Core

1 Populations in Transition
1.1 Population Ages
Crude Birth Rate - Births per 1000 population
Crude Death Rate - Death per 1000 population
Infant Mortality Rate - infant deaths per 1000 live births
Total fertility - children per woman
Population distribution: The way the population is spread out. Population may be distributed evenly (in a regular
pattern) or unevenly. Virtually all populations are distributed unevenly because of human and physical factors e.g.
availability of water and/or jobs.
Population density: The number of people living per km2. Countries like Singapore and Hong Kong have very high
population densities, while countries like Russia, Canada and Australia have quite low population densities.
Replacement rate: The total fertility rate needed for a country to replace and maintain its population. The replacement
rate is about 2.1.
Population momentum: The continued growth of a population after fertility rate is equal or actually below the
replacement rate. This happens if there is a large concentration of people in the reproductive age range.
Population projections: A prediction of future population changes based on current trends of mortality, fertility and
migration.
Impacts of a youthful population

 Large youthful population must have an increasing education sector to cater for the children going to school.
 Larger dependency ratio
 Greater tax revenue going towards maternity leave
 Lack of available jobs in future
Impact of an ageing population
 Main impact of an ageing population. Increase in the dependency ratio. If the retirement age remains fixed, and
the life expectancy increases, there will be relatively more people claiming pension benefits and less people
working and paying income taxes.
 Large volunteer community service
 Lower crime rates
1.2 Population Control
Old dependents: Anyone over the age of 65. These people are normally retired.
Young dependents: Anyone under the age of 16. These people are normally being cared for at home or are at school.
Economically active: People between the ages of 16 and 65. These people are normally working and pay taxes.
Ageing ratio: The proportion of people over the age of 65 compared with the total population.
Dependency Ratio: This is the ratio between dependents (old and young) and economically active. The dependency ratio
is calculated using the following formula.

Pro-natalist case study: Australia

Strategies:
 baby bonus (receive $5,000 1st child, $3,000 2nd child)
 paid maternity leave (18 weeks)
 50% child care rebates
Outcomes:
 increased superannuation (9%-12%)
 Fertility rate 1.7. (2005) - 1.9 (2012)
  37,000 increase in babies
 Cost $1.7 billion per year
 Scrapped in 2014
Anti-natalist: China
China predicted that the One Child Policy would lead to a population of 1.39 billion in 2015, the actual figures ending up
15million below that mark. The policy significantly reduced fertility rates even after the lift and this means that China's
population will begin to decline within the next 10 years. The One Child Policy was put in place in 1979 by the Chinese
Communist Party. The policy was very effective in stopping the increase in population and decreasing fertility rates,
possibly even for good, as China may face problems with an ageing population sooner than they predicted.
 76% of citizens were in favor
 700 million in 60's -> 1 billion in 80's
 By 2011, 400 million births were stopped
 Only affects 1/3 of china's population
 It had been in place for 35 years
 Missing girl’s phenomenon
 More the 336 million abortions
 By 2050, 34% will be over the age of 65
Anti-natalist: Thailand
Royal Thai Government PDA (Thai population control NGO) worked together to bring down fertility rates, as they were
dangerously high.
 In 1974. fertility rate of 7. 3.3% growth rate
 Child mortality was decreased
 Education for family planning and contraception nationwide
 The pill and condoms were made very accessible and affordable
 In 2000. fertility rate of 1.5. 0.5% growth rate
Anti-natalist: India
In 1975, a state of emergency was declared in India, giving the government unprecedented power to forcibly sterilize its
population. Funded by the world bank and UN, it was seen to be the only suitable strategy to curb the extreme
population increase. Population increase caused by falling death rate and increasing fertility rate. Sterilization is cheap,
effective and culturally acceptable.
 6.2 million men were sterilized in 1975, with a total of 10 million men sterilized between 75-77.
 In some areas, it was entirely optional, with incentives such as money, or radios given to men and women who
were sterilized.
 Some areas were denied electricity and water until a sterilization quota had been fulfilled.
 In 2013, 4 million women were sterilized, mostly with monetary incentives, few men are sterilized now.
 A doctor performed 83 surgeries in 6 hours with unclean tools.
 Sterilization is cheap and effective, 1/3 women in India are sterilized, halting population momentum
1.3 Internal Migration
Remittances are the transfer of money from the workers country back to their country of origin. Remittances can be
seen as a positive because they get money directly to the people whom need it most, families. It does have social
consequences such as people spending time away from families and dependency on remitted money rather than
earning for themselves. It does provide a source of brain gain as skilled workers return to their home county.
Migration: The movement of people from one location to another.
International migration: Migration between countries.
Internal (or domestic) migration: Migration within a country.
Voluntary migration: When people choose to migrate.
Forced migration: When people must migrate, normally because their life is in danger e.g. war or natural disaster.
Seasonal migration: When people migrate for a season. This is usually for work and may be for a harvest season or a ski
season.
Expatriates: Migrants living in a different country to their own.
Diaspora: Members of a country's citizens living in a different country e.g. Irish and Italian immigrants living in the US
Migration Balance: The difference between the number of immigrants and emigrants.
Internal Migration Case Study: Chinese
Negative economic:
 The income rate between rural and urban has increased over the time of urbanization
 Larger job insecurity
Negative social:
 Many migrants stay years away from their family
 Urbanization caused a lot of pollution
 Social unrest due to the economic wage gap
 58 million children are left behind due to migration
Positive economic:
 1 month of factory work=one year of growing rice
 In 2011 more than 160 million were working away from their rural homes
 Coastal provinces have GDP's similar to entire European countries
Positive social:
 More money for education in rural areas.
 The average person has a higher quality of life due to increased GDP
Remittances Case Study: USA – Mexico
 Approximately $20 Billion goes from US to Mexico each year
 Mexico receives nearly 40% of US remittances
 1 in 10 Mexican families rely on remittances
 1 in 5 remittance sending Mexicans work in construction, only %20 overall have legitimate contracts
 An estimated further $40 billion in drug money cash is smuggled out of the US to Mexico every year
 Mexican workers in USA can be exploited if they are there illegally.

1.4 Gender and Change

Culture: Education
 Japan: ‘housewife country’  2/3 illiterate people
 4 hours vs 46 mins of house  India: 40% schools lack toilets  23% drop out because of puberty
work  Taliban: bans education
 46% husband do < 10%  ** Without an education women will find it hard to work, earn money and be
housework self-sufficient. They will have little knowledge about family planning and
 70% drop out of workforce health issues usually leading to higher fertility rates and poorer health. They
after having first baby can effectively become stuck in a cycle when they are unable to improve their
education and life or that of their daughters.
Status: Birth Ratio
 Afghanistan: 87% abuse  China: 117 to 110, female infanticide 30 m men will not find a partner
 Saudi Arabia: not allowed to  Sex selective abortion accounts for 100,000 missing girls p.a.
drive, proposed hosting an  India: 8m female foetus aborted in the past decade
Olympic Game without
women
Health Migration
 Indonesia: 228 maternal  India: trafficking bride: 9,000 brought from poor villages
death/100000 live births  Mexico: half-half
 2/3 are due to home  Philippines and domestic helpers in HK: 10% of economy
delivery
 1 in 14 women die of
pregnancy: 15% infection,
15% unsafe abortion
 100m are living with the
consequence of genital
mutilation
 Employment Legal rights
 Australia: 95% CEO are men  Japan: have to use husband’s surname
 China: LFPR 67% vs 80%;  Saudi Arabia: cannot drive
retirement age (55 vs 60)  Men can take as many as 4 wives as long as they can afford
 Japan: 10m less in the
workforce
Empowerment Life Expectancy
 USA: 14% Executive officers  Average: 5 years longer
 Finish: 11/20 ministers  South Korea: suicide rate ½ of men
 Japan: 81 vs 87

2 Disparities in Wealth
2.1 Measurements of Regional and Global Disparities
Development: An improvement in the quality of life. Although wealth comes into this, many other things are also
important like health, education and security.
HDI: Human Development Index, a composite indicator, comprised of three aspects; health, wealth and education.
Health being measured in life expectancy, wealth via GNI/C and the expected and average years of schooling. The HDI
scores countries between 0-1, with 1 being the most developed.
ADVANTAGES OF HDI DISADVANTAGES OF HDI
 Does not take into account environmental
factors e.g. China
 Composite indicator containing three elements. Better
 Data could be unreliable, incomplete or
than just looking at money.
unavailable
 It allows comparison between regions and countries
 It is an average and does not show internal
 Has been existence since so allows temporal changes
disparities
 Allows for analysis of different components
 Does not measure factors like human rights,
gender and corruption

More economically developed country (MEDC): A developed country, where the tertiary sector is probably the most
important sector of the economy.
Less economically developed country (LEDC): A poorer country where the most important sector of the economy is
probably the primary sector.
Newly industrializing country (NIC): A developing country where the most important sector of the economy is probably
the secondary sector.
Measures for a characteristic:
Infant mortality: IMR- infant deaths per 1000 live births
Education: Average/expected years of schooling, literacy rate, university graduates
Nutrition: BMI, Caloric intake, Life expectancy, fitness, mortality rates
Income: home/car ownership, debt ratio, GNI/C
Marginalization: GINI Coefficient, distribution of wealth/health/education, gender/racial disparities
2.2 Origins of Disparities
Absolute Poverty: When people don't have enough money to afford their daily needs. The UN usually classifies anyone
earning less than $1 or $2 to be absolutely poor.
Relative Poverty: When people have less than the average in the community or country that they live in. For example,
someone would be considered relatively poor if everyone in their community can afford a car, television and a
computer, but they cannot.
Poverty line (or threshold): The minimum level of income deemed necessary to achieve an adequate standard of living
in a given country.
Income gap: The income gap between the richest and poorest in a country
Marginalization: The process of an individual or group of people becoming separated from the majority. People may
become marginalized because of their age, race, religion, economic status.
Informal Economy: The sector of the economy that is not taxed, monitored or regulated by the government, it is
sometimes referred to as the black market.

Origins of Disparities:
Ethnicity:
Disparities due to ethnicity or religion can be caused by politics or by being a minority. If a certain group are
underrepresented then they do not get a say, likewise if there are not many of those people to begin with.

Ethnicity Case Studies: USA, Nepal

USA:
- A typical white family is now 5 times richer than it’s African-American counterparts, even in the same class
- White families typically have assets of $100 000 (22 000 in the 1980s)
- African-American families typically have assets of $5000 ($2000 in the 1980s)
- The richest 1% of the population owns 40% of its wealth
Nepal:
 Hindus are favored, Muslims are discriminated against
 Life expectancy: 61 to 49
 Literacy rate: 58%:22%
 Affect employment  income  access to health care and children’s education
Residence: This factor can range between country and local residency. While living in America gives you better prospects
than living in the Congo, you will be worse of living in a ghetto than in a wealthy part of town. The residency factor is
about early life prospects such as education and health.
Residence Case Studies: Worldwide
 78% urban in LEDC are in slums
 70=95% new housing in LEDC are shanty settlements
 60% Africans live in shanty settlement
 Social and economic deprivation
 No access to toilets
 No electricity  can’t do prep at night, no access to laptop
 Crimes at night
 Waterborne Diseases e.g. Cholera
 Recipient of cities’ waste
Parental Education: If your parents are educated, it is more likely for you to have better prospects due to financial
advantage leading to better health and education, among other factors.
Income: Having wealth makes it significantly easier to generate more wealth, this is due to better access to money
borrowing and a more stable lifestyle.
Income Case Study: China
Disposable income per capita: $8500 to $28000 (04-16)
Urbanization: earn 40% more (65%)
Special Economic Zones + foreign direct investment
Government policies: economic reform, opening up China to the world for foreign investment e.g. joining the WTO
creates growth of the middle class
Employment: The more unemployment, or more informal employment that a country has, increases the scale of
poverty due to instability and lack of security.
Land ownership: Private ownership of land means that people can at the least live a subsistence lifestyle, but also create
businesses, etc. If a country or area has less possible opportunities for purchasing land, it can be hard to survive.
Land Ownership Case Studies: Worldwide
 Absentee landlords in LEDCs  excessive rentals  forced to work to pay off debts
 Cannot specialize because they need to pay the rentals
 Traditional farming methods  little education
 2/3 Africans live in rural area  90% rural lands are undocumented in South Africa  Unemployment rate is
70%
 96% of commercial arable land in South Africa are owned by white farmers
2.3 Disparities and Change
Millennium Development Goals (MDG’s) – 2000 – 2015 – Comprised of 48 indicators

1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

2. To achieve universal primary education
3. To promote gender equality and empower women
4. To reduce child mortality
5. To improve maternal health
6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases
7. To ensure environmental sustainability
8. To develop a global partnership for development
Life Expectancy – Worldwide Explain why
71.4 years (73.8 years for females and 69.1 years Increased access to antiretroviral therapy
for males) decrease mortality due to AIDs
Ranges from 60.0 years in African Region to 76.8 Education, esp. women more knowledge of
years in European Region, primary health healthier children
Women live longer than men all around the Increase access to clean water and sanitation
world. less diseases affect longevity
The gap between the sexes was 4.5 years in 1990
and had remained almost the same by 2015 (4.6)
Between 2000 to 2015, LE increases most
significantly
Most significant increase in African region 9.4
years

Literacy Rate – Worldwide Explain why

-overall increase -More schools are built because government starts
- illiteracy halved between 1990 and 2005 to realise its importance
- Australia, North America and western Europe Mexico, year 10-12 education is made
most literate compulsory in 2012
-low in Sub-Saharan Africa, south west and Kenya abolish school fee
central Asia -Economic Incentive
-Variation in Papua New Guinea and Carribean Bihar in India: 1 Rupee per day
-Middle value for China, Russia, Middle East and -Urbanization
South America China: increase access
Income – Worldwide Explain why
Overall increase in income Global output has increased, meaning on average,
30% of people below international poverty line in people have more money. This can be attributed to
2003, 12% in 2013. rises in population and in aggregate demand.
World mean income up from $3450 to $5375. Income distribution in richer countries is dictated
Rich English speaking countries had bettered by politics and trade, however, it should be noted
income equality, but have since returned to post- that all rich countries do see rises in mean income
ww2 levels of inequality, making a u-shape levels.
Continental Europe has seen steady increases in Greater demand for primary goods requires that
the quality in distribution of income, making an l poorer countries increase output, however, factors
shape. such as corruption see inequality in income
Income has increased greatly in poorer countries, distribution increase as well.
however so has inequality of income in some
cases.
2.4 Reducing Disparities
Fairtrade: Fairtrade does not produce goods itself, but instead lends its labels to companies that treat suppliers, host
communities and the environment fairly and sustainably.

FDI: Foreign direct investment is money invested in a foreign country by TNCs or other countries.

Microcredit: Small loans that are given to people that normally struggle to get credit from normal banks.

Disparity Reduction Method’s Evaluation

Method and Example Positives Negatives

Trade - Senegal Ground nuts Poorer nations who have primary Can result in specialization, which
Loaned $20b by the world bank and resources can use this to enter in the case of Senegal, can turn
borrowed more to fund ground nut global markets and gain capital to bad.
production. Country specialized in develop their nation. Global supply and demand dictate
groundnuts, main export crop in 1960. By Does not necessarily require markets so can be volatile and
1980, increased global supply of government help and input, leading unpredictable.
groundnuts meant that Senegal had to to less corruption and inefficiency. Relies heavily on foreign relations
borrow from world bank again. They Can easily be protected via tariffs, which can be hard for poorer
ended up spending more on debt than quotas and bans. countries to create and maintain.
health and education combined.
Market Access - Banana wars Allows countries to further develop Usually only applies to well
Since 1975, Caribbean countries had trade and gain foreign capital. Can connected poor countries such as
trade quotas free from tariffs, to EU strengthen both countries’ those favored by global
countries, meaning they were free from economies if there is comparative superpowers, those part of
competition with Latin American advantage. Allows all benefits of economic unions or former/current
producers. This means that the other trade to be upscaled and furthered. colonies. Can also be bad for
countries cannot sell to EU due to tariffs. countries who don’t get market
access, as they end up with less.
Debt Relief - Bali and Greece Allows recipient nations to send The recipient nation is either
Greece has received $320 Billion in aid funds on more important matters, unable to borrow more money, or,
since 2010, $120 Billion in repayments reducing opportunity cost of having can borrow less with higher
has been delayed and interest free. debt. Allows country to gain more interest rates.
Bali affected by 2004 tsunami and capital and infrastructure in the The lender country loses both the
required funds to rebuild, Australia long run. For lender country; they principal and interest, and the
relieved $1 Billion of their debt, securing essentially hold political dominance inherent opportunity cost
crucial shipping routes. over the country who they relieved. associated with this loss.
Aid - Ethiopia In cases of natural disasters, aid is Countries can become dependent
Ethiopia has been one of the biggest positive because it allows economy on food or financial aid, meaning
recipients of food aid since 1984, due to to return to productivity quickly that industries become less
drought and famine.1/3 of population in and doesn’t create dependence. productive and economy is
absolute poverty and 5 million depend on In instances of tied aid, country weakened. Government corruption
food aid. Government used aid funds to ‘giving’ aid is actually getting access can lead to parts of the population
invest in education and infrastructure. to resources or dumping supplies. not getting required aid.
Remittances - Mexico to US Cheap labour for US. Undocumented and non-tax
$20 Billion annually remitted from US to Funds straight to Mexican people, paying, bad for US economy, a
Mexico, 40% of US remittances. 1/10 and when workers return, they leakage.
Mexican families rely on remittances, have skills to apply in Mexico, brain Workers can be exploited, and it
only 20% of Mexicans remitting have gain. doesn’t contribute well to the
legitimate contracts. Mexican economy.
3 Patterns in Environmental Quality and Sustainability
3.1 Atmosphere and Change
Global Climate Change: change in the global pattern of climate, precipitation, temp, winds, pressure systems
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: increasing amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as a result of human activities.
Greenhouse gases allow solar radiation into the atmosphere, but stop some outgoing radiation being released from the
atmosphere and reflect it back to earth, the enhanced greenhouse effect is the result of more GHG’s in the atmosphere.
Albedo: The reflectivity of a surface. Snow, with an albedo of 95% reflects much of the suns energy, meaning that the
heat is reflected back into the atmosphere, reducing temps. As the world heats up, albedo drops and heats the world up
more.
Energy Balance: Ultraviolet, short-wave radiation comes from the sun, the reflected energy leaves as infra-red, long
wave radiation, some of which is trapped into the atmosphere by the GHG effect.
Sources of GHG’s are natural and man-made:
Natural GHG: When volcanoes erupt they release SO2, which mixed with water vapor, creating a GHG. However, smog
from volcanoes blocks UV-light, reducing temperatures in the short run.
Man-made GHG: combustion engines in cars, burning of fossil fuels, agriculture.
Milankovitch Cycle: The Earth’s orbital oscillation and other factors contribute to changes in the amount of short-wave
radiation that reaches the Earth, this cycle can be a cause of climate change, however is slight.
Effects of climate change:
Rising heat levels across the world. Leads to melting ice caps which increases water levels at a rate of 3mm per year.
Also displacing polar bears and penguins. Low lying land such as Bangladesh will result in the displacement of people.
Increased ocean acidity due to dissolved CO2 impacts corals and aquatic life, arctic ocean will reach corrosive levels
within 10 years. Peat bogs are thawing out in Siberia, releasing methane, furthering the enhanced GHG.
Increased temperatures decrease crop yield, creating possibilities such as food shortages and food conflicts.
Positives include; arctic trade route access, more agricultural land, fresh water release, resource accessibility.
3.2 Soil and Change
HUMAN CAUSES OF SOIL DEGRADATION PHYSICAL CAUSES

Overgrazing: Allowing to much livestock to graze on a piece of land which Rising Temperatures: As global
means all the vegetation is eaten making the ground susceptible to wind and temperatures increase it is
water erosion. becoming increasingly hard for
Overcultivation: If you farm land to intensively and don't have fallow vegetation to grow thus reducing
(periods of not growing anything) periods then all the nutrients in the soil get vegetation cover and increasing the
used. risk of wind and water erosion.
Deforestation: Cutting down trees which not only means the land will be Falling Rainfall: As the amount of
receiving less nutrients, but it also means it is more vulnerable to erosion rainfall reduces in some areas like
because there is no interception and less stability because the root systems the Sahel, then it is increasingly
have been removed. hard for vegetation to grow again
Overpopulation: As the world population continues to grow (now nearly 7 making the ground more
billion) the demand for agricultural products (crops and meat) is increasing vulnerable to wind and water
causing more land to be deforested, overcultivated and overgrazed. erosion.
Fertilizer and Pesticide Use: By using fertilizers and pesticides you can Flash floods: Intense periods of
artificially increase yields of crops. However, the process is unnatural and rainfall can also cause erosion of
prolonged periods of use can all naturally produced nutrients to be used and topsoil which leads to land
local water sources to become polluted reducing the ability of land to degradation.
cultivate crops and therefore making it vulnerable to chemical degradation as Wind: If a region is particularly
well as wind and water erosion. windy then the amount of wind
HYV and GM Crops: Like with fertilizers and pesticides, it is argued that HYV erosion is likely to increase.
and GM crops have encouraged overcultivation, diminishing natural nutrients Topography: If land is relatively flat
in the soil. then it is much less vulnerable to
Industrial Pollution: Chemicals, metals and other pollutants leaked from water erosion, but maybe
industrial processes can chemical degrade soil making it useless or dangerous vulnerable to wind erosion.
for farming. Acid rain caused by pollution can also cause soil degradation. Alternatively hilly land is vulnerable
 Unsustainable Water Use (aquifer depletion, unsustainable irrigation): If to water erosion, but maybe
aquifers or rivers are used unsustainably then areas can become increasingly protected more from wind erosion
arid as water resources are used up.
Conflict: During times of war biological and chemical weapons can be used
which degrade the quality of the soil. During the Vietnam war large
quantities of agent orange were used to defoliate forests. Much of the land
in Vietnam is still degraded because of this 40 years on.
Soil management case study: Loess Plateau - China
Area approximately the size of France, human inhabitants for over 1.5 million years. Yellow river runs through this area,
where it gets it name, due to the Loess soil which is yellowish. Centuries of overuse degraded the soil, in 1990’s, not
enough usable soil to grow food, widespread poverty ensued. China employed locals to help rebuild and revitalize the
area, the sides of hills were terraced to stop water flow from eroding soil. Whooping dams at the tops of hill doing the
same. Grass and vegetation was planted to bring back life and strengthen soil. Stock were limited as to where they could
travel, given routes to protect vulnerable areas. The project lifted 2.5 million people out of poverty, doubled farmer’s
incomes ($70-$200), vegetation cover from 17%-34%, 100 million tons of sedimentation out of Yellow river per year,
employment rate up from 70% to 87%, grain output doubled.
Soil management case study: Great Green Wall – Northern China
Gobi Desert grows by 3000km each year, leading to many climate refugees. Due to deforestation in 50’s by Mao, to keep
factories running. North China temperature has risen by 20C, creating 400k climate refugees. Government requisitioned
land to build a great green wall, project launched in 1978, 66b trees planted since then. Wall is 4800km by 1500 km,
along the border of the Gobi Desert. Forrest of trees acts as a buffer zone, helping to keep soil healthy and strong,
stopping sand from blowing in and stopping the progress of the desert. Project will be continued until 2050.
3.3 Water and Change
Physical Water Scarcity: Where the demand for water is greater than the supply of water. Physical water scarcity does
not have to be an arid environment, because there demand for water in arid environments (deserts) is not normally low
meaning that there is no shortage.
Economic Water Scarcity: Where there is water available, but for some economic reason it is not possible to fully utilize
the source of water. This might because extraction or transportation costs are too high, or because the water is polluted
and it is not possible to treat it.
Safe Drinking Water: Water that is safe for human consumption. The water must be free from harmful pollutants and
bacteria that could make people ill.
Human factors affecting access to safe drinking water Physical factors affecting access to safe drinking water
Increasing population: Leads to increasing demand for Climate change: Rising sea levels bring salt water into
water, hence scarcity. fresh water.
Increasing wealth: Increased demand for toilets, showers Climate: Rain or lack thereof
Absence of Management: Water taken from areas then Geology: Access to basins and aquifers, runoff processes,
not replaced, failure to compensate for human damage. soil and sedimentary layers and porous or non-porous
Infrastructure: Improper use of dams and reservoirs. rocks.
Water and Change Case Study: Murray Darling Basin and MDBP
70% of all Australian water is used in the agriculture industry. The Murray Darling Basin is the basin of two rivers,
intersecting four states, the basin is 3375km in length. The basin accounts for 43% of all farms, 50% of all crop growth,
$3.4 Billion in tourism revenue. There is an imbalance between water used for agriculture and water needed by the
environment. Adelaide gets 40% of its drinking water from the basin, and up to 90% during drought. Murray Darling
Basin Authority, MDBA, will add 3200 GL of water back into the basin. The project began in 2011, with first major
progressions made in 2016, and projections made for the future.
MDBP:
 2016-2019: 2750 GL of water will be bought back from farmers, given back to basin.
 2019-2024: 450 GL of water recover through infrastructure changes.
 A series of 18 flood markers are used to measure progress of water levels:
 2011: 0/18 flood markers
 2017: 11/18 flood markers
 2024: 17/18 flood markers
The plan accounts for climate change, adding an extra 10% of water than needed, to accommodate for enhanced
evaporation. The increase in flow washed acidity and salinity away from struggling areas. The plan will cost
approximately $15 Billion, and the domestic agricultural sector will suffer up to $1 Billion in losses each year while they
accommodate for water loss. Up to 1000 jobs will be lost. The rejuvenation of the area will bring more tourism in the
long run, for example, water sports on the Hume lake and fishing along the Murray river.
3.4 Biodiversity and Change
Biodiversity: the variety of flora and fauna (plants and animals).
Importance of biodiversity: Keeping a good gene bank means that in cases of disease of disaster, many species will be
able to survive. All animals and most plants form part of a food chain, if the chain is disturbed, all other animals will be
affected to some degree, further hurting populations, possibly making other animals endangered or extinct. Some flora
and fauna have significant value to the rituals and customs of indigenous groups. Some flora and fauna have huge
tourism value, in cases such as the amazon, the biodiversity itself is a point of major interest and attraction, meaning
biodiversity loss harms local people and the countries aggregate demand. Rainforests act as flood control, via
interception and transpiration.
Reasons for loss of biodiversity: Cattle ranching, subsistence farming, mining, infrastructure, urbanization, agriculture,
deforestation, hunting.
3.5 Sustainability and the Environment
Sustainable Development: Meeting the needs of today's population without compromising the needs of future
generations. Today sustainable development is usually considered to include environmental, social and economic
sustainability.
Environmental Sustainability: Improvements in the standard of living that do not cause long-term damage to the
environment that impact future generations.

4 Patterns in Resource Consumption

4.1 Patterns of Resource Consumption
Ecological Footprint: The impact of human activities measured in terms of the area of biologically productive land and
water required to produce the goods consumed and to assimilate the wastes generated.

A higher population does not necessarily result in a greater ecological footprint. In today’s world, a richer population
leads to a higher ecological footprint.

Neo-Malthusians Anti-Malthusians

Beliefs They believe that one day we will all run out of They believe that "necessity is the mother of invention".
food and die. As population exceeds resources he Born in 1910, Ester Boserup had a very optimistic
believed there would be either preventive checks outlook. She believed that humans could adapt, develop
(reduced birth rates) or positive checks (famine new ideas and find new resources that would support
and war). Paul Ehrlich and the "Club of Rome" the growing population. Her famous saying was
both have Neo-Malthusian ideas. "necessity is the mother of invention."

Evidence Population will continue to grow as there will After reaching peak population there is not much that
always be people in poverty, resulting in can challenge our innovations. Factors such as the green
exponential population growth, killing everybody. revolution and evolving technology show that given
This can be seen in Africa and India were funds and governance, population growth doesn’t result
population growth has led to lower standards of in worse living conditions, seen in China and the USA
living and also enhances the effects of famines specifically.
and droughts.

4.2 Changing Patterns of Resource Consumption

Peak oil: The point when maximum extraction of oil is reached and after which point the extraction of oil will reduce.
Although peak oil production has been reached in some countries like the UK and the US, it is unclear whether global
peak oil has been reached yet.
OPEC: OPEC stands for the organisation for petroleum exporting countries. It has 12 members and controls over 40% of
the world's oil supply and over 20% of the gas supply. Its headquarters are in Vienna, Austria.

Factors influencing demand and supply of oil:

International relations: If your country depends on foreign imports of oil, it is very important that you are able to
maintain good relations. This is not always possible as highlighted by the relationship between the US and Venezuela.
Political instability: Many countries that are rich in oil are politically unstable. Political instability can effect supplies and
cause price increases. Libya has had recent political problems and countries like Iran and Iraq are not totally stable.
Emissions quotas: International agreements like Kyoto are setting greenhouse gas emission quotas. Individual regions
like the EU and the UK are also setting targets. With targets to meet more countries are looking to invest in alternatives
(renewable energy that pollutes less).
Carbon tax: If carbon taxes are introduced it will greatly increase the value of oil products, making alternatives relatively
cheaper and more attractive.
NGO pressure: NGOs are becoming increasingly vocal in their fight against fossil fuels and promotion of greener
alternatives. As more consumers listen to NGOs, governments and energy companies are likely to find alternatives.
Public health: Oil used in vehicles, planes and industry all contribute to air pollution, which can have a negative effect on
the health of people - especially asthma.
Exploitation of workers and countries: In many countries dangerous jobs are carried out by poor unskilled workers. As
well as exploitation of workers, many countries are exploited for their wealth and the temptation of oil wealth can lead
to the creation of kleptocratic governments. The Niger Delta in Nigeria has massive reserves, but the area still remains
poor because of local corruption and economic leakage,
Greenhouse effect and global warming: Fossil fuels are all major contributors to the greenhouse effect. To try and
reduce the effects of global warming, many countries are trying to reduce their dependency on oil.
Oil spills: When large quantities of oil are transported by sea or pipeline, there is always the risk of accidents. The Exxon
Valdez spill in 1989 is one of the most tragic examples of the short and long-term damage an oil spill can cause. The
more recent BP oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico is a more recent example.
Price of oil: The price of oil is very vulnerable to changes in demand and oil. With current disruptions to supply and
growing demand the price of oil is currently over $100 a barrel. As the price of oil increases the cost of alternatives
become much more attractive.
Demand for oil: As the world's population exceeds 7 billion people and as countries become richer, the demand for oil
(and the price) will steadily increase. Increased demand will be particularly pronounced from emerging markets like
China.
Finite supply: Oil is finite, estimates vary but many people believe that we have nearly reached maximum production
(peak oil) and over the coming decades we will see a decrease in supply. As supply decreases countries will be forced to
look for alternatives.
Investment in alternatives: As the supply of oil runs out, energy companies and countries are investing in alternatives.
This is becoming increasingly profitable with the price of oil, but with the knowledge that oil will run out, many want to
become market leaders.
Renewable energy Advantages Disadvantages
Solar Clean form of energy, infinite resource, Expensive to make solar panels, sun doesn’t always
panels can be used locally, can be used shine, hard to store surplus energy.
to heat water and generate electricity.
Wind Clean form of energy, infinite resource, Visual pollution, noise pollution, wind is unreliable, it
can be used on a local scale, technology is hard to store surplus energy
is proven and ready for use.
Tidal Clean form of energy, infinite resource, It can block important shipping routes, may interfere
tides happen twice a day, ideal for island with animals, limited number of sites, cannot be
countries. used by landlocked countries, high start up costs,
can be corroded and damaged by environment.
Nuclear Extremely efficient, can be done in many Nuclear waste, natural disaster or war can cause
places, essentially infinite. meltdown, expensive.
Hydroelectric Clean form of energy, infinite resource, Only a limited number of suitable rivers, can stop
dams can also prevent flooding, acts as a river navigation, can disrupt wildlife.
 water store.
Geothermal Clean form of energy, infinite resource, Limited number of suitable locations, an areas
can be used to heat water and generate tectonic activity can change, suddenly making it
electricity, can be created constantly redundant or less efficient.
and not reliant on weather.
Biomass It is a renewable form of energy as long It can still release greenhouse gases, areas can be
as people replant crops, it is cheap, and deforested to grow crops for energy generation.
the resources can be grown locally If crops are used for energy production it can lead to
an increase in food prices.

4.3 Conservation Strategies

Recycling: The re-processing of industrial and household waste so that materials can be reused. Currently materials
like paper, card, plastics, glass and some metals are recycled.
China is the biggest importer of waste, most of which is processed, reused and exported.
Reuse: This means using a product more than once. This might be returning it to a manufacturer e.g. coke bottles or
selling/passing onto another consumer e.g. charity shops
Reduce: This refers to using less of a product e.g. less packaging, less energy. During Australian drought, water
restrictions such as a maximum of 150L of water per person, enforcement of dual flush toilets, and subsidization of
water tanks and hose nozzles.
Substitution: Replacing a product, or part of a product, with an alternative which has less of an environmental impact.
Graphite pencils instead of lead, corn to make eating utensils
Conservation Strategy: Australian Millennium Drought
During the 2000’s across Australia there was a drought. In 2007, Victorian government implemented water restrictions
to conserve water. Restrictions on garden watering, irrigation, car washing, shower times and private pools aimed to
reduce domestic consumption. The government subsidized water tanks and hose nozzles enforced dual flush toilets.
Before the drought, water consumption was around 350L per person per day, the aim was to reduce it to 150L. The plan
reduced water use down to 165L, very successful, but cost the government billions in enforcing restrictions and in the
building of a water desalination plant.