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DP IB Physics: SL Your notes
Wave Model
Contents
Properties of Waves
Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
Sound Waves
Electromagnetic Waves
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Properties of Waves
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Properties of Waves
Travelling waves are defined as follows:
Oscillations that transfer energy from one place to another without transferring matter
Waves transfer energy, not matter
Waves are generated by oscillating sources
These oscillations travel away from the source
Oscillations can propagate through a medium (e.g. air, water) or in vacuum (i.e. no particles),
depending on the type of wave
The key properties of travelling waves are as follows:
Displacement
Displacement x of a wave is the distance of a point on the wave from its equilibrium position
It is a vector quantity; it can be positive or negative
Measured in metres (m)
Wavelength
Wavelength λ is the length of one complete oscillation measured from the same point on two
consecutive waves
For example, two crests, or two troughs
Measured in metres (m)
Amplitude
Amplitude A is the maximum displacement of an oscillating wave from its equilibrium position (x = 0)
Amplitude can be positive or negative depending on the direction of the displacement
Measured in metres (m)
Where the wave has 0 amplitude (the horizontal line) is referred to as the equilibrium position
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Your notes
Diagram showing the amplitude and wavelength of a wave
Period & Frequency
Period (T) is the time taken for a complete oscillation to pass a fixed point
Measured in seconds (s)
Frequency (f) is the number of complete oscillations to pass a fixed point per second
Measured in Hertz (Hz)
The frequency, f, and the period, T, of a travelling wave are related to each other by the equation:
1
f =
T
Where:
f = frequency (Hz)
T = time period (s)
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Your notes
Period T and frequency f of a travelling wave
Wave speed
Wave speed (v) is the distance travelled by the wave per unit time
Measured in metres per second (m s-1)
The wave speed is defined by the equation:
λ
v = fλ =
T
Where:
v = wave speed (m s–1)
λ = wavelength (m)
This is referred to as the wave equation
It tells us that for a wave of constant speed:
As the wavelength increases, the frequency decreases
As the wavelength decreases, the frequency increases
The relationship between the frequency and wavelength of a wave
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Worked Example Your notes
The graph below shows a travelling wave.
Determine:
(a) The amplitude A of the wave, in m.
(b) The frequency f of the wave, in Hz.
Answer:
(a) Identify the amplitude A of the wave on the graph
The amplitude is defined as the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position (x = 0)
The amplitude must be converted from centimetres (cm) into metres (m)
A = 0.1 m
(b) Calculate the frequency of the wave
Step 1: Identify the period T of the wave on the graph
The period is defined as the time taken for one complete oscillation to occur
The period must be converted from milliseconds (ms) into seconds (s)
T = 1 × 10–3 s
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Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T
1 Your notes
f =
T
Step 3: Substitute the value of the period determined in Step 1
1
f = = 1000 Hz
1 × 10−3
Worked Example
The wave in the diagram below has a speed of 340 m s–1.
Determine the wavelength of the wave.
Answer:
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Worked Example
A travelling wave has a period of 1.0 μs and travels at a velocity of 100 cm s–1.
Calculate the wavelength of the wave, in m.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Period, T = 1.0 μs = 1.0 × 10–6 s
Velocity, v = 100 cm s–1 = 1.0 m s–1
Note the conversions:
The period must be converted from microseconds (μs) into seconds (s)
The velocity must be converted from cm s–1 into m s–1
Step 2: Write down the relationship between the frequency f and the period T
1
f =
T
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Step 3: Substitute the value of the period into the above equation to calculate the frequency
1 Your notes
f = = 1 × 106
1 × 10−6
Step 4: Write down the wave equation
v = fλ
Step 5: Rearrange the wave equation to calculate the wavelength λ
f
λ=
v
Step 6: Substitute the numbers into the above equation
1
λ= = 1 × 10−6
1 × 106
Examiner Tips and Tricks
You must be able to interpret different properties of waves from a variety of graphs. You may
recognise calculating the time period and wavelength look very similar (the distance for one full
wave). This is the time period if the x-axis is time. If the x-axis is distance, then this distance is the
wavelength.
Pay very close attention to units. If you want a frequency in Hertz, then the time period must be in
seconds and not milliseconds etc.
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Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
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Transverse & Longitudinal Waves
In mechanical waves, particles oscillate about fixed points
There are two types of wave: transverse and longitudinal
The type of wave can be determined by the direction of the oscillations in relation to the direction the
wave is travelling
Transverse Waves
Transverse waves are defined as follows:
A wave in which the oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of motion and energy transfer
A transverse wave travelling from left to right
This means that each particle in the wave vibrates up and down
Transverse waves show areas of peaks and troughs
Examples of transverse waves include:
Electromagnetic waves e.g. radio, visible light, UV
Vibrations on a guitar string
Transverse waves transfer energy, even if there is no resultant displacement of the medium
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This means transverse waves do not need particles to propagate, so they can travel through a
vacuum
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This is why we can still feel the UV radiation from the Sun, as it can travel through the vacuum of
space
Longitudinal Waves
Longitudinal waves are defined as follows:
A wave in which the oscillations are parallel to the direction of motion and energy transfer
A longitudinal wave travelling from left to right
This means that each particle in the wave only vibrates left and right
As a longitudinal wave propagates, areas of low and high pressure can be observed:
A rarefaction is an area of low pressure, with the particles being further apart from each other
A compression is an area of high pressure, with the particles being closer to each other
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Rarefactions and compressions on a longitudinal wave
Sound waves are an example of longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves need particles to propagate, so they cannot travel through a vacuum
This is why you cannot hear anything in the vacuum of outer space
Worked Example
The diagram below represents a transverse wave at time t = 0. The direction of motion of the wave is
shown. Point P is a point on the wave. State in which direction point P will move immediately after the
time shown.
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Your notes
Answer:
Step 1: Determine the possible directions that point P can travel in
In transverse waves, the particles oscillate perpendicular to the direction of motion
This transverse wave travels from right to left
Oscillations will either be up or down
Hence point P will either move up or down
Step 2: Determine the next direction of point P
Since the wave is moving from right to left, a crest (i.e. a point of maximum displacement above
the equilibrium position) will be approaching point P immediately after the time shown
Point P will be moving upwards
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Exam questions will focus on the description of the motion of particles of a medium when a wave
passes through it, for both types. Make sure you remember the difference between them:
Particles in a transverse wave move up and down
Particles in a longitudinal wave move left and right
The particles do not travel 'along' the wave, they are just in one position, and can only move either
vertically or horizontally. All the particles have the same motion, but are displaced slightly, creating
the illusion that the whole wave is moving together.
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Sound Waves
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Sound Waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves and, as such, require a medium in which to propagate
Sound waves are generated by oscillating sources, which produce a change in density of the
surrounding medium
The sound wave then travels with a series of compressions and rarefactions
A sound wave travelling through air
Sound waves form a continuous spectrum based on their frequency
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The spectrum of sound waves
Humans can only hear sounds with frequencies in the range 20 Hz - 20 kHz, known as the audible range Your notes
Sounds with frequencies below and above this range cannot be detected by the human ear
Pitch & Volume
The frequency of a sound wave is related to its pitch
Sounds with a high pitch have a high frequency (or short wavelength)
Sounds with a low pitch have a low frequency (or long wavelength)
The amplitude of a sound wave is related to its volume
Sounds with a large amplitude have a high volume
Sounds with a small amplitude have a low volume
Pitch and amplitude of sound
Speed of Sound
Sound waves travel at a speed of about 340 m s–1 in air at room temperature
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The higher the air temperature, the greater the speed of sound
The is because the average kinetic energy of the particles is higher Your notes
Sound travels the fastest through solids, since solid particles are closely packed and can pass the
oscillations onto their neighbours much faster
Sound travels the slowest in gases, since gas particles are spread out and less efficient in transferring
the oscillations to their neighbours
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Electromagnetic Waves
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The Electromagnetic Spectrum
An electromagnetic wave is generated by the combined oscillation of an electric and a magnetic field
These fields oscillate perpendicularly to each other and to the direction of motion of the wave (i.e. the
direction in which energy is transferred)
An electromagnetic wave is generated by the combined oscillation of an electric and a magnetic field
Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves and, as such, they can travel through vacuum
Regardless of their frequency, all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light c = 3 × 108 m s–1 in
vacuum
Electromagnetic waves form a continuous spectrum based on their frequency (or wavelength)
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The shorter the wavelength, or higher the frequency, the greater the energy of the wave
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The electromagnetic spectrum
Humans can only sense electromagnetic waves with wavelengths in the range 700 nm - 400 nm,
which are the limits of the so-called visible spectrum
Electromagnetic waves with longer and shorter wavelengths are invisible to the human eye
Knowing the wavelengths of electromagnetic waves, their frequencies can be calculated using
The wave equation
The fact that the speed of light (c = 3 × 108 m s–1) in a vacuum is constant
Worked Example
The wavelength of blue light falls within the range 450 nm – 490 nm.
Determine the range of frequencies of blue light.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Note that you must convert the values of the wavelength from nanometres (nm) into metres (m)
λlower = 450 nm = 4.5 × 10–7 m
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λhigher = 490 nm = 4.9 × 10–7 m
Step 2: Remember that all electromagnetic waves travel at the speed of light in vacuum
Your notes
From the data booklet, c = 3.00 × 108 m s–1
Step 3: Write down the wave equation
v = fλ
Step 4: Rearrange the above equation to calculate the frequency f
v
f =
λ
Step 5: Substitute the lower and higher values of the wavelength to calculate the limiting values
of the frequency of blue light
The lower frequency flower corresponds to the higher value of the wavelength λhigher
3 . 00 × 108
f lower = = 6 . 1 × 1014 Hz
4 . 9 × 10−7
The higher frequency fhigher corresponds to the lower value of the wavelength λlower
3 . 00 × 108
f = = 6 . 7 × 1014 Hz
4 . 5 × 10−7
Step 6: Write down the range of frequencies of blue light
f = 6 . 1 × 1014 – 6 . 7 × 1014 Hz
Examiner Tips and Tricks
You don't need to memorise the order or the wavelengths of waves in the electromagnetic
spectrum, as this is given in your data booklet. However, you must remember all electromagnetic
waves travel at the speed of light, c.
Comparing Mechanical & Electromagnetic Waves
Travelling waves can be of two types, mechanical and electromagnetic
Mechanical Waves Electromagnetic Waves
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Require a medium, such as a fluid or solid to propagate Do not require a medium
through
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Can be transverse or longitudinal Are only transverse
Cannot travel through a vacuum Can travel through a vacuum
Are produced by the oscillation of particles in a medium Are produced by oscillating charged
particles
Examples: Sound waves, waves on the surface of the Examples: Radio waves, UV rays, X-rays
ocean
Travel a lot slower than the speed of light Travel at the speed of light
Electromagnetic waves can travel in a vacuum (such as space) whilst mechanical waves require a
medium (such as water)
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Examiner Tips and Tricks
You must be able to identify the features of either mechanical or electromagnetic waves, Your notes
depending on the question.
A common misconception is that mechanical waves are just longitudinal, like sound waves.
However, they can also be transverse waves that travel through a medium such as seismic waves
(created during an earthquake) and water waves.
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