propagation,

- the sender completes its frame transmission and resets the counters.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

72
11/28/2025
 Backoff Algorithm

If a collision takes place between 2 stations,

- they may restart transmission as soon as they can after the collision.
- This will always lead to another collision and
- form an infinite loop of collisions
- leading to a deadlock.
To prevent such scenario back-off algorithm is used.
- Let us consider a scenario of 2 stations
- A and B transmitting some data:

The station selects a random number of slot times in the range 0 and 2c – 1.
- For example, after the first collision (i.e. c = 1),
- the station will wait for either 0 or 1 slot times.
- After the second collision (i.e. c = 2),
- the station will wait anything between 0 to 3 slot times.
- After the third collision (i.e. c = 3),
- the station will wait anything between 0 to 7 slot times, and so forth.
If the station selects a number 𝑘 in the range 0 and 2c – 1, then
Back_off_time = k × Time slot,
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
73
11/28/2025
11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 74
 Ethernet Technologies and Standards

Standard Cable Speed Maximum distance

10Base5 Coxial 10Mbs 500 meter
10Base2 Coxial 10Mbps 200 meter
10Base-T UTP 10 Mbps 100 meters
100BaseT/TX UTP 100 Mbps 100 meters
1000BaseT UTP 1000 100 meters
Mbps
10GBaseT UTP 10 Gbps 100 meters
100BaseT4 UTP 100 Mbps 100 meters
1000BaseLX MMF or SMF 1000 550 meters over MMF, 5 km over SMF
Mbps
10GBaseSR 10GBaseLR MMF or SMF 10 Gbps 82 meters to 40 km
10GBaseER 10GBaseSW
10GBaseLW 10GBaseEW
40 Gigabit Ethernet MMF, SMF,and copper 40 Gbps 40 km over SMF, 7 meters over copper

100 Gigabit Ethernet MMF, SMF 100 Gbps 100 km

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

75
11/28/2025
 Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)
Every computer in a network has an IP address
- by which it can be uniquely identified and addressed.
- An IP address is Layer-3 (Network Layer) logical address.
- This address may change every time a computer restarts.
- A computer can have one IP at one instance of time and
- another IP at some different time.

Address Resolution Protocol(ARP)

- While communicating, a host needs

- Layer-2 (MAC) address of the destination machine
- which belongs to the same broadcast domain or network.

A MAC address is physically burnt into the

- Network Interface Card (NIC) of a machine
- and it never changes.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

76
11/28/2025
 ARP

On the other hand, IP address on the public domain is rarely changed.

If the NIC is changed in case of some fault,
the MAC address also changes.
This way, for Layer-2 communication to take place,
a mapping between the two is required.
To know the MAC address of remote host on a broadcast
domain,

a computer wishing to initiate communication sends out

an ARP broadcast message asking,
“Who has this IP address?”

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

77
11/28/2025
 ARP

Because it is a broadcast, all hosts on the network segment (broadcast domain) - receive this packet and process it.
- ARP packet contains the IP address of destination host,
- the sending host wishes to talk to.
- When a host receives an ARP packet destined to it,
- it replies back with its own MAC address.

Once the host gets destination MAC address,

- it can communicate with remote host
- using Layer-2 link protocol.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

78
11/28/2025
 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

Virtual LANs, or VLANs, are

- virtual separations within a switch that
- provide distinct logical LANs that
- each behave as if they were configured on
- a separate physical switch

Figure shows a switch with

multiple VLANs.
The VLANs have been numbered

10, 20, 30, and 40.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 79

 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

- Frames cannot leave the VLANs from which they originate.

- This means that in the example configuration,
- Jack can communicate with Jill, and

- Bill can communicate with Ted,

- (VLAN 20 with VLAN 20)

- but Bill and Ted cannot

- communicate with Jack or Jill
- in any way.
- (VLAN 20 with VLAN 40)

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 80

 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

- For a packet on a Layer-2 switch to

- cross from one VLAN to another, an
- outside router must be attached to each of the VLANs to be routed.
- Figure shows an external router connecting VLAN 20 with VLAN 40.

- Bill will now be

- able to communicate with Jill, but
- neither workstation will show
- any indication that they reside
- on the same physical switch.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 81

 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

- When expanding a network using VLANs.

- If you connect another switch to a port that
- is configured for VLAN 20, the
- new switch will be able to forward frames
- only to or from VLAN 20.
- If you wanted to connect two switches,
- each containing four VLANs, you would
- need four links between the switches:
- one for each VLAN.
- A solution to this problem is to
- deploy trunks between switches.
- Trunks are links that carry frames for more than one VLAN.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 82

 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

TRUNKS
- Figure shows two switches connected with a trunk.
- Jack is connected to VLAN 20 on Switch B, and
- Diane is connected to VLAN 20 on Switch A.
- Because there is a trunk connecting these two switches together,
- the trunk is allowed to carry traffic for all configured VLANs,
- Jack will be able to communicate with Diane.
- the ports to which the trunk is connected are not assigned VLANs
- These ports are trunk ports and, as such,
- do not belong to a single VLAN.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 83

 Virtual Local Area Netwok(VLAN)

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 84

 IP ADDRESSES

The example IP address is as follows:

- The 8-bit sections are known as [Link], become
- 11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100.
- This number only makes a little more sense,
- so for most uses, convert the binary address
- into dotted-decimal format ([Link]).
- The decimal numbers separated by periods are the octets
- converted from binary to decimal notation.

For a TCP/IP wide area network (WAN)

- to work efficiently as a collection of networks,
- the routers that pass packets of data between networks
- don't know the exact location of a host for which a packet of information is destined.
- Routers only know what network the
- host is a member of and
- use information stored in their routing table to
- determine how to get the packet to the destination host's network.
- After the packet is delivered to the destination's network,
- the packet is delivered to the appropriate host.
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
85
11/28/2025
 IP ADDRESSES

For this process to work,

- an IP address has two parts.
- The first part of an IP address is used as a network address,
- the last part as a host address.
- If you take the example [Link] and
- divide it into these two parts, you get 192.168.123. Network .132 Host
- or [Link] - network address. [Link] - host address.

In TCP/IP, the parts of the IP address

- that are used as the network and host addresses aren't fixed.
- Unless you have more information,
- the network and host addresses above can't be determined.
- This information is supplied in another 32-bit number called a subnet mask.
- The subnet mask is [Link] in this example.
- You know 255 in binary notation equals 11111111.
- So, the subnet mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
- Lining up the IP address and the subnet mask together,
- the network, and host portions of the address can be separated:
11000000.10101000.01111011.10000100 - IP address ([Link])
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000 - Subnet mask ([Link])

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

86
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

The first 24 bits (the number of ones in the subnet mask)

- are identified as the network address.
- The last 8 bits (the number of remaining zeros in the subnet mask)
- are identified as the host address.
It gives you the following addresses
11000000.10101000.01111011.00000000 - Network address ([Link])
00000000.00000000.00000000.10000100 - Host address ([Link])
So now you know, for this example
- using a [Link] subnet mask,
- that the network ID is [Link], and
- the host address is [Link].
- When a packet arrives on the [Link] subnet
- (from the local subnet or a remote network),
- and it has a destination address of [Link],
-your computer will receive it from the network and process it.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

87
11/28/2025
 IP Address Classes

Class A:
– For very large organizations
– 16 million hosts allowed
Class B:
– For large organizations
– 65 thousand hosts allowed
Class C
– For small organizations
– 255 hosts allowed
Class D
– Multicast addresses
– No network/host hierarchy

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

88
11/28/2025
 IP Address Classes

•Class A networks use a default

- subnet mask of [Link] and
- have 0-127 as their first octet.
- The address [Link] is a class A address.
- Its first octet is 10, which is
- between 1 and 127, inclusive.
- because 1st bit is always 0
- 00000000 (0) to 01111111(127)

• Class B networks use a default

- subnet mask of [Link] and
- have 128-191 as their first octet.
- The address [Link] is a class B address.
- Its first octet is 172, which is
- between 128 and 191, inclusive.
- Because class b starts from 10000000(128) to 10111111(191)
- It is because first 2 bits have to be 10 always

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

89
11/28/2025
 IP Address Classes

Class C networks use a default

- subnet mask of [Link] and
- have 192-223 as their first octet.
- The address [Link] is a class C address.
- Its first octet is 192, which is
- between 192 and 223, inclusive.
- Because class C starts from 11000000(192) to 11011111(223)

- It is because first 3 bits have to be 110 always

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

90
11/28/2025
 Subnetting
Subnetting is the process of
- taking a large network and
- splitting it up into many individual
- smaller subnetworks or subnets.

IP address is just a 32-bit number.

- In a world without subnets,
- a certain number of these bits are used for the network ID,
- a certain number of the bits are used for the host ID.

In a world with subnetting,

- some bits that would normally comprise the host ID
- are actually used for the subnet ID.
- Subnet IDs are calculated via what's known as a subnet mask.

Just like an IP address,

- subnet masks are 32-bit numbers that are normally
- written now as four octets in decimal.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

91
11/28/2025
 Subnetting

The easiest way to understand how subnet masks work

- is to compare one to an IP address

Subnet mask of [Link].

- This would translate to 24 ones
- followed by eight zeros.

The purpose of the mask or the

- part that's all ones is to tell a router
- what part of an IP address is the subnet ID.

To get the network ID for an IP address.

- For [Link], a Class A network,
- we know that this is just the first octet.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

92
11/28/2025
 Subnetting

To get the network ID for an IP address.

- For [Link], a Class A network,
- we know that this is just the first octet.

Now using a subnet mask of [Link],

- we know that the octet available for host IDs can
- contain the numbers 0-255,
- but zero is generally not used and
- 255 is normally reserved as a broadcast address for the subnet.
- This means that, really,
- only the numbers 1-254

The subnet mask [Link] would

- translate to 27 ones
- followed by five zeros.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

93
11/28/2025
 Subnetting

This means that we have

- five bits of host ID space or
- a total of 32 addresses.

IP address [Link] with a subnet mask of [Link].

A quicker way of referencing this is with the notation /27.

The entire IP and subnet mask can be written now as [Link]/27.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

94
11/28/2025
 IP Addressing and Subnetting
CIDR – Classless Inter Domain Routing

- It expands on the concept of subnetting by using

- subnet masks to demarcate networks.
- describe where one network or system ends and
- another one begins.

With CIDR, the network ID and subnet ID are combined into one.

- CIDR basically just abandons the concept of address classes entirely,

- allowing an address to be defined by only two Individual IDs.

- Let's take [Link] with a net mask of [Link].

- Remember, this can also be written as [Link]/24.
- In a world where we no longer care about the address class of this IP,
- all we need is what the network mask tells us to determine the network ID.
- In this case, that would be 9.100.100,
- the host ID remains the same.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

95
11/28/2025
 Numerical on Subnet Mask

Q1. IP Address [Link] find Network Id , Subnet Mask, Broad cast Id , No of Usable Host –

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

96
11/28/2025
 Numerical on Subnet Mask

Q1. IP Address [Link] find Network Id , Subnet Mask, Broad cast Id , No of Usable Host –

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

97
11/28/2025
 Numerical on Subnet Mask

[Link] are two routers connected to each other through Ethernet wire. First Router A Have Two interface
,in router A , 40 computers connected from interface one and 20 computers connected from interface b. Second
Router also have two two interface 30 computers connected to interface a and 10 computers connected to
interface b.
Compnay purchase the ip address [Link].

Find subnet mask and creating subnet id.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

98
11/28/2025
 Numerical on Subnet Mask

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

99
11/28/2025
 Numerical on Subnet Mask

Q1. Subnet mask [Link] find max no host –

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

100
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

Q1. Subnet mask [Link] find max no host –

Ans: No of 1 in mask=21(n)
Max no host =232-21 -2=2046

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

101
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

Q2. What is the net mask of the gateway interface in a subnetwork

where maximum of 25 hosts exist and
IP address of one of the hosts is [Link]?

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

102
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

Q2. What is the net mask of the gateway interface in a subnetwork

where maximum of 25 hosts exist and
IP address of one of the hosts is [Link]?

Ans- For 25 host we require 5-bits reserve for host.

This means prefix length is /27(27continious 1’s followed by all 0’s).
So net mask is [Link].

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

103
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

Q3. Two networks have a subnet mask of

a) [Link]
b) [Link]
Tell the maximum number of hosts that can be accommodated on both.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

104
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

Q3. Two networks have a subnet mask of

a) [Link]
b) [Link]
Tell the maximum number of hosts that can be accommodated on both.

Ans:
a) [Link]
It has 16 bits for network id and 16 bits for host ids
So maximum hosts can be 216 -2
a) [Link]
It has 24 bits for network id and 8 bits for host id
So maximum number of hosts can be 28 -2 = 256 – 2= 254

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

105
11/28/2025
 Subnet Mask

What will be the subnet mask of given ip and 4 subnet ids also:
a) [Link]/26:

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

106
11/28/2025
 IP Types

IP Version Types :
There are 2 different versions of IP as follows.
IP version 4 ( 4 numbers of 1 octet)
IP version 6 ( 8 numbers of 2 octets)
1.IPv4 employs a 32-bit address.
- It is composed of four numbers separated by a ‘dot’ i.e.,
- periods called an octet (byte).
- Each number in the octet can
-range from 0 to 255.
Example – [Link]
1.IPv6 is the next generation of Internet Protocol addresses.
- In comparison to IPV4, IPv6 has a larger address space.
- IPv6 has a length of 128 bits and is written in hexadecimal.
- It is composed of eight fields, each of which contains 16 bits.
-As a result, IPv6 has 16 octets in total.
- Example – [Link]

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

107
11/28/2025
 IPv4

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

108
11/28/2025
 IPv4

[Link].
[Link] Header Length.
[Link] of Service.
[Link] Congestion Notification.
[Link] Length.
[Link].
[Link].
[Link] Offset
[Link] to live.
[Link].
11.A checksum of header.
[Link] Address.
[Link] Address.
[Link].

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

109
11/28/2025
 IPv4

1)Version: The first header field is a 4-bit version indicator.

- In the case of IPv4,
- the value of its four bits is set to 0100,
- which indicates 4 in binary.
2) Internet Header Length: IHL is the 2nd field of an IPv4 header, and
- it is of 4 bits in size.
- This header component is used to show how much length
- 32-bit words are present in the header.
- IPv4 headers have a variable size, so this is
- used to specify the size of the header
- to avoid any errors.
- This size can be between 20 bytes to 60 bytes.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

110
11/28/2025
 IPv4

3)Type of Service: ToS is also called Differentiated Services Code Point or DSCP.
- This field is used to provide
- features related to service quality, such as
- for data streaming or Voice over IP (VoIP) calls.
- It is used to specific how a datagram will be handled.
4) Explicit Congestion Notification: ECN is used to
- send notifications to the sender or receive in situations
- where network congestion happens.
- This is an optional feature of IPv4 can;
- if one of the endpoints don’t support it,
- it is not used.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

111
11/28/2025
 IPv4

5)Total Length: This field’s size is 16 bit, and it is

- used to denote the size of the entire datagram.
- The minimum size of an IP datagram is 20 bytes, and at
- the maximum, it can be 65,535 bytes.
- If a datagram is too large for the hosts in the network,
- fragmentation is used, which is
- handled in the host or packet switch.
6) Identification: The identification or ID field in a packet can
- identify an IP datagram’s fragments uniquely.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

112
11/28/2025
 IPv4

7)Flags: flag in an IPv4 header is a

- three-bit field that is used to
- control and identify fragments.
- The following can be their possible configuration:
• Bit 0: this is reserved and has to be set to zero
• Bit 1: DF or do not fragment
• Bit 2: MF or more fragments.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

113
11/28/2025
 IPv4

8) Fragment Offset: This field is 13 bit long in length, and

- it is used to measured by blocks that units of 8-byte blocks.
- This offset tell the exact position of the fragment in the original ip packet.
- Which packet comes to middle , which packet comes to last , which packet comes to start
exact positioning tells by this.
- relative to the start of the IP datagram,
-In the first fragment the offset is 0 as the data in this
- packet starts in the same place as the data in the original packet (at the beginning).
- in 8 byte ‘blocks’ (aka octawords).
- If a packet containing 800 bytes of
- data is split into two equal fragments carrying 400 bytes of data,
- the fragment offset of the first fragment is 0, of the
- second fragment 50 (400/8). Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
114
11/28/2025
 IPv4

9)Time to live: Time to live (or TTL in short) is an

- 8-bit field to indicate the
- maximum time the datagram will be
- live in the internet system.
- The time here is measured in seconds, and
- in case the value of TTL is zero,
- the datagram is erased.
- Every time a datagram is processed, it’s
= Time to live is decreased by one second.
- These are used so that datagrams that are
- not delivered are
- discarded automatically.
- TTL can be between 0 – 255.
10) Protocol: This is a filed in the IPv4 header reserved to
- denote which protocol is used in the later (data) portion of the datagram.
- For Example, number 6 is used to denote TCP and
- 17 is used to denote UDP protocol.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

115
11/28/2025
 Numerical

A link has a MTU of 700 bytes and needs to send datagram of 2400 bytes with 20 bytes as header. Show
the fragments, their offset values and more fragment bit.
Ans: Number of bytes that need to be sent are 2400 – 20 = 2380
Data that can maximum be sent in 1 go = 700-20 = 680
No of fragments required = 2380/680 = 4
First Fragment 680+20, offset 0 MF=1
Second Fragment 680+20, offset 680/8 = 85, MF =1
Third Fragment 680+20, offset = 1360/8=170, MF =1
Fourth Fragment 340 + 20, offset=2040/8 = 255, MF =0

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

116
11/28/2025
 IPv4

[Link] header’s checksum: The checksum field is of 16-bit length, and it is

- used to check the header for any errors.
- The header is compared to the
- value of its checksum at each hop, and
- in case the header checksum is not matching,
- the packet is discarded.
- Keep in mind that this is only for the header, and
- its protocol handles the data field.
- UDP and TCP, for example, have their own checksum fields.

12) Source Address: It is a 32-bit address of the source of the IPv4 packet.

13) Destination Address: the destination address is also 32 bit in size, and
- it contains the receiver’s address.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

117
11/28/2025
 IPv4

14. Options: This is an optional field of the IPv4 header.

- It is used only when the value of IHL is
- set to more than 5.
- These options contain values and settings for
- things related to security.
- Record route and time stamp etc.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

118
11/28/2025
 IPv6

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

119
11/28/2025
 IPv6 Header Fields

Fixed length header is of 40 bytes.

The fields of IPv6 header:
1)Version:
- It signifies the version of the Internet protocol in a
- 4-bit sequence, i.e. 0110. (6)

2)Traffic Class:
- This field is similar to the Tos (type of service) of the IPv4 packet.
- It signifies the priority of the IPv6 packet.
- It is responsible for handling the traffic
- based on the priority of the packet.
- In case of congestion on the router, it
- discards the packets with low priority.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

120
11/28/2025
 IPv6
Flow label:
- This label ensures that the
- packets maintain the sequential flow
- belonging to the same communication.
- With the source’s help, the label router identifies
- which packet belongs to which flow of information. It also helps to
- avoid the reordering of the data packets.
- Flow label must be set to 0
- if the router and host don’t support the flow label functionality.
- It uses 20 bits of memory for its functioning.

4)Payload Length (16-bits):

- Payload length indicates the
- router about the size of the information
- contained by a particular packet.
- If the payload length becomes greater than 65,535 bytes,
- then the payload length field becomes 0.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

121
11/28/2025
 IPv6

Next Header (8-bits):

- The next Header signifies the Extension Header type;
- in some cases,
- when the Extension Header is not present,
- it signifies the protocols present inside the upper layer packet
- like UDP, TCP
- If compare with the IPv4 protocol, the
- Next Header is similar to the
- IPv4 protocol field.

6) Hop Limit (8-bits):

- This field makes sure that the packet
- does not go into an infinite loop;
- every time the packet passes the link (router),
- this field is decremented by 1 and
- It allows a maximum of 255 hops
- between the nodes, and
- anything after that will get discarded.
- same to ttl field of ipv4.
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
122
11/28/2025
 IPv6

Source Address (128 bits):

- This 128-bit source address field
- signifies the origin address of the package.

8) Destination Address (128 bits):

- This 128-bit destination address field
- signifies the intended recipient address of the packet.

9) Extension Headers
- When Extension Headers are used,
- IPv6 Fixed Header’s Next Header field
- points to the first Extension Header.
- If there is one more Extension Header,
- then the first Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field
- points to the second one, and so on.
- The last Extension Header’s ‘Next-Header’ field
- points to the Upper Layer Header

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

123
11/28/2025
 IPv6

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

124
11/28/2025
 IPv6

In Ipv6 ,
- fragmentation is not done at router level.
- They are done at the source level.
- If the router finds an extremely big datagram,
- it drop the packet and
- sends an ICMP message to the source
- saying that packet is too big.
- So the source does the fragmentation and
- then passes on the packet.

Extension headers are used to overcome the

- limitations of the
- options field
- of IPv4.
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
125
11/28/2025
 Routing

An Autonomous System (AS) has a group of routers that are all controlled by a single administrator,
- eg. the same ISP or all belonging to the network of an organization.
- The routers which are present in the same AS run the same routing algorithm
- such as (Link State or Distance Vector) and
- all routers have the same information about each other.

The routing algorithm which is common to all routers of an AS is known as

- Intra Autonomous System Routing Protocol.

In the whole Internet, the same Inter AS routing protocol is used known as
- BGP ( Border Gateway Protocol).

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

126
11/28/2025
 Routing
In the following figure

- A.c and B,a are gateway routers

- a,b,c are internal routers of autonomous systems.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

127
11/28/2025
 Routing Information Protocol ( RIP)

RIP is a Distance Vector Protocol (DV) which works on the principle of hop count
RIP has a hop limit of 15.
Each router of an RIP has a routing table of its own maintaining how to reach different destinations and
- how many hops will be required to reach them

Every router broadcasts its information every 30 seconds to its nearest neighbours.
- Nearest neighbour means routers connected to this router directly.
- The neighbours which have received this information pass it on
- to its own nearest neighbours and so on the information is passed

Whenever a router receives an update for a shorter route to a destination, than its current longer route,
- it will update the routing table with the new path

If the destination address is of a router that is connected to the sending router,

- then the packet will be delivered directly with a cost of 1,
- or we say that the hop count is 1.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

128
11/28/2025
 RIP

In the above figure, if the packet has to go from R1 to R4, then it will choose the least number of hop counts.

Route 1 is from R1 – R2 – R3 – R4 = 3 hops

Route 2 is from R1 – R8 – R4 = 2 hops
Route 3 is from R1 – R5 – R6 – R7 – R8 = 4 hops
So Route 2 will be chosen, because it has the least 2 hops.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

129
11/28/2025
 Routing Information Protocol ( RIP Configuration)

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

130
11/28/2025
 Routing Information Protocol ( RIP Configuration)

R1(config)# router rip

R1(config-router)# network [Link]
R1(config-router)# network [Link]
R1(config-router)# version 2
R1(config-router)# no auto-summary

R2(config)# router rip

R2(config-router)# network [Link]
R2(config-router)# network [Link]
R2(config-router)# version 2
R3(config)# router rip
R2(config-router)# no auto-summary
R3(config-router)# network [Link]
R3(config-router)# network [Link]
R3(config-router)# network [Link]
R3(config-router)# version 2
R3(config-router)# no auto-summary

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

131
11/28/2025
 Open Shortest Path First(OSPF)

OSPF uses link state information for flooding and Dijkstra’s least cost path algorithm.
- In OSPF, a router makes a graph of the whole Autonomous System.
- It then determines the shortest path to all smaller subnets using Dijkstra’s Algorithm
- with itself being the root node.
- This information is broadcasted to all routers, not only the neighbouring ones.
- If there is any change in the cost up/down by any router, then the
- link state is broadcasted to all the routers.
- Also periodically after every 30 minutes, the link state is broadcasted
- even if there was no change.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

132
11/28/2025
 Routing

An OSPF Autonomous System can be divided into Areas.

- Each Area is made up of Internal Routers.
- Each Area runs its own OSPF link state routing algorithm.
- Here each router in the Area broadcasts its link state to all the routers in that Area.
- In each Area, there are Area Border Routers,
- which have the responsibility of sending packets outside their Areas.
- There are Backbone Area Routers, which move packets between different Areas.
- A Boundary Router is used to exchange information to other Autonomous Systems.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

133
11/28/2025
 OSPF

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

134
11/28/2025
 EIGPR

Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (EIGRP)

- is an advanced distance-vector routing protocol that is used on a computer network
- for automating routing decisions and configuration

EIGRP is used on a router to share routes with other routers within the same autonomous system.
- Unlike other well known routing protocols, such as RIP,
- EIGRP only sends incremental updates,
- reducing the workload on the router
- and the amount of data that needs to be transmitted.

EIGRP replaced the Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) in 1993.

- One of the major reasons for this was the
- change to classless IPv4 addresses in the Internet Protocol,
- which IGRP could not support.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

135
11/28/2025
 EIGPR

Almost all routers contain a routing table that contains rules by which traffic is forwarded in a network.
- If the router does not contain a valid path to the destination,
- the traffic is discarded.
- EIGRP is a dynamic routing protocol by which
- routers automatically share route information.
- This eases the workload on a network administrator
- who does not have to configure changes to the routing table manually.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

136
11/28/2025
 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

“The Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end data transport”

Primary functions include:
Provision of connection oriented or connectionless service.
Disassembling and reassembling data.
Setup and release of connections across the network.
Duties:
- Packetizing
- Addressing
- Connection Control
- Reliability
- Congestion Control

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

137
11/28/2025
 TCP

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

138
11/28/2025
 Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for logical communications

between applications running on different hosts

The transport layer has no knowledge of

- the destination host type,
- the type of media over which the data must travel,
- the path taken by the data,
- the congestion on a link,
- or the size of the network.

The transport layer includes two protocols:

- Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
- User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Transport Layer Responsibilities
Tracking Individual Conversations
- Each set of data flowing between
- a source application and a destination application
- is known as a conversation and is tracked separately.
Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1
139
11/28/2025
 Transport Layer

Most networks have a limitation on the amount of data

-that can be included in a single packet.
Therefore, data must be divided into manageable pieces.
Segmenting Data and Reassembling Segments
- Divide the application data into appropriately sized blocks.
- The transport layer divides the data into
- smaller blocks (i.e., segments or datagrams)
- that are easier to manage and transport.
Add Header Information
- The transport layer protocol also adds header information
- containing binary data organized into several fields
- to each block of data.
Identifying the Applications
- The transport layer must be able to
- separate and manage multiple communications
- with different transport requirement needs (Required port number).

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

140
11/28/2025
 IPv6

Conversation Multiplexing
- Sending some types of data
(e.g., a streaming video)
- across a network,
- as one complete communication stream,
- can consume all the available bandwidth.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

141
11/28/2025
 TCP

Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP is considered a
- reliable,
- full-featured transport layer protocol,
- which ensures that all of the data arrives at the destination.
- TCP includes fields which
- ensure the delivery of the application data.
- These fields require additional processing
- by the sending and receiving hosts.

TCP divides data into segments.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

142
11/28/2025
 TCP

TCP provides reliability and flow control using these basic operations:

1) Number and track data segments

- transmitted to a specific host from a specific application

2) Acknowledge received data

3) Retransmit any unacknowledged data after a certain amount of time

4) Sequence data that might arrive in wrong order

5) Send data at an efficient rate that is acceptable by the receiver

6) TCP must first establish a connection between the sender and the receiver.
This is why TCP is known as a connection-oriented protocol.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

143
11/28/2025
 UDP

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is a simpler transport layer protocol than TCP.

- It does not provide reliability and flow control,
- which means it requires fewer header fields
Because the sender and the receiver use UDP
- processes do not have to manage reliability and flow control,
- UDP datagrams travel faster than TCP segments
UDP divides data into datagrams that are also referred to as segments.
UDP is a connectionless protocol.
- Because UDP does not track information sent or received between the client and server,
- UDP is also known as a stateless protocol.
UDP is also known as a best-effort delivery protocol
because there is no acknowledgment that the data is received at the destination.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

144
11/28/2025
 UDP

The Right Transport Layer Protocol

for the Right App

UDP is the better choice because it

- requires less network overhead.
- UDP is preferable for applications
such as Voice over IP (VoIP).
- Acknowledgments and
retransmission would slow down
delivery and
make the voice conversation
unacceptable.

Real-time video and voice

usually use UDP

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

145
11/28/2025
 TCP

TCP Features
Establishes a Session — TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that
negotiates and establishes a permanent connection (or session)
between source and destination devices prior to forwarding any traffic.

Ensures Reliable Delivery — For many reasons, it is possible for a segment

- to become corrupted or lost completely,
- as it is transmitted over the network.
- TCP ensures that each segment that is sent by the
source arrives at the destination.

Provides Same-Order Delivery —

Because networks may provide multiple routes that
can have different transmission rates, data can arrive in the wrong order.
By numbering and sequencing the segments,
TCP ensures segments are reassembled into the proper order

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

146
11/28/2025
 TCP

Supports Flow Control —

-,Network hosts have limited resources (memory and processing power).
- When TCP is aware that these resources are overtaxed,
- it can request that the sending application reduce the rate of data flow.
- Flow control can prevent the need for retransmission
- of the data when the resources of the receiving host are overwhelmed.

TCP Header
- TCP is a stateful protocol which means it
- keeps track of the state of the communication session.
TCP records which information it has sent and
- which information has been acknowledged

A TCP segment adds 20 bytes (i.e., 160 bits) of overhead

- when encapsulating the application layer data.

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

147
11/28/2025
 TCP

Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1

148
11/28/2025
 TCP

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 149

 UDP

UDP Features
UDP is a best-effort transport protocol.
- UDP is a lightweight transport protocol.
- Data is reconstructed in the order that it is received.
- Any segments that are lost are not resent.
- There is no session establishment.
- The sender is not informed about resource availability.
UDP Header
- UDP is a stateless protocol,
- meaning neither the client, nor the server,
- tracks the state of the communication session.

The blocks of communication in UDP are called datagrams, or segments.

- These datagrams are sent as best effort by the transport layer protocol.
- The UDP header is far simpler and requires 8 bytes (i.e., 64 bits).

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 150

 UDP

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 151

 Port Number and Sockets

Port Number
The TCP and UDP transport layer protocols
use port numbers to manage
multiple, simultaneous conversations.

The source port number is associated with

the originating application on the localhost.
Whereas the destination port number is associated with
the destination application on the remote host.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 152

 Sockets

Socket Pairs
The combination of the source IP address and source port number, or
the destination IP address and destination port number is known as a socket.

The socket is used to identify the server and

service being requested by the client.
A client socket might look like this,
with 1099 representing the source port number: [Link]:1099

The socket on a web server (destination) might be [Link]:80

Sockets enable multiple processes,

running on a client,
to distinguish themselves from each other, and
multiple connections to a server process
to be distinguished from each other.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 153

 Sockets

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 154

 Ports

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 155

 Ports

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 156

 Application Layer

Functions of Application Layer :

• Identifying communication partners: The application layer identifies the availability of communication partners
for an application with data to transmit.
• Determining resource availability: The application layer determines whether sufficient network resources are
available for the requested communication.
• Synchronizing communication: All the communications occur between the applications requires cooperation
which is managed by an application layer.
• Application Layer provides a facility by which users can forward several emails and it also provides a storage
facility.
• This layer allows users to access, retrieve and manage files in a remote computer.
• It allows users to log on as a remote host.
• This layer provides access to global information about various services.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 157

 Application Layer

Application Layer Protocols

• The application layer provides several protocols which allow any software to easily send and receive information and
present meaningful data to its users.
• The following are some of the protocols which are provided by the application layer.

TELNET: Telnet stands for Telecommunications Network. This protocol is used for managing files over the Internet. It allows the
Telnet clients to access the resources of Telnet server. Telnet uses port number 23.
telnet [Link]
The result of this request would be an invitation to log on with a user ID, and then the program would prompt the user for a
password. If accepted, the user is granted access to the remote host.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 158

 Application Layer

• DNS: DNS stands for Domain Name System. The DNS service translates the domain name (selected by user) into
the corresponding IP address.
• For example- If you choose the domain name as [Link], then DNS must translate it as [Link] (random
IP address written just for understanding purposes). DNS protocol uses the port number 53.

• FTP: FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. This protocol helps to transfer different files from one device to another.
FTP promotes sharing of files via remote computer devices with reliable, efficient data transfer. FTP uses port
number 20 for data access and port number 21 for data control.

• HTTP: HTTP stands for Hyper Text Transfer Protocol. It is the foundation of the World Wide Web (WWW). HTTP
works on the client server model. This protocol is used for transmitting hypermedia documents like HTML.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 159

 HTTP

• This protocol was designed particularly for the communications between the web browsers and web
servers, but this protocol can also be used for several other purposes.

• HTTP is a stateless protocol (network protocol in which a client sends requests to server and server
responses back as per the given state), which means the server is not responsible for maintaining
the previous client’s requests.

• HTTP uses port number 80.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 160

 DNS

Domain Name System

WHY is DNS Required

• Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for the people also the IP
addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used
to convert the domain name of the websites to their numerical IP address.
• There are various kinds of DOMAIN:
1. Generic domain: .com(commercial) .edu(educational) .mil(military) .org(non profit organization) .net(similar to
commercial) all these are generic domain.
2. Country domain .in (india) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain name mapping. So DNS
can provide both the mapping for example to find the ip addresses of [Link] then we have to type
nslookup [Link].

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 161

 DNS

Organization of Domain:

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 162

 DNS

Name to Address Resolution:

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 163

 DNS

Domain Name Server

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 164

 HTTP

Hyper Text Transfer Protocol

• HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.

• It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).

• The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text, hypertext, audio, video, and so on.

• HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host. But, HTTP is simpler than
FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control connection to transfer the files.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 165

 HTTP

Features of HTTP:

• Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client initiates a request and waits for a
response from the server.
• When the server receives the request, the server processes the request and sends back the response to the HTTP
client after which the client disconnects the connection.
• The connection between client and server exist only during the current request and response time only.
• Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent as long as both the client and
server know how to handle the data content.
• It is required for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-type header
• Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each other only during the current
request.
• Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and server do not retain the information between various requests
of the web pages.
11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 166
 HTTP

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 167

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• FTP stands for File transfer protocol.

• FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files from one host to another.
• It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer that acts as a server for
other computers on the internet
• It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

• Objectives of FTP

• It provides the sharing of files.

• It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
• It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 168

 FTP

Why FTP?

• Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and straightforward, but sometimes
it can cause problems.

• For example, two systems may have different file conventions. Two systems may have different ways to
represent text and data.

• Two systems may have different directory structures. FTP protocol overcomes these problems by
establishing two connections between hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and another
connection is used for the control connection.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 169

 FTP

Mechanism of FTP

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 170

 FTP

There are two types of connections in FTP

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 171

 FTP

There are two types of connections in FTP:

• Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may vary.

• The data connection is made between data transfer processes.

• The data connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and closes when the file is transferred.

• Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for communication. Through control
connection, we can transfer a line of command or line of response at a time.

• The control connection is made between the control processes. The control connection remains connected during the
entire interactive FTP session.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 172

 FTP

Advantages of FTP:

• Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest way to transfer the files from
one computer to another computer.
• Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get the entire file.
• Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and password. Therefore, we can say that
FTP is more secure.
• Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose you are a manager of the
company, you send some information to all the employees, and they all send information back on the same server.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 173

 FTP

Disadvantages of FTP

• FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network. However, the size limit of the file is
2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
• It is not compatible with every system.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 174

 Daily Quiz

1. What is a computer network?

a) A device used to display information on a computer screen
b) A collection of interconnected computers and devices that can communicate and share resources
c) A type of software used to create documents and presentations
d) The physical casing that protects a computer’s internal components
2. What is internet?
a) A network of interconnected local area networks
b) A collection of unrelated computers
c) Interconnection of wide area networks
d) A single network
3. Which of the following is an example of Bluetooth?
a) wide area network
b) virtual private network
c) local area network
d) personal area network

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 175

 Daily Quiz

1. What is the full form of OSI?

a) optical service implementation
b) open service Internet
c) open system interconnection
d) operating system interface
2. How many layers are there in the ISO OSI reference model?
a) 7
b) 5
c) 4
d) 6
3. What are nodes in a computer network?
a) the computer that routes the data
b) the computer that terminates the data
c) the computer that originates the data
d) all of the mentioned

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 176

 Daily Quiz

1. How is a single channel shared by multiple signals in a computer network?

a) multiplexing
b) phase modulation
c) analog modulation
d) digital modulation
2. Which of the following devices forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet?
a) firewall
b) bridge
c) hub
d) router
3. What is the term for an endpoint of an inter-process communication flow across a computer network?
a) port
b) machine
c) socket
d) pipe

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 177

 Daily Quiz

1. Which layer does the data link layer take packets from and encapsulate them into frames for transmission?
a) transport layer
b) application layer
c) network layer
d) physical layer
2. Which of this is not a network edge device?
a) Switch
b) PC
c) Smartphones
d) Servers
3. Which layer is responsible for process to process delivery in a general network model?
a) session layer
b) data link layer
c) transport layer
d) network layer

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 178

 Daily Quiz

1. What does each packet contain in a virtual circuit network?

a) only source address
b) only destination address
c) full source and destination address
d) a short VC number
2. What is the term for the data communication system within a building or campus?
a) MA
b) LAN
c) PAN
d) WAN
3. Which network topology requires a central controller or hub?
a) Ring
b) Bus
c) Star
d) Mesh

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 179

 Weekly Assignment

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 180

 Weekly Assignment

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 181

 Weekly Assignment

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 182

 Weekly Assignment

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 183

 Faculty Video Links, Youtube & NPTEL Video Links and Online
Courses Details

• [Link]
peFloB7kyiA40EptH1up
• [Link]
sJpsYBrU&list=PLyqSpQzTE6M9voigbAaFzKiybgN7Xgvka
• [Link]
• [Link]

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 184

 Expected Questions for University Exam

• CN basics Questions:-
• Discuss the types and topologies of computer networks
• Explain Ethernet and CSMA / CD
• Explain ARP and RARP protocols
• Explain HTTP, FTP and SNMP
• Discuss IP Addressing, classless and classful addressing
• A host has an IP address as [Link]/26 Find the subnet
mask
• Explain TCP and UDP.

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 185

 References

• TEXT BOOKS:

• (1) Behrouz Forouzan, “Data Communication and Networking”,

Mc Graw Hill Edition, 6th 2022

• (2) Andrew Tanenbaum “Computer Networks”, Pearson

Education, Edition 6th 2019

• (3) William Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”,

Pearson, 10th Edition 2

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 186

 References

• REFERENCES:

• Kurose and Ross, “Computer Networking, A Top-Down Approach”,

Pearson. Eighth Edition,2021

• James F. Kurose, “Computer Networking A Top- Down Approach” 8th

Edition, Pearson Education 2022

11/28/2025 Tushar Gupta Computer networks Unit 1 187