Environmental Treaties and

Legislation
Treaty / Convention Year / Origin Main Objective Key Features / Outcomes

- Nationally Determined
Limit global temperature rise to Contributions (NDCs).- Climate
Paris Agreement 2015 (UNFCCC)
well below 2°C (preferably 1.5°C). finance & technology transfer.-
Entered into force in 2016.

- Introduced Clean Development

Mechanism (CDM), Joint
Legally binding emission reduction
Kyoto Protocol 1997 (Japan) Implementation (JI) & Emission
targets for developed nations.
Trading.- 1st period: 2008–2012.-
Replaced by Paris Agreement.

- Entered into force in 1989.- Kigali

Protect ozone layer by phasing out
Montreal Protocol 1987 (Canada) Amendment (2016) for HFCs.- Most
ODS (CFCs, halons).
successful global treaty.

- Three objectives: conservation,

Convention on Biological 1992 (Rio Earth Conservation and sustainable use sustainable use, fair benefit sharing.-
Diversity (CBD) Summit) of biodiversity. Led to Nagoya Protocol (2010).- India
enacted Biodiversity Act (2002).
Act / Regulation Year of Enactment Purpose / Objective Key Provisions / Highlights

- Ensures strict liability.- Replaced by

National Environment Tribunal Compensation for damage caused by
1995 National Green Tribunal Act (2010).-
Act hazardous substances.
Provides speedy justice.

- Enacted after Bhopal Gas Tragedy.-

Empowers Central Govt. to set pollution
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986 Umbrella law for environmental protection.
standards.- Framework for all environment
rules.

- Established CPCB and SPCBs.- Consent

Water (Prevention and Control
1974 Prevent and control water pollution. required for effluent discharge.- Maintains
of Pollution) Act
water quality.
- Declares air pollution control areas.- Sets
Air (Prevention and Control of
1981 Prevent, control, and reduce air pollution. emission standards.- Promotes cleaner
Pollution) Act
fuels.

- Requires Central Govt. approval for

Restrict use of forest land for non-forest
Forest (Conservation) Act 1980 diversion.- Encourages afforestation.-
purposes.
Sustainable forest use.

- Six schedules for species protection.-

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 Protect wild animals, plants, and habitats. Creates sanctuaries & national parks.-
Prohibits hunting & poaching.
 The Green Revolution in India

•The Green Revolution was a period of major transformation in Indian agriculture during the 1960s and 1970s.
•It aimed to increase food grain production (mainly wheat and rice) to achieve self-sufficiency and end dependence on
food imports.
•The term was coined by Dr. William Gaud (1968) and the movement in India was led by Dr. M. S. Swaminathan —
the “Father of the Green Revolution in India.”
Objectives:

•To increase crop productivity using modern techniques.

•To achieve food security and eliminate famines.
•To improve the economic condition of farmers.
•To make India self-reliant in food grain production.

Phase Time Period Focus Areas

Focus on wheat production using HYV
Initial implementation in selected states
Phase I (1966–1977) (High-Yielding Varieties) seeds and
like Punjab, Haryana, and Western UP.
irrigation.
Included rice, maize, and oilseeds;
Phase II (1980–1990) Expansion to more crops and regions. improved distribution of fertilizers and
credit.
 Conclusion

Achievements Problems and Limitations Measures for Sustainable

Food self-sufficiency: Regional imbalance: Agriculture
•India became self-reliant in food grains — no •Benefits limited to states like Punjab, •Promotion of organic and natural
longer needed imports like “PL-480” wheat Haryana, and Western UP — Eastern and farming.
from the USA. Southern states lagged. •Adoption of integrated nutrient
Higher productivity: Environmental impact: management (INM) and integrated
•Wheat and rice yields increased significantly. •Overuse of fertilizers, pesticides, and pest management (IPM).
Rural development: irrigation led to soil degradation, water •Use of biofertilizers and
•Growth of agro-industries, better income for pollution, and groundwater depletion. composting.
farmers in some regions. Loss of biodiversity: •Encouragement of crop rotation
Reduction in famine and hunger: •Monocropping of HYVs reduced and mixed cropping.
•Stable food supply ensured food security for traditional and local crop varieties. •Shift toward Second Green
millions. Socio-economic disparity: Revolution or Evergreen Revolution
•Rich farmers benefited more; small — focusing on sustainability and
farmers couldn’t afford costly inputs. environment-friendly method
 Forest Management through JFM
Joint Forest Management (JFM)

•Launched: 1990 (MoEF, Govt. of India)

•Concept: Collaborative effort between Forest Department & local communities for protection, regeneration, and benefit
sharing.

•Origin: Arabari Model, West Bengal (1970s)

Objectives:
•Promote participatory forest protection.
•Improve forest cover & biodiversity.
•Provide livelihood & equitable benefit sharing.
•Reduce illegal felling & degradation.

Key Features:
•Village-level Joint Forest Management Committees (JFMCs).
•Shared responsibilities and decisions.
•Benefits: Non-timber produce, fodder, and timber share.
Benefits & Challenges:
Improved forest condition, employment, empowerment.
Unequal benefits, weak institutional support, transparency issues.
 Social Forestry & Comparison
•Introduced: 1970s (National Commission on Agriculture, 1976).

•Concept: Afforestation & management of trees on non-forest/community lands by local people.

•Objectives:
• Meet local needs (fuel, fodder, timber).
• Reduce pressure on natural forests.
• Enhance green cover & rural livelihood.

Types:
•Farm Forestry: On private lands.
•Community Forestry: On village lands.
•Institutional Forestry: On school/temple/government lands.
•Extension Forestry: Along roads, canals, railways.
Aspect JFM Social Forestry
Year 1990 1976
Area Degraded Forests Non-forest Lands
Participants Forest Dept. + Villagers Local Communities
Focus Protection & Regeneration Resource & Livelihood
Benefit Shared Community-based
 Community Participation in Forest Management

Community participation refers to the active involvement of local people in the planning, protection, regeneration, and
sustainable use of forest resources.
It shifts forest management from a top-down (government-controlled) system to a bottom-up (people-centered) approach.

Importance of Community Participation

•Local Ownership: When people living near forests are involved, they develop a sense of responsibility and protect forests as
their own asset.
•Traditional Knowledge: Communities contribute valuable local knowledge about species, soil, and water conservation.
•Sustainable Use: Participation ensures balanced use of forest products—fuelwood, fodder, and minor forest produce, without
over-exploitation.
•Conflict Reduction: Collaboration reduces conflicts between villagers and forest departments.
•Livelihood Support: Provides income through non-timber forest produce, eco-tourism, and forest-based employment.

Forms of Participation
•Joint Forest Management (JFM): Formal partnership between forest department and local communities through Village Forest
Committees.
•Social Forestry: Collective efforts for tree planting and protection on community, institutional, or private lands.
•Self-Initiated Protection Groups: Informal village groups protecting nearby forests voluntarily.
•Women’s Participation: Women often lead plantation drives and ensure sustainable resource use (e.g., Van Mahila Mandals).
 Types of Forests Based on Growth and Management

Type Description Characteristics Examples

• Rich biodiversity and
A natural forest that has complex structure.• Large old
Old-Growth Forest (Primary / developed over a long time trees, multilayered canopy.• Amazon Rainforest, Western
Virgin Forest) without significant human Fallen logs and decomposing Ghats, parts of Himalayas.
disturbance. matter enrich soil.• Home to
rare flora & fauna.
• Younger and less complex
structure.• Lower biodiversity
Forest that regrows after
Second-Growth Forest than old-growth.• Trees of Regenerated forests in NE
disturbance such as logging,
(Secondary Forest) similar age.• Plays key role in India, logged forests of SE Asia.
fire, or agriculture.
carbon sequestration &
recovery.
• Usually monoculture (single
species).• Fast-growing
Forest deliberately planted
Plantation Forest (Managed / species for timber, pulp, or Teak, Eucalyptus, Rubber,
and managed for commercial
Artificial Forest) fuelwood.• Low biodiversity.• Bamboo plantations.
or ecological purposes.
Managed on short rotation
cycles.
Forest transition curve.
Core Zone
•Human intervention is strictly prohibited to preserve the natural ecosystem and its biodiversity.
•The data from these areas aids in determining the sustainability of activities and the preservation of environmental quality in
the surrounding areas.
•It aims to maintain the integrity of the ecosystem and protect endangered species and their habitats.

Buffer Zone
•The buffer zone is the area surrounding the core zone.
•Humans are permitted to conduct only research and education related work. These activities should not interfere with the core
area's conservation goals.
•Recreation and tourism facilities may also be included in this zone. In this zone, human activities are less intense than in the
transition zone.
•This category also includes activities that aid in the management of natural vegetation, agricultural land, fisheries, or forests in
order to improve production quality.

Transition Zone
•It is a biosphere reserve's periphery where human activities such as cropping, recreation, forestry, and settlements are
permitted with the cooperation of reserve management and local people.
•The degraded area is returned to its natural state as a result of these activities.
•Local communities, scientists, conservation organisations, cultural groups, and other stakeholders work in this zone to use the
area in a sustainable manner for the benefit of the humans who live there.
Biome Average Temperature Range Annual Rainfall / Precipitation Seasonality / Climate Type Dominant Vegetation Typical Geographic Location

Dense evergreen trees, Amazon Basin (South America),

No dry season; high humidity
Tropical Rainforest 25°C – 30°C (hot all year) 2000 – 4500 mm broadleaf canopy, vines, Congo Basin (Africa), Southeast
year-round
epiphytes Asia

Tropical Deciduous Forest Deciduous trees shedding India, Central America,

20°C – 30°C 1000 – 2000 mm Wet and dry seasons distinct
(Monsoon Forest) leaves in dry season Northern Australia

Distinct wet and dry seasons; Tall grasses, scattered trees Africa (Serengeti), Brazil,
Savanna (Tropical Grassland) 20°C – 30°C 500 – 1500 mm
warm year-round (acacia, baobab) Northern Australia
Sahara (Africa), Thar (India),
Very dry; extreme temperature Xerophytes like cacti,
Desert Day: 30°C – 45°C; Night: <10°C <250 mm Arabian Peninsula, Australian
fluctuations succulents, shrubs
Outback
Hot, dry summers; mild, wet Shrubs, small trees, drought- Mediterranean Basin,
Mediterranean (Chaparral) 10°C – 25°C 250 – 750 mm
winters resistant plants California, Chile, South Africa
North America (prairies),
Temperate Grassland (Prairie / Cold winters, warm summers;
-5°C – 25°C 250 – 1000 mm Grasses, herbs, few trees Central Asia (steppes),
Steppe) moderate rainfall
Argentina (pampas)
Deciduous broadleaf trees Eastern North America, Europe,
Temperate Deciduous Forest 0°C – 25°C 750 – 1500 mm Four distinct seasons
(oak, maple, beech) East Asia
Tall conifers (redwoods, firs), Pacific Northwest (USA), New
Temperate Rainforest 5°C – 20°C 1500 – 3500 mm Cool, wet climate; mild winters
mosses, ferns Zealand, Chile
Long, cold winters; short, cool Coniferous trees (spruce, pine,
Taiga (Boreal Forest) -10°C – 15°C 300 – 850 mm Canada, Russia, Scandinavia
summers fir)
Arctic Circle (Alaska, Siberia,
Extremely cold; permafrost;
Tundra (Arctic and Alpine) -30°C – 10°C 100 – 400 mm (mostly snow) Mosses, lichens, low shrubs Greenland), high mountain
short summer
tops
300 – 1000 mm (snow Cool to cold; temperature
Mountain (Alpine Biome) Varies with altitude Grasses, shrubs, alpine herbs Himalayas, Andes, Rockies
common) decreases with elevation
Polar Ice (Antarctic / Arctic No vegetation (some lichens, Antarctica, Greenland, Arctic
-40°C – 0°C <100 mm (snowfall only) Extremely cold, dry, windy
Desert) algae) Ocean