Holy Trinity University

Module: Introduction to Scriptural Studies

Course Outline
Course Title: Introduction to Holy Scriptures Course Code:
Credit Hours: 3
Target Audience: First-year Extension undergraduate program students of HTU

Prepared By:
Oct, 2025
Addis Ababa

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Course Overview
This course, Introduction to Holy Scriptures, seeks to furnish students with a foundational yet
profound comprehension of the Holy Scriptures as the divinely inspired Word of God and as the
indispensable source of ecclesial life, doctrine, and spirituality within Orthodox Christianity
particularly in the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo tradition. It presents the Holy Scriptures as a
single, unified canon of sacred revelation, while at the same time acknowledging their diverse
literary genres, historical contexts, and theological themes across the Old and New Testaments,
which together unveil God’s eternal economy for the salvation of humanity.
The course guides students through the historical genesis, structural composition, and theological
content of the biblical corpus, with special attention to questions of authorship, canon formation,
original languages, and ancient manuscripts. Furthermore, it underscores the enduring
significance of venerable biblical versions such as the Septuagint and the Geʽez translation and
their formative influence on Orthodox theology, liturgical life, and doctrinal expression.
Central to this course is the Orthodox doctrine of inspiration, revelation, and illumination,
essential principles for interpreting Scripture within the living Holy Tradition of the Church.
Students will examine how the Holy Spirit, as the divine author, guided the biblical writers, and
how the Church through her Apostolic Fathers, Saints, and Ecumenical Councils has faithfully
safeguarded, transmitted, and interpreted the sacred texts throughout history.
Although modern society frequently references scientific works such as Darwin’s The Origin of
Species, comparatively few understand the origins and transmission of the Holy Scriptures. This
course, therefore, introduces learners to the historical development of the biblical text, including
the New Testament writings, ancient manuscript traditions, the Dead Sea Scrolls of Qumran,
early Egyptian papyri, and the proliferation of translations, including English versions. The Holy
Scriptures (Holy Bible) remain unparalleled among the literary works of humanity. They are a
living and life-giving text, containing within them the divine seed of truth. Even when
approached purely as literature, they stand as the most extraordinary and influential writings ever
produced. The purpose of this academic endeavor is to present a comprehensive survey of the
Bible and to contemplate the manner in which God discloses Himself to humanity through the
sacred writings. The Church reveres the Holy Scriptures with the utmost veneration, exalting
them with the same honor afforded to the Body of Christ, recognizing them as the inspired and
infallible Word of God.
Through an integration of readings, multimedia engagement, analytical assignments, and
scholarly dialogue, this course aims to cultivate in students both critical competency and
devotional reverence in their encounter with the Holy Scriptures. By its conclusion, students will
have attained a deeper appreciation for the inexhaustible richness of the biblical text and its
indispensable relevance to the theology, spirituality, and ecclesial life of the Ethiopian Orthodox
Tewahedo Church.

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Course Description
This course offers a foundational study of the Holy Scriptures, exploring their historical
background, literary features, and theological message. It introduces students to major figures
and significant events throughout biblical history, while also examining the diverse literary
forms found within the Bible. Key theological themes will be highlighted and discussed in
relation to the life of the Church.
Students will study both the Old and New Testaments and will come to understand the Holy
Scriptures as sacred writings that communicate the word of God. The course also aims to help
students apply insights from related academic fields, developing skills that support interpretation
and analysis of the biblical text. By the end of the course, students will have a broad overview of
the entire Bible and a clearer appreciation of its purpose, message, and unity.

Course Objectives
Upon successful completion of this course, students will be able to:
 Demonstrate an understanding of the overarching narrative and structure of the Holy
Scriptures.
 Identify and explain the theological, historical, and literary settings of the books of the
Bible, and articulate how these contexts shape interpretation through divine inspiration
and revelation.
 Describe the development of the biblical text, including its authors, canon formation,
original languages, manuscripts, and major versions of the Old and New Testaments.
 Reflect on the transformative role of the Holy Scriptures in the Christian life and evaluate
how biblical teachings guide believers toward a deeper relationship with God.
 Read and engage with the entire Holy Bible personally, gaining firsthand familiarity with
its message and themes.

Preceding Course Assessment Measures

Term Paper: Students will complete an 8–10 page term paper based on assigned topics. They
may also propose their own research topics with the approval of the instructor. This paper will
contribute 10% of the final grade.
Assignment and Presentation: An additional written assignment will count for 20%,
accompanied by an oral presentation valued at 10%, for a total of 30%. Each student will have
up to 15 minutes to present, followed by a discussion period. All students are expected to
participate actively in the discussion.
Mid-Term Examination: The mid-term exam, including quizzes, will contribute 20% of the
final grade. Quizzes or exams may only be rescheduled with prior approval from the instructor.

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Final Examination: A comprehensive final exam will be administered at the end of the course
and will constitute 40% of the total mark.
Participation and Attendance: Class engagement, including attendance and participation in
discussions, will account for the remaining 10% of the final grade.

Required Textbook (s) and References

A. Required
 The Holy Bible
 Comfort, P. W. (2000). The origin of the Bible. Tyndale House.
 ቸርነት አበበ (2003). መሠረታዊ የመጽሏፍ ቅደስ አጠናን ዘዳ. አዱስ አበባ.
B. Recommended
 Breck, John. 2001. Scripture in Tradition: The Bible and Its Interpretation in the
Orthodox Church. Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir‘s Seminary Press.
 Fant, C. E., & others. (1992). an introduction to the Bible (Revised Ed.). Abingdon Press.
 Collis, H., & John, (Dr...). (2008). the Orthodox Study Bible. St. Athanasius Academy.
 Coogan, Michael D., and Eugen J. Pentiuc, eds. 2022. The Oxford Handbook of the Bible
in Orthodox Christianity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
 Binz, S. J. (1996). Introduction to the Bible. Saint John Abbey Liturgical Press.
 Collett, S. (1933). All about the Bible. Fleming H. Revell Company.
 Evans, W. (1902). The book of the books. Colportage Association of Chicago.
 Florovsky, Georges. 1972. Bible, Church, and Tradition. Belmont, MA: Nordland
Publishing.
 Kugel, James. 2007. How to Read the Bible: A Guide to Scripture, Then and Now. New
York: Free Press.
 McDonald, Lee Martin. 1995. The Formation of the Christian Biblical Canon. Peabody,
MA: Hendrickson Publishers.
 Metzger, Bruce M. 1987. The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development,
and Significance. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
 Pentiuc, Eugen J. 2014. The Old Testament in Eastern Orthodox Tradition. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
 Warfield, Benjamin Breckinridge. 1948. The Inspiration and Authority of Scripture.
Philadelphia: Presbyterian & Reformed Publishing.
 Webster, John. 2003. Holy Scripture: A Dogmatic Sketch. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Amharic References
 የኢትዮጵያ ኦርቶድክስ ተዋሕድ ቤተ ክርስቲያን (1998). እምነት፤ ሥርዓተ አምሌኮና የውጭ ግንኙነት. አዱስ
አበባ.
 ብለይ ሰይፈ ዩሏንስ (መጋቤ ብለይ) ፡፡ (1994 ዓ.ም) ። አጭር የብለይ ኪዲን ጥናት

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 Table of Contents
Title page no.
Course outline…………………………………………………………………………….
Course Overview…………………………………………………………………………
Course description…………………………………………………………………………
Course Objectives………………………………………………………………………….
Preceding Course assessment measures……………………………………………………
Required Textbooks and Citations………………………………………………………..
Chapter one
1. Introduction to the Holy Scriptures………………………………………………..
1.1 The Holy Bible: its literal meaning and its Holiness………………………………
1.2 Meaning of Testament (the massage of the Bible)…………………………………
1.3 The Unity of the two Testaments…………………………………………………..
1.4 Old Testament as a preparation for the New Testament…………………………..
1.5 Bible as the Word of God in the words of Men……………………………………
1.6 The structure and Divisions of the Bible…………………………………………..
1.6.1 Old Testament division
[Link] The Jews Tanak
[Link] The Orthodox Bible
[Link] The Protestant Bible
1.6.2 New Testament Bible
1.7 The Chapters and Verses Divisions of the Bible…………………………………
1.8 The Printed Bible………………………………………………………………...
1.9 Read and Study the Holy Bible………………………………………………….
1.9.1 A few practical Suggestions
1.9.2 Tools for studying the Bible
1.9.3 Commentaries
1.9.4 Bible Dictionaries
1.9.5 Concordance
1.9.6 The Bible Atlas
1.10 The Origins and Development of the Bible……………………………...
Chapter Two
2. The writing of the Old Testament……………………………………………….

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 2.1 How we got the Old Testament………………………………………………….
Objective of the study
2.2 The Authors of the Old Testament………………………………………………
2.3 The Old Testament Canon: Difference in Christian Traditions…………………
2.3.1 The Hebrew Bible
2.3.2 The Biblical Canon of the EOTC
2.4 The Languages of the Old Testament (Hebrew and Aramaic)…………………..
2.5 Old Testament Manuscripts ……………………………………………………..
2.5.1 Codex Cairoenis
2.5.2 Codex Petersbury
2.5.3 Codex Aleppoenis
2.5.4 Codex londinenis
2.5.5 Codex Reuchlinianus
2.5.6 Codex Erfurtensis
2.5.2 Masoretic Manuscripts……………………………………………………….
2.5.3 Septuagint’s…………………………………………………………………..
Chapter Three
3. The writing of the New Testament ……………………………………………..
3.1 How we got the New Testament………………………………………………..
Objectives of the study
3.1.1 The life and ministry of Jesus Christ………………………………………..
3.1.2 The Birth and Spread of the Church…………………………………………
3.2 The Authors of the New Testament……………………………………………
3.2.1 The Gospels
3.2.2 The Acts of the Apostles
3.2.3 The Letters of the Apostle Puol
3.2.4 General Epistles
3.2.5 Revelation
3.3 The New Testament Canon……………………………………………………
3.4 N.T Biblical Canon of EOTC…………………………………………………
3.5 The language of the N.T Greek……………………………………………….
3.6 The N.T text and Manuscripts…………………………………………………
3.6.1 The Chaster Beatty papyrus
3.6.2 The Bodmer papyrus
3.6.3 Codex Sinaitius
3.6.4 Codex Vaticanus
3.6.5 Codex Ephramic Rescripts
3.6.6 Codex Alexandrins
3.6.7 Codex Beza
Chapter Four

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 4. Inspiration and Revelation and Illumination………………………………
Objectives of the study
4.1 What is the term Revelation……………………………………………….
4.1.1 Revelation(General and direct revelation)
4.1.2 Inspiration ……………………………………………………………
[Link] Theories of Inspiration
[Link] Natural Inspiration
[Link] Mechanic or Dynamic Inspiration
4.1.3 Illumination…………………………………………………………..
4.2 Relationship between Scripture, Tradition and the Church……………..
4.3 The Role of the Holy Spirit in the Inspiration of scriptures……………..
4.4 The Holy Spirit and correct Interpretation of scriptures…………………
Chapter Five
5. The Language and Versions of the Bible
Objectives of the study
5.1 The Biblical Languages
5.1.1 Semitic Families
5.1.2 The Indo-European Families
5.1.3 The Text of the Old Testament
5.1.4 The Samaritan Pentateuch
5.2 Ancient Versions of the Bible
5.2.1 The Greek Versions
5.2.2 The Aramaic Versions
5.2.3 The Syriac Version (Peshitt)
5.2.4 The Latin Version (Vulgate)
5.2.5 The Ethiopic Version (Ge’ez)
5.2.6 The Coptic Version
5.2.7 The Armenian Version
5.2.8 The English Version
5.3 Ethiopian Manuscripts
5.4 The text of the New Testament

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Chapter One
1. Introduction to Holy Scripture Study
Objectives of the Study
By the end of this chapter, students will be able to:
 Explain the meaning of the Holy Scriptures (Holy Bible), including the concept of
the Testaments and the unity between the Old and New Testaments.
 Discuss who the author and the scribes of the Bible are, as well as understand how
the Scriptures should be read and the essential tools for biblical study.
 Recognize and outline the main divisions of the Holy Bible.
 Describe the origin and development of the Holy Bible, with attention to its stages
of oral tradition, written form, and later editing.
The Holy Scriptures are the divinely inspired revelation of God, given through the prophets,
apostles, and holy men for the salvation of humanity. They are the written testimony of God’s
will, communicating His redemptive plan from creation to the fullness of time in Christ. As Saint
Paul teaches, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for
reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness” (2 Tim. 3:16, NKJV). Therefore, the
Church has always received the Holy Scriptures not as human philosophy or literature, but as the
very Word of God, breathed by the Holy Spirit.
From the beginning, the Scriptures were written for the spiritual formation of God’s people.
Saint Paul affirms that “whatever things were written before were written for our learning”
(Rom. 15:4), revealing that Scripture instructs, strengthens hope, and guides the faithful into a
life of righteousness. The Bible is thus both historical and eternal historical in its narrative, yet
eternal in its truth offering divine guidance to every generation.
The early Church Fathers unanimously upheld the Scriptures as divinely inspired and
authoritative. St. Athanasius of Alexandria describes them as sufficient for the knowledge of
salvation: “These are fountains of salvation, that whoever thirsts may be satisfied by the words
they contain” (Athanasius, Festal Letter 39). Likewise, St. John Chrysostom emphasizes the
transformative power of the Word, saying, “Just as those who dwell in darkness are enlightened
when the sun rises, so the soul’s darkness is dispelled by the reading of the divine Scriptures”
(Chrysostom, Homilies on Genesis).
Moreover, the Lord Jesus Christ Himself testified to the authority of Scripture. He constantly
referred to the Law, the Prophets, and the Psalms, teaching that “the Scripture cannot be broken”
(John 10:35). On the road to Emmaus, “beginning at Moses and all the Prophets, He expounded
to them in all the Scriptures the things concerning Himself” (Luke 24:27). Thus, Christ confirms
that the Holy Scriptures are Christocentric all pointing to Him, fulfilled in Him, and illuminated
through Him.

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For the Orthodox tradition, Scripture exists within the life of the Church, interpreted through the
Holy Spirit and guarded by apostolic tradition. As St. Basil the Great teaches, the understanding
of Scripture must remain within the mind of the Church: “What is taught by the Church is the
true meaning of Scripture” (Basil, On the Holy Spirit). Therefore, Scripture and Tradition are not
in competition but in perfect harmony, together revealing the fullness of divine truth.
1.1 Definitions and Key Concepts Definition of Holy Scriptures (Holy Bible).
A. The Holy Bible
The term "Bible" is derived from the Greek word Byblos, which traces its origins to the ancient
writing material known as papyrus. Papyrus, a paper-like material made from the papyrus reed,
was widely used for writing in antiquity, especially in Egypt. Philip W. Comfort has emphasized
that the Holy Bible is used for the collection of books regarded as the Holy Scriptures. The word
βιβλίον itself had the literal meaning of "scroll" and came to be used as the ordinary word for
"book". It is the diminutive of βύβλος Byblos, "Egyptian papyrus."(This plant played a crucial
role in the ancient world's intellectual and literary activities. Papyrus was exported to the ancient
Phoenician port of Byblos (modern-day Lebanon), which became a central hub for the trade of
this material. Byblos, a maritime city at the eastern edge of the Mediterranean, was known for its
commerce and, by the 11th century B.C., became deeply associated with the production and
export of papyrus. The term Byblos was not only used to designate the material but also came to
represent the written works themselves. Over time, the association between Byblos and papyrus
led to the term being used for any written document, including sacred scriptures (Tov, 1999).
The Bible is often used interchangeably with the term "Scripture," a word that denotes divinely
inspired writings.
As the term Byblos evolved, it acquired special significance about sacred texts, particularly
within the Jewish and Christian traditions. The word biblia (the plural form of Byblos) was used
by Christians as early as the second century A.D. to refer to their sacred writings, which included
the Old and New Testaments. This term was later adopted into Latin as biblia, from which it
entered Old French as biblia, and eventually became "Bible" in modern English (Metzger, 2002).
Thus, the term "Bible" came to signify the collection of sacred texts that form the foundation of
Christian faith and practice.
The English word Holy Bible comes from the Greek words biblos (Matt 1:1) and biblion (Luke
4:7) which mean “Book” Ancient books were written upon the biblus or papyrus reed, and from
this custom came the Greek name ‘Biblos’, which finally came to applied to the sacred books
(Mark 12:26; Luke 3:4; Act 1:20).
The term Bible is often used synonymously with “Scripture”. The names “Sacred Scripture” and
“Bible” are two conventional terms used for the collection of the sacred books of the Judaism
and Christianity. The name scripture is derived from the third division of the Hebrew (Jews)

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canon of the Bible, as Torah, Prophets, and Writings (scriptures). The plural form “scriptures”
was later made into singular as “scripture”. The qualification “holy or sacred” is prefixed to the
name Bible in order to show its inner Holiness.
Then "holy" or "sacred" in conjunction with the word "Bible" emphasizes the divine and unique
nature of these Scriptures. Christians and Jews alike regard their respective sacred texts as
divinely inspired, believing these writings to be the direct or indirect result of God‘s influence.
The belief in the inspiration of Scripture highlights that these texts are not merely human
writings but are viewed as vessels of divine revelation and truth. Consequently, the Bible is not
just a religious book but also serves as a guide for the ethical, moral, and spiritual lives of its
adherents. It is the authoritative source for understanding God‘s will, His purpose for humanity,
and the ultimate plan for salvation (Brevard, 2011).
The Holy Bible is not merely a book, however. It is ‘the Book of the Book’ that, from the
importance of its subjects, the wideness of its range (William 1902).
Discussion Questions: 1. What is the origin of the word “Bible”, and how did its meaning
evolve over time?
2. Why is the term “Holy” or “Sacred” added to the word “Bible”, and what does it signify?
3. Explain how the trade of papyrus in ancient Byblos contributed to the naming of the Holy
Bible.
4. In what way does the evolution of the term “Scripture” reflect the development of religious
tradition and understanding in Judaism and Christianity?
5. (Discussion-Based / Analytical) the text states that “The Holy Bible is not merely a book, but
‘the Book of books.’” What does this expression suggest about the Bible’s significance in
religious and historical contexts?
B. The Holy Scriptures
The word ‘Scriptures’ is derived from the Latin and means the writings. This is a simple and
accurate term. In Dan. 10:21, we read of the Scripture of the truth. In Hos 8:12 God says, I have
written unto him the great things of my law, and it may be said of the whole, as it was the Ten
Commandments, the writing was the writing of God (Exod 32:16). (Sidney 1933).
The Bible is often used interchangeably with the term "Scripture," a word that denotes divinely
inspired writings. In Jewish tradition, the Bible (referred to as the Tanakh) is divided into three
sections: the Torah (Law), Nevi'im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The Torah consists of
the first five books, often called the Pentateuch, which are foundational to Jewish law and
religious life. The Nevi'im contains the writings of the prophets, and the Ketuvim includes
various texts, such as Psalms, Proverbs, and historical narratives. The Hebrew word for these
sacred writings is khetuvim, which originally appeared in the plural form to denote the entirety

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of the Scriptures. Over time, however, the term "Scripture" (in both Jewish and Christian
contexts) became singular, reflecting the unity of these sacred texts as the unified Word of God
(Harper, 1994).
The word "Scripture" also emphasizes the sacred and divine nature of the text, underscoring its
role as the inspired Word of God. In both the Old and New Testaments, the term graphe (Greek
for "Scripture") is used to refer to the authoritative writings and is written with the inspiration of
the spirit of God or the breath of God. They are also described as Holy Books containing the
word of God (Fiteha Negest 1988:Art.2). Illustration that Holy Books are the breath of God or
are written by the inspiration of the spirit of God; the apostle St. Paul states I 2 Tim. 3:17 all
Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in
righteousness. Saint Cyril of Alexandria also wrote that Holy Books are the breath of God (Faith
of Fathers 78:67). The word old is a term of honor and respect for these ancient Scriptures. It
does not at all mean that these books are obsolete or outdated (Stephen [Link] 1996).
Hence, all that is written in the Scriptures is the absolute truth. Nothing can be added or deducted
from it. It can neither be modified nor changed. It was written by Holy men guided by the spirit
of God (2Pet. 1:2). It is written that there were times when the Lord either revealed himself,
made his voice heard or acted through the one that he willed and commanded write down these
words (Ex.3427; Isa.8; 1; Fiteha Negest 1988).
Furthermore, "Scripture" applies to both the Old and New Testaments in Christianity,
recognizing that both are divinely inspired and authoritative. In Romans 1:2, Paul refers to the
"holy Scriptures" (plural), which include both the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Christian
writings. This term reflects the unity of both testaments as the cohesive and complete revelation
of God‘s work in history, culminating in the person of Jesus Christ. The term "Bible," while
common, does not fully capture this sense of unity and divine origin across both testaments.
The term "Scripture" is also more inclusive across various religious traditions. While "Bible" is
specific to Christianity, "Scripture" can refer to any sacred text, including those of Judaism,
Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and other religious traditions. This universality makes "Scripture"
a more fitting term when discussing sacred writings in general, as it emphasizes divine revelation
rather than a particular collection of writings or a specific religious tradition.
While the term "Bible" is widely used to refer to the sacred books of Christianity, "Scripture" is a
more appropriate term because it emphasizes the divine, authoritative, and inspired nature of the
texts. It transcends the physical compilation of books and reflects the belief that these writings
are the divinely revealed Word of God. "Scripture" is not limited to any one religious tradition,
and it underscores the sacredness of the texts, making it the fitting term to describe the writings
central to both Judaism and Christianity.

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By the end of the second century, we find the Old covenant and the New Covenant as the
established names of the Jewish and Christian Scriptures; and Origen, in the beginning of the
third century, mentioned the divine Scriptures, the so-called Old and New Covenants.
The Old Testament deals with the record of the calling and history of the Jewish nation, and as
such, it is the Old Covenant. The New Testament deals with the history and application of the
redemption wrought by the Lord Jesus Christ, as such is the New Testament (William, 1902).
C. Holiness the Holy Scripture (Bible)
Why the Holy Bible is called “Holy”?
The Bible is called Holy because it is sacred, set apart, God-breathed, pure, life-giving, and
authoritative, unlike any other book in the world. The word holy means “set apart for God”
(Exodus 19:6; 1 Peter 1:16).
✅ 1. Because its Author is Holy, It is the Word of God

The Bible is holy because God Himself is its author. Though written by men, it is inspired by the
Holy Spirit. “You shall be holy, for I the Lord your God am Holy” (Lev 19:2). 2 Timothy 3:16
“All Scripture is given by inspiration of God…” 2 Peter 1:21 “Holy men of God spoke as they
were moved by the Holy Spirit.”
✅ 2. Because the Scripture is Perfect, Pure, and Without Error and declares about events
before creation and after creation
The Bible is holy because its content is flawless, pure, and true.
Psalm 19:7–8 “The law of the Lord is perfect… the commandment of the Lord is pure.” Psalm
12:6 “The words of the Lord are pure words.”
✅ 3. Because the Word Brings Holiness and Sanctification to Believers

The Bible is holy because it sanctifies the life of those who follow it.
John 17:17 “Sanctify them by Your truth. Your word is truth.” Psalm 119:9 “How can a young
man cleanse his way? By taking heed according to Your word.” (Rev 1:3)
✅ 4. Because the Bible Reveals God’s Holy Will and Commandments

God’s commandments are holy, so the book that contains them is holy.
Romans 7:12 “The law is holy, and the commandment holy, and just, and good.” Psalm 119:105
“Your word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path.”
✅ 5. Because Salvation and Eternal Life the Bible Leads to

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Only God’s holy word reveals the way of salvation. 2 Timothy 3:15 “The Holy Scriptures… are
able to make you wise for salvation.” John 20:31 “These are written that you may believe… and
that believing you may have life in His name.”
✅ 6. Because the Bible is eternal and unchanging

It is holy because it stands forever, unlike human writings. Isaiah 40:8 “The word of our God
stands forever.” Matthew 24:35 “Heaven and earth will pass away, but my words will by no
means pass away.”
Discussion Questions: 1. what does the term “Scripture” mean, and how is it different from the
term “Bible”?
2. How did the Jewish Scriptures (Tanakh) come to be organized, and what are their three main
divisions?
3. How do the Old and New Testaments together express the unity of the Scriptures, according to
Christian belief?
4. Why is the Bible called “Holy,” and what are the main reasons that affirm its holiness
according to the text?
5. (Discussion-Based) the text says that nothing can be added to or taken from the Scriptures
because they are “absolute truth.” What challenges might arise when interpreting this statement
in today’s diverse religious and cultural context?
1.2. Meaning of the two Testaments
The term "Testament" in the context of the Bible carries significant theological meaning. It is
derived from the Latin word testamentum, which stems from the verb testari, meaning to bear
witness or to make a declaration.
The Bible is composed of two main sections, the Old Testament and the New Testament. The
terms OT and NT came into general use since the time of Tertullian, by the end of the 2nd
century A.D. A Covenant is an agreement or contract between two parties (it is a bilateral
agreement). The biblical writers, in both the Old and New Testaments, speak of a covenant
between God and man. The word testament‘means covenant or agreement.
This concept of covenant is pivotal to understanding the structure and narrative of the Bible, as it
reflects the dynamic relationship between the Creator and His people. Covenants in the Bible are
not merely contracts but solemn commitments that establish how God's people are to live
following His divine law and grace (Exodus 19:5-6; Jeremiah 31:31-34).
In the Christian tradition, the Bible is divided into two major parts: the Old Testament and the
New Testament, each corresponding to distinct yet interrelated covenants between God and
humanity. The Old Testament refers to the covenant God made with the people of Israel,

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beginning with the patriarchs, through the Mosaic covenant, and continuing through the writings
of the prophets. The covenant in the Old Testament is grounded in law and promises,
emphasizing obedience to God's commands and the eventual coming of a Messiah who would
bring salvation to Israel and the world (Genesis 12:1-3; Exodus 19:5-6).
The Old Testament, while rich in history, law, and prophecy, can be understood as a preparatory
stage for the New Testament. The covenant established in the Old Testament is characterized by
laws, sacrifices, rituals, and expectations of divine blessing for obedience and curse for
disobedience (Deuteronomy 28). However, despite its importance, the Old Testament covenant
was limited in that it pointed toward a greater fulfillment, which Christians believe was achieved
through Jesus Christ. The Mosaic covenant, with its focus on the law and ritual sacrifices, set the
stage for the ultimate sacrifice of Christ, who, according to Christian belief, would fulfill the law
and bring a new form of salvation that transcends the old system of sacrifices (Matthew 5:17;
Hebrews 10:1-18).
The New Testament, by contrast, refers to the covenant established by Jesus Christ through His
life, death, and resurrection. This New Covenant, as foretold in the Old Testament (Jeremiah
31:31-34), represents the fulfillment of God‘s promises, offering salvation by grace through faith
rather than through adherence to the law. The New Testament includes the Gospels, the Acts of
the Apostles, and the Epistles, which testify to the life and teachings of Jesus Christ and the
apostolic understanding of His mission. It is in the New Testament that Christians see the
completion of the promises made in the Old Testament, with Christ's atoning sacrifice on the
cross serving as the ultimate act of redemption (Luke 22:20; Ephesians 2:8-9).
Theologically, the unity of the two Testaments is rooted in the idea that the Old Testament
prepares the way for the coming of Christ, while the New Testament reveals how Jesus Christ
fulfills the Old Testament promises. This unity is best understood as a continuum rather than a
contradiction. The Old Testament sets the framework for understanding sin, salvation, and God's
holiness, and these themes find their ultimate resolution in the person and work of Jesus. For
example, the sacrificial system of the Old Testament pointed forward to the ultimate sacrifice of
Christ (Hebrews 9:11-14). Similarly, prophecies about the coming Messiah in the Old Testament
are seen as fulfilled in Jesus Christ‘s first coming (Isaiah 53:1-12; Matthew 1:22-23).
Moreover, the New Testament writings make constant references to the Old Testament,
interpreting and explaining them in light of Christ‘s work. Jesus Himself affirmed the continuity
of the two Testaments, asserting that He came to fulfill, not abolish, the law and the prophets
(Matthew 5:17). The apostles also viewed the Old Testament as providing a foundation for
understanding the person and mission of Jesus Christ. As Paul writes in Romans 15:4, "For
everything that was written in the past was written to teach us, so that through the endurance
taught in the Scriptures and the encouragement they provide, we might have hope."

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The unity of the two Testaments is also evident in the understanding of salvation history. The
Old Testament speaks of God‘s plan to redeem humanity through a promised Savior, while the
New Testament reveals that this Savior is Jesus Christ, who inaugurates the Kingdom of God.
Both covenants testify to the centrality of God‘s grace in salvation, even though the modes of
redemption differ. The Old Testament anticipates a new heart and a new spirit that would come
through the Messiah, as seen in Ezekiel 36:26-27, while the New Testament speaks of the new
birth in Christ, a spiritual transformation enabled by the Holy Spirit (John 3:3-5; 2 Corinthians
5:17). So the books of the Old Testament focus on the old covenant between God and his people.
The books of the New Testament focus on God‘s new covenant with every believer. The Old
Testament and New Testament are two parts of one divine revelation.
Despite the New Testament‘s unique emphasis on grace and the fulfillment of the law, it does
not render the Old Testament obsolete. Instead, the Old Testament is regarded as divinely
inspired and authoritative for understanding the New Testament. The writings of the early
Church Fathers affirmed that the Old and New Testaments are intrinsically linked, with the Old
Testament preparing the way for the New, and the New revealing the fullness of what was
promised in the Old.
There are two types of covenants: unilateral covenant (unconditional) and bilateral covenant
(conditional). The biblical covenants have three parts: a statement about God’s saving act (what
God brings to the agreement), a statement about what God expects from humanity in response,
and a sign or symbol as a reminder of the covenant. We find God making covenant with Noah
(Gen 9: 3-17), Abraham (Gen 15:18-21), Isaac Gen 26:4 and Moses at Sinai (Ex 19:5-6).
Discussion Questions: 1. What is the meaning of the word “Testament”, and how is it related to
the concept of “Covenant” in the Bible?
2. What are the key differences between the Old Testament covenant and the New Testament
covenant?
3. How does the unity between the Old and New Testaments demonstrate the continuity of God’s
plan for salvation?
4. (Analytical) in what ways do biblical covenants demonstrate both God’s initiative and human
responsibility?
5. (Discussion-Based / Critical Thinking) Why is it important for Christians today to study both
the Old and New Testaments together rather than focusing only on the New?
1.3 The Unity of the Two Testaments
The Old and New Testaments together form a unified whole, the two parts of a single book that
tells the story of God's relationship with humanity. Despite differences in the manner in which

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God‘s revelation is communicated, these two parts share deep cohesion, reflecting the singular
and continuous work of God throughout history.
1.3.1. Both deal with the same God: The fundamental unity of the two Testaments rests upon
the revelation of the same God. From the beginning to the end of the Bible, it is the same God
who speaks and acts. In the Old Testament, the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob is revealed as
the Creator and covenant maker. He is the same God who speaks through Jesus in the New
Testament, continuing His mission of salvation. The God of Israel is not a different deity from
the God of Christianity. In both Testaments, God‘s character as compassionate, merciful, and
redemptive is made evident. In Isaiah 43:3, God identifies Himself as the Savior of His people:
For I am the Lord your God, the Holy One of Israel, your Savior, a role that is also reflected in
the New Testament through Jesus Christ (1Timothy 2:3-4). The saving actions of God are central
in both the Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testament, God revealed His salvation by
delivering Israel from the bondage of Egypt (Exodus 12:1-30), but in the New Testament, God's
salvation is manifest on a higher level in the sacrificial death of Jesus on the cross (Matthew
27:35-50). The saving character of God was revealed in bringing Israel out of Egypt in the Old
Testament, but it was revealed on a new level on the cross at Calvary (a hill near the location of
Jerusalem where Jesus Christ was crucified) in the New Testament.
Three Key Differences in God's Salvation
 The bringer of salvation:- In the Old Testament, the bringer of salvation and mediator
of covenant is Moses, but in the New Testament it is Jesus Christ himself (Ex. 5:4; Ex
17:1-1; Num.. 21:2-5; John 2:1, John 3:15-16).
 The way of salvation: in the Old Testament the way of salvation is obedience to the law
and circumcision is the sign of the covenant (Gen.15:18; Ex.19:21) but in the New
Testament it is faith in Jesus Christ which is a pure gift of God and baptism is the
sacramental sign of the new covenant (Mark. 16:16; Heb.17:6).
 The heirs of salvation: In the Old Testament, the heirs of salvation are the old Israelites,
but in the New Testament, it is the church of Christ. In this case, there is unity,
continuity, and all the same time, there is transcendence.
1.3.2. Both Testaments Deal with a chosen Nation: The Old Testament focuses on the history
of Israel, God‘s chosen people, who were tasked with carrying God's mission to the world. The
New Testament similarly highlights the Church, which is considered the "new Israel," continuing
and fulfilling the mission originally entrusted to Israel. In the New Testament, the Church, the
body of Christ, is called to proclaim the gospel and bear witness to God‘s salvation, as Israel was
called to do in the Old Testament.
1.3.3. Old Testament Events as Examples and Models: Many events in the life of Jesus
Christ and the early Church in the New Testament have their roots in Old Testament events. The
life of Jesus is often portrayed as a fulfillment of Old Testament patterns. For example, Jesus’s

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return from Egypt as a child, following King Herod‘s death (Matthew 2:13-15), mirrors the
journey of the Israelites' Exodus from Egypt. Jesus‘40-day fast in the desert (Matthew 4:1-11)
parallels the 40 years of wandering in the desert by the Israelites after their Exodus. These events
serve as symbolic connections between the history of Israel and the ministry of Jesus, showing
how the New Testament fulfills and continues the story of the Old Testament.
1.3.4. The Fulfillment of Old Testament Prophecies in the New Testament: One of the most
powerful ways in which the New Testament connects with the Old Testament is through the
fulfillment of prophecies. Numerous Old Testament prophecies are seen as being fulfilled in the
life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. For example, the prophecy of the virgin birth in
Isaiah 7:14 is fulfilled in Matthew 1:22-23. The Psalms, particularly Psalm 22, contain prophetic
imagery that points to Jesus' suffering on the cross, which is fulfilled in the New Testament
narrative (Matthew 27:35-50). The New Testament writers, particularly the Gospel of Matthew,
often cite Old Testament passages to demonstrate how Jesus’s life and work fulfill the promises
and prophecies of the Old Testament. Generally, the relationship between the two covenants is
well summarized by the famous statement of Augustine said, "The New is in the Old contained;
the Old is in the New explained" or "The Old Testament is revealed in the New; the New is
veiled in the Old," which underscores the deep interconnection between the two. (Philip, 2000,
and the Module of HTU). So, The Old Testament prepares for the New and the New Testament
fulfills the Old; the two shed light on each other; both are true Word of God (Stephen [Link],
1996).
Discussion Questions: 1. How do the Old and New Testaments together form one unified story
of God’s relationship with humanity?
2. In what way is the same God revealed in both the Old and New Testaments?
3. (Analytical) What are the three key differences between God’s salvation in the Old and New
Testaments, and what do these differences reveal about God’s plan?
4. (Analytical) How does the concept of “chosen nation” continue from the Old Testament to the
New Testament, and what does this mean for the Church today?
5. How do Old Testament events serve as models or foreshadowings of New Testament events,
particularly in the life of Jesus?
6. (Discussion-Based / Higher-Order) What is meant by Augustine’s statement, “The New is in
the Old contained; the Old is in the New explained”? How does this express the unity of the
Testaments?
1.4 The Old Testament as a Preparation for the New Testament
The relationship between the Old and New Testaments can be compared to two acts in the same
play. The Old Testament serves as the preparatory phase of God‘s salvation plan, laying the

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foundation for the revelation of Christ in the New Testament. In the Old Testament, God‘s
promise of salvation is gradually revealed through covenants, prophecies, and types, all of which
point toward the fulfillment found in Jesus Christ. The Old Testament teaches about creation,
sin, redemption, and the need for a Savior, themes that reach their fulfillment in the person of
Jesus.
For example, the Exodus event, which is central to the Old Testament, symbolizes God‘s
salvation and foreshadows the greater salvation that Jesus would accomplish through His death
and resurrection. The covenant with Israel prepares the way for the New Covenant through
Christ, in which salvation is offered not just to Israel but to all people who believe in Jesus
Christ. To understand the full significance of who Jesus is, one must first understand the
promises, events, and symbols of the Old Testament.
1.5 Holy Bible as the Word of God in the words of Men
We give greater respect and reverence for the Bible than for any other book in the world. This is
because the Bible is the inspired word of God. When we say that the Bible is the inspired word
of God, it means that God is the author of the Bible, though he made use of human authors to
communicate his salvation message. In this sense Bible has twofold authorship: Divine
authorship as well as human authorship. In other words, the Bible is the word of God in the
words of men.
Who is the author of the Bible, and who wrote it?
To find the answer to the very important questions of who the author of the Bible is and who
wrote it (the answers to these questions are not the same), we will start from 2 Timothy 3:16,
where we read: 2Timothy3:16 "All Scripture is given by inspiration of God."
The word "Scripture" in the above passage is another name for the book that we today call the
Bible. What the above verse tells us is that the entire Bible (all Scripture) was given by the
inspiration of God. The phrase "by inspiration of God" is one word in the Greek text, the word
"theopneustos". This word is composed of the word "theos," which means God, and the word
"pneustos," which means breathed. Therefore, when the Bible says that it is "theopneustos," what
it means is that it is "God-breathed", it is God‘s conception, God‘s idea, God‘s inspiration.
Hence, the Author of the Bible is God who breathed it, inspired it, conceived it, and authored it.
Now, of course, somebody may ask: "How is it that God is the author of the Bible since what I
read was written by Paul, John, etc.?" The Bible again gives us the answer. So, 2 Peter 1:20-21
tells us: "Knowing this first, that no prophecy of the Scripture is of any private interpretation, for
the prophecy never came by the will of man, but holy men of God spoke as they were moved by
the Holy Spirit." Thus, what 2 Peter tells us is that no part of the Bible (no prophecy of the
Scripture), came by the will of man. The answer is in the latter part of verse 21, where we are
told that the prophecy of the Scripture, i.e., the Bible, was written by holy men of God who

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spoke as they were moved by the Holy Spirit. Therefore, who wrote the Bible? Holy men of
God. How did they write it? As they were moved by God, who is the Holy Spirit.
So yes, Paul, John, and the others were the writers of the Bible. But they were not the authors.
The author of the Bible is God, who moved people, like Paul, Peter, and John, to write down
what He wanted what He authored. And if you ask how God moved them, Galatians gives us the
answer for the case of Paul, which is also the same for all the others: Galatians
1:11-12 "I want you to know, brothers, that the gospel I preached is not something that man
made up. I did not receive it from any man, nor was I taught it; rather, I received it by
revelation..."
To conclude, therefore: All the Bible or Scripture is God-breathed, has God as the author, and it
was written by people as they were moved by God, i.e., by revelation ([Link]
[Link]).
Discussion Questions: 1. How does the Old Testament prepare the way for the New Testament
according to God’s plan of salvation?
2. Why is it important to understand the Old Testament in order to fully grasp the message of the
New Testament?
3. What does it mean that the Bible is “the Word of God in the words of men”?
4. (Discussion-Based) If God is the true author of the Bible, why do the human styles,
vocabulary, and perspectives of the different writers appear throughout Scripture?

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