Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR

1st Semester, 2025 - 2026

Nueva Vizcaya State University

CHAPTER 8: MEAN, MEDIAN, & MODE

COMPUTATION OF THE ARITHMETIC MEAN

I. By the long or absolute method:

A. Problem: To compute the arithmetic mean by the long or absolute method.

B. Data: 10 7 10 8 10 4 5 8 5 8
8 6 7 6 8 0 6 7 6 8
5 9 8 9 7 8 7 6 7 5

C. Directions:

1. Add the scores to get their sum, X.

2. Count the scores to get the number of cases.

3. Divide the sum of the scores(X) by the number of cases (N). The quotient is the
Arithmetic Mean (A.M.) or simply the Mean (M).

Formula :
M = X
N
Solution:
M = X
N

M=

M = 6.93

II. By the Mid-Point Method:

A. Problem: To compute the arithmetic mean by the mid-point method:

B. Data: 48 57 48 29 61 31 51 28
30 53 53 31 51 34 33 37
45 59 61 29 36 43 43 42
43 57 59 66 47 35 47 39
32 40 46 41 47 53 35 73

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

C. Directions:

1. Group the scores into a step distribution with the ideal size of interval, entering
the scores or step, tallies, and frequencies in their corresponding columns.

2. Write the mid-points of the steps, in column 4. The mid-point of any step is equal
to the lower limit plus one-half of the interval; or L + ½ = mid-point. Or, lower
limit plus upper limit divided by 2.

3. Multiply the mid-points by their corresponding frequencies and enter the products
in column 5.

4. Add the products of the mid-points by their corresponding frequencies to get their
sum, fm. Add also the frequencies to get the number of cases, N.

5. Divide the sum, fm by N. The quotient is the arithmetic mean.

Example:

X f m fm
72 – 75 1 73.5 73.50
68 – 71 0 69.5 0.00
64 – 67 1 65.5 65.50
60 – 63 2 61.5 123.00
56 – 59 4 57.5 230.00
52 – 55 3 53.5 160.50
48 – 51 4 49.5 198.00
44 – 47 5 45.5 227.50
40 – 43 6 41.5 249.00
36 – 39 3 37.5 112.50
32 – 35 5 33.5 167.50
28 – 31 6 29.5 177.00

N = 40 fm = 1784.00

Formula:

M = fm 1784 M = 44.6

N M=
40

III. By the Short Method:

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

A. Problem to compute the arithmetic mean by short method.

B. Directions:
1. Group the scores into a step distribution with the ideal size of interval, entering
the scores, tallies, and frequencies in their corresponding columns.
2. Determine the step to be designated as the point of origin, 0. This is the step above
and below which lies approximately the same number of cases. (Any step may
arbitrarily be assumed as the point of origin.)

3. Enter deviation, d, writing 0 opposite the step assumed and lay off from it
succession –1, -2 –3, etc. for the steps lower than the assumed step and +1, +2,
+3, etc. for the steps higher than the assumed step. (The positive sign may be
omitted) (Column 4).

4. Multiply or weight each deviation (d) by its corresponding frequency (f) and enter
the product (fd) in the column (5).

5. Add frequencies to get N, and also find the algebraic sum, of the positive (+) and
negative (-) fd’s.

6. Divide the algebraic sum, fm by N. Multiply the quotient by the interval to get
the correction.

7. Add the correction to the assumed or guessed mean to get the actual mean. (Take
as the assumed mean or guessed mean the mid-point of the step designated as the
origin.
Example:
X f d fd
72 - 75 1 5 5
68 – 71 0 4 0
64 – 67 1 3 3
60 – 63 2 2 4
56 – 59 4 1 4
52 – 55 3 0 0
48 – 51 4 -1 - 4
44 – 47 5 -2 - 10
40 – 43 6 -3 - 18
36 – 39 3 -4 - 12
32 – 35 5 -5 - 25
28 – 31 6 -6 - 36

N = 40 fd = -89

Formula: Solution:

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

Characteristic and uses of Mean:

The arithmetic mean, or simply mean, is the average of the scores or measures. It is
dependent on the magnitude of the scores. Changing a score even by one, more or less,
changes the mean. Hence, if it desired to have every score an effect or a weight in the
central tendency, the mean should be computed.

The arithmetic mean is the most reliable measure of central tendency; hence, its wide use in
scientific educational literature, in computing their higher measures, for example, the
average deviation, standard deviation, coefficient of variability, and even the coefficient
of correlation, the arithmetic mean is the first calculated.

The long or absolute method of computing the arithmetic mean is used where there are few
cases, less than 30. The mid-point and short methods are used when then scores are
many, more than 30 and are grouped with intervals. The mid-point method is more
cumbersome than the short method because in the latter, smaller figures are handled,
facilitating the computation.

CALCULATION OF THE MEDIAN

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

I. From an order Distribution

A. Problem: To calculate the median by counting.
B. Data: Given in the following test scores:

10 7 10 8 10 4 5 8 5 8
8 6 7 6 8 1 6 7 6 8
5 9 8 9 7 8 7 6 7 5

C. Directions:

1. Arrange the scores or data from highest to the lowest, or from lowest to
the highest as in ranking. Use the master sheet.

2. Look for the middle most score. This is the mid-score, mid-measure, or
counting median. In case there are two middlemost scores, the counting
median is the average of these scores.

Example:
10
10
10
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
Md = 7
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
4
1
II. From a step Distribution or Grouped Data:

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

A. Problem: To calculate the median from a step distribution.

B. Data: Given the test score in grammar:

48 57 48 29 61 31 51 28
30 53 53 31 51 34 33 37
45 59 61 29 36 43 43 42
43 57 59 66 47 35 47 39
32 40 46 41 47 53 35 73

C. Directions:

1. Group the scores in a step distribution with the ideal size of a step interval,
entering the scores or step in Column 1, tallies in Column 2, and
frequencies in Column 3.
2. Find the half-sum, N/2 of the cases.
3. Add cumulatively from the lower end of frequencies to the step which
contains the median.
4. Subtract the partial sum from the half-sum and divide the difference by the
frequency of the next higher step where the actual median lies.
5. Multiply the quotient by the interval to get the correction by interpolation.
6. Take as the crude median the lower limit of the step whose upward
accumulated frequency just exceeds the half-sum. Add the correction to
the crude median to get the actual median.

Example:
X f cf
72 – 75 1 40
68 – 71 0 39
64 – 67 1 39
60 – 63 2 38
56 – 59 4 36
52 – 55 3 32
48 – 51 4 29
44 – 47 5 25
40 – 43 6 20
36 – 39 3 14
32 – 35 5 11
28 – 31 6 6

N = 40

Formula: Solution:
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1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

Characteristics and uses of Median:

The median is defined as that point in the scale above and below which lies 50% of the
cases. It is a point-measure, dividing a group into two equal sub-groups. Hence, if a
group is to be sectioned into two based on achievement or ability, the point of
division is the median.

The median is an inspection measure. It is easily determined. If there are few cases, the
median is the middlemost score of the series of scores arranged in order of size. If
there are many cases, the median is computed by interpolation. The ease with which
the median is computed accounts for its popularity and wide use by elementary school
teachers.

The median is the most stable measure of central tendency. It is not much affected by
extreme low or high scores. Hence, if there are high or low scores and it is desired
that these scores do not affect the average disproportionately, the median is used.
Again, if there are relatively few cases, the median is computed.

The value of the median depends on the number of scores, and not on the magnitude of the
scores. If most of the scores are high, the median is high; if most of the scores are
low, the median is low.

There are special cases in which the usual procedure of computing the median by
interpolation cannot be applied. The median in such cases is the mid-point of the step
(or steps) with zero frequency. Distributions are considered special when the partial
sum is equal to the half sum and the frequency of the next higher step (steps) is zero.

COMPUTATION OF THE MODE

I. From an order distribution:

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

A. Problem: to determine the rough mode from an order distribution.

B. Data: 26 36 20 27 38 21 19 18 19
18 24 16 30 23 30 24 34 19

C. Directions:

1. Arrange the scores or data in an order distribution, i.e., from the highest to
the lowest or vice versa, through this is not necessary.

2. Look for the most frequent score, the score that appears the greatest
number of times. This score is the rough mode, Mo or Z.

Example:
38 23
36 21
34 20
30 19
30 19 Mo = 19
27 19
26 18
24 18
24 16

II. From a score distribution:

A. Problem: To determine the rough mode from a score distribution.

B. Data: 49 40 43 35 51 41 46 46 45
45 50 38 45 48 37 40 43 40
48 32 46 45

C. Directions:

1. Arrange the data or scores in a score distribution, i.e., from the highest to
the lowest, writing once each score regardless of whether it appears twice
or more. Use the master sheet.

2. Read off the scores in the original data and for every score read, write a
tally where it belongs.

3. Count the tallies to get the frequency of every score.

4. Look for the highest frequency or frequencies. The score (scores) with the
highest frequency is the rough mode.
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Nueva Vizcaya State University

Example:

X Tally f
51 I 1
50 I 1
49 I 1
48 II 2
46 III 3
45 IIII 4 Mo = 45
43 II 2
41 I 1
40 III 3
38 I 1
37 I 1
35 I 1
32 I 1

Note: In case there are two most frequent scores and these appear in succession, the rough
mode is equal to the average of these scores; if these two most frequent scores do not
occur in succession, both scores are regarded as rough modes, and the group is
considered bimodal. In case there are three most recurring scores and do not occur in
succession, these scores are regarded as rough modes, and the group is considered
trimodal.

III. From a step distribution:

A. Problem: To determine the rough mode from a step distribution.

B. Data: (With the solution)

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

Scores in English
X f
95 2
90 2
85 4
80 8 Mo = 82
75 7
70 8 Mo = 72
65 5
60 4
55 0
50 1

C. Directions:

1. Look for the highest frequency (or frequencies).

2. Take the midpoint(s) of the step(s) with the highest frequency. This is the rough
mode.

IV. Computation of a Pearson Theoretical Mode from a step distribution.

A. Problem: To compute the Pearson Theoretical Mode.

B. Directions.

1. Compute the median by interpolation.

2. Compute the arithmetic mean by the short method.

3. Apply the formula, Mo = 3Md – 2M.

Example:

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1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

Formula: Solution:

Data:

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1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

M = 44.60 Md = 44

Mo = 3Md – 2M

= 3(44) – 2(44.6)

= 132 – 89.2

Mo = 42.80

Characteristics and Uses of Mode:

The rough mode is defined as the most frequent score. The rough mode is easily found by
inspection. The score with the highest frequency is the rough mode if the scores are
grouped without class interval. When the scores are grouped with class intervals, the
rough mode is the mid-point of the step with the highest frequency.

The refined or theoretical mode is computed by means of the formula Mo or Z = 3Md –

2M. If the mean and median are equal, the mode is equal to either; if the mean is higher
than the median, the mode is the lowest; and if the mean is lower than the median, the
mode is the highest. Karl Pearson contributed this formula; hence, it is sometimes called
Pearson Mode.

The mode is otherwise known as `commercial’ average. The prevailing price of a certain
commodity, the most common price, is the mode. It is similar to `fashion’. It is also
known as `newspaper average’. The headlines of newspapers or periodicals capitalize the
highest number of person dead or injured in an accident, involved in a estafa or murder
case, and so on.

COMPUTATION OF QUARTILES, DECILES, PERCENTILES

I. Computation of quartiles
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Nueva Vizcaya State University

A. Problems:

1. To compute the first lower quartile, Q1.

2. To compute the third upper quartile, Q3.

B. Data:
X f
87 – 89 2
84 – 86 5
81 – 83 6
78 – 80 9
75 – 77 12
72 – 74 10
69 – 71 7
66 – 67 0
63 – 65 6
60 – 62 3

N=60

C. Directions:

a. For the first or lower quartile, Q1:

1. Find the first-sum, N/4.

2. Find the sub-total which is the upward cumulative frequency that

approaches or equals but does not exceed the fourth-sum.

3. Subtract the sub-total or partial-sum from the fourth sum.

4. Divide the difference by the frequency of the next higher step and multiply
the quotient by the interval to get the correction.

5. Add the correction to the lower limit of the step containing the actual
lower quartile. The result is the first quartile.

b. For the third or upper quartile, Q3:

1. Find the three-fourth sum.

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

2. Count the frequencies upward until the three-fourth sum is approached or

equaled but not exceeded.

3. Subtract the partial sum from the three-fourth sum.

4. Divide the difference by the frequency of the next higher step and multiply
the quotient by the interval to get the correction.

5. Add the correction to the lower limit of the step on which the third quartile
lies. The result is the third quartile Q3.

Example:
X F cf
87 - 89 1 60
84 – 86 5 59
81 – 83 6 54
78 – 80 9 48
75 – 77 12 39 Q3
72 – 74 10 27
69 – 71 7 17
66 – 67 1 10 Q1
63 – 65 6 9
60 – 62 3 3

N=60

Formula(s):

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

II. Computation of Deciles and Percentiles from grouped data.

A. Problem: To calculate the 10th, 20th, 30th, etc. percentiles or first, second, third, etc.
(P10, P20, P30 etc.)

B. Data:
X f
87 – 89 2
84 – 86 5
81 – 83 6
78 – 80 9
75 – 77 12
72 – 74 10
69 – 71 7
66 – 67 0
63 – 65 6
60 – 62 3

N=60

C. Directions:

1. Multiply N by the percentile or decile desired.

2. Add cumulatively upwards the frequencies (Fup) to get the partial sums.
(The partial sum should approach or equal the various percentile sum but
not exceed them).
3. Subtract the partial sums from the corresponding percentile sums and
divide the differences by the frequencies of the steps containing the
percentiles desired, and multiply the quotients by the interval to get the
corrections.

4. Add the corrections to the respective lower limits of the steps containing
the percentile desired. The results are the percentiles and deciles.

Example:

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

X F cf
87 - 89 1 60
84 – 86 5 59
81 – 83 6 54
78 – 80 9 48
75 – 77 12 39
72 – 74 10 27 P50/D5
69 – 71 7 17
66 – 67 1 10
63 – 65 6 9
60 – 62 3 3
N=60

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

Characteristics and uses of quartiles, deciles, or percentiles:

The quartiles (Q1, Q2 or Md, Q3) are the points which divide the total number of cases in a
frequency distribution into four equal parts with the same number of cases. Of the
first quartile (Q1) one-fourth of the cases lie at or below it and threefourths at or
above it; of the second quartile (Q2 or Md) two-fourths of the cases lie at or below it
and two-fourths at or above it, and of the third quartile (Q3) three-fourths lie at or
below it and one-fourth at or above it. Between Q1 and Q3 lie 50% of the cases;
below Q1, 25%; above Q3, 25%. The quartiles are used as points of division when it
is desired to section a group into four sub-groups with equal number of cases. The
first and third quartiles are also used in the computation of the quartile deviation.

The deciles (Dec. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) are the points which divide the total number of cases in a
frequency distribution into ten equal parts with the same number of cases. Of the first
Decile (Dec. 1) one-tenth of the cases lie at or below it and ninetenths at or above it;
of the second Decile (Dec. 2) two-tenths of the cases lie at or above it; and so forth.
The deciles are the points of division if it is desired to section a group with equal
number of cases.

The percentiles (P5, P6, P7, P28, etc.) are the points which divides the total number of cases
in a frequency distribution into as many as many groups desired. Of the fifth
percentile (P5) 5 of all the cases lie at or below it and 95% at above it; of the
thirteenth percentile (P13), 13% of all the cases lie at or below it and 87% at or above
it; and so forth.

All quartiles and percentiles but not all percentiles are deciles. The first decile is the same as
the tenth percentile; the second decile is the same as the twentieth percentile; and so
forth.

Percentiles are used in the transmutation of raw scores. A pupil whose score is equal to the
twentieth percentile surpasses 20% of the group and is surpassed by 80%; a pupil
whose score is equal to the sixty-seventh percentile surpasses 67% of the group and is
surpassed by 33%. It can readily be seen, therefore, that percentiles indicate the
percentage of pupils surpassed by a pupil and the percentage of pupils that surpassed
him/her.

Percentiles can be used as grades, and are more reliable and comparable than grades in
percentages, letters, or numbers. Under a strict or lenient teacher, percentiles which
are numerically equal have the same meaning. A grade of P35 given by a strict
teacher is equal to a grade P35 given by a lenient teacher.

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

COMPUTATION OF STANDARD DEVIATION

I. From a haphazard series by the long method:

A. Problem: to compute the standard deviation by the long method.

B. Data: 22 17 16 24 20 12 18 17 28 19
15 20
C. Directions:

1. Find the arithmetic mean which is equal to the sum of the scores divided
to the number of cases.

2. Subtract the arithmetic mean algebraically from every score to get the
deviation, d.

3. Add the squared deviations to get their sum, d.

4. Square each deviation to get their sum, d2.

5. Divide the sum, d, by the number of cases, N, to get the mean of the
deviations squared.

6. Extract the square root of the mean of the deviations squared. The result is
the standard deviation, SD or sigma, .
Example:

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

II. From a step distribution or grouped data by the short method:

A. Problem: To compute the standard deviation from a step distribution by the short
method.

B. Data:
X f d fd fd2
90 – 99 2 4 8 32
80 – 89 4 3 12 36
70 – 79 7 2 14 28
60 – 69 10 1 10 10
50 – 59 9 0 0 0
40 – 49 7 -1 -7 7
30 – 39 5 -2 - 10 20
20 – 29 5 -3 - 15 45
10 – 19 2 -4 -8 32
N = 51 fd2 = 210
C. Directions:

1. Determine the point of origin, O, as in the computation of the arithmetic

mean by the short method.

2. Write the positive (1, 2, 3, etc.) and negative (- 1, - 2, - 3, etc.) deviations,

d.

3. Multiply each deviation, d, by its corresponding frequency, f.

4. Square each deviation and multiply it by its corresponding frequency and

enter the products in column fd 2. (This is the same as multiplying the
deviation, d, by the frequency times deviation, fd.)

5. Find the algebraic sum of fd and fd2 to get fd and fd2, respectively.

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

Characteristics and uses of Standard Deviation:

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The standard deviation, or sigma, is an absolute measure of variability. It is based upon the
squares of the deviations of every measure from the arithmetic mean. In a normal
distribution, the standard deviation includes the middle 68%.

The sigma is the most important and most reliable measure of dispersion. Scientific
educators use the sigma frequently. With the sigma, it is possible to compute other
measures.

In the distribution of grades or in the transmutation of raw scores into A, B, C, D, E, or 1, 2,

3, 4, 5, the limits, the standard deviation is multiplied by .5 and by 1.5 and the result
are added to, and subtracted from, the arithmetic mean.

The standard deviation is also used in the comparison of groups such that the higher the SD,
the more heterogeneous is the group; the smaller the SD, the more homogeneous the
group.

The long method in the computation of the standard deviation is used when there are few
cases, not more than 30. The short method is used when there are many cases, or
when the scores are grouped in a frequency distribution with class intervals.

GRAPHIC PRESENTATION

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Nueva Vizcaya State University

I. Construction of the frequency polygon:

A. Problem: To plot or to construct a frequency polygon.

B. Data:
X F
105 -109 1
100 -104 3
95 - 99 2
90 - 94 15
80 - 84 6
75 - 79 9
70 - 74 10
65 - 69 14
60 - 64 12
55 - 59 8
50 - 54 2

N = 51

C. Directions:

1. Draw two straight lines perpendicular to each other (the horizontal line
near the bottom and the vertical line near the left side of the sheet.) The
vertical axis is the Y-axis; the horizontal line, the X-axis; the intersection,
the point of origin, 0.

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2. Lay off the step-intervals (score) of the frequency distribution at regular

distance on 0X. Begin with the lower limit of the step next to 0, and end
with the upper limit of the step next above the highest. Write successive
points with the steps.

3. Mark off on 0Y successive unit distance to represent the scores on the

different steps.

4. Read off the steps, together with their corresponding frequencies and place
the points at the intersections through the midpoints of the steps.

5. Join the points plotted with straight lines.

6. From the terminals, drop a straight line to the base one step lower at the
left and one step higher at the right. The figure is a frequency polygon.

II. Construction of Histogram:

A. Problem: To plot or to construct the histogram or column diagram.

B. Data:
X F
100 -104 1
95 - 99 3
90 - 94 2
85 - 89 15
80 - 84 6
75 - 79 9
70 - 74 10
65 - 69 14
60 - 64 12
55 - 59 8
50 - 54 2

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Example:
Histogram
Number of Cases

16 Y
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95-99 100-104
X

Score Interval

C. Directions:

1. Draw 0X and 0Y as in the frequency polygon and lay off equal distance on
both axis- 0X for the steps and 0Y for the frequencies.

2. Read off the steps and their corresponding frequencies and draw a line
limited by the lower and upper limits of the steps, instead of a point as in
the frequency polygon

(In a frequency polygon, it is assumed that all the scores in a given step are
represented by the midpoint of that step; in the histogram, all the scores
are assumed to be evenly or uniformly distributed over the entire step.

3. Connect the straight lines (vertical) every two adjacent ends of the lines.
At the terminals drop perpendiculars to the base. The figure is a histogram
or column diagram.

(The measures in a histogram are represented by a rectangle constructed with

a base equal to the length of the interval, and altitude equal to the
frequency.)

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III. Construction of the Ogive:

A. Problem: To plot or construct the Ogive:

B. Data:
X f cf
100 - 109 1 18
95-99 1 17
90-94 1 16
85-89 1 15
80-84 2 14
75-79 2 12
70-74 2 10
65-69 2 8
60-64 2 6
55-59 3 4
50-54 1 1
N = 18

Example:

Ogive
Y
Cumulative Frequency

20
18 18
16 15 16
14 14
12 12
10 10
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 1
0
0 50- 55- 60- 65- 70- 75- 80- 85- 90- 95-
54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89 94 99
X

Score Interval

C. Directions:

1. Find the cumulative frequency of every step beginning with the lowest
step. ((Add cumulatively upwards the frequencies.
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2. Draw 0X and 0Y, as in the frequency polygon or histogram.

3. Lay off the steps or scores on 0X and mark off on 0Y successive unit
distances to represent the cumulative frequencies on the different steps.
4. Read off the steps, together with the corresponding cumulative frequencies
and place points at the intersections through the upper limits of the steps.

5. Connect successive points by straight lines at the lower, and at the lower
end, drop a line to the lowest step. The result is the ogive.
(Drop a line from the upper end of the graph perpendicular to the base.
Divide the line into two equal parts and from the point of division, draw a
line to the graph parallel to base. From the intersection, drop a line
perpendicular to the base. The score or point which it falls the median.
Similarly, the one-fourth gives Q, the upper one-fourth, Q3.)

Characteristics and uses of the different graphs:

Graphs make picturesque and vivid educational data. They add color to the data and make
clearer their meanings.

The frequency polygon, one of the commonest types of graphs, represents a distribution of
scores or measures. It is the pictorial presentation of a frequency distribution or
frequency table. It is constructed by joining with straight lines series of points which
are the intersections of the midpoints of the steps and their corresponding frequencies.

The histogram or column diagram, like the frequency polygon, represents a frequency
distribution. It may be thought of as being composed of a series of rectangles or
columns the widths and the heights of which are equal to the class interval and to the
frequencies respectively. In the frequency polygon, it is assumed that the frequencies
are represented by the midpoints of the steps; whereas in the histogram, the
frequencies are uniformly or evenly distributed along the steps.

The frequency polygon and the histogram have the same uses. The score opposite the
summit of the frequency polygon is the crude mode; the midpoint of the step in the
highest rectangle of the histogram is the crude mode. From the frequency polygon
and the histogram, it is possible to glean the `representativeness’ of the group
considered. If the graph plotted is similar to the shape of the bell, the group is more or
less typical. The more irregular the shape of the graph, the less representative is the
group. It is also possible to note the tendency of the measures - - whether the most of
the scores are high or low, or equally distributed.

The ogive or cumulative frequency curve, represents a cumulative frequency table. The
height of the graph at any given point indicates the total number of frequencies up to
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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

the point on the scale of measurement. From the ogive, it possible to determine any
quartiles, deciles and percentiles.

Terminologies:

Graph – the geometrical image of a set of data. It is a mathematical picture.

Histogram – a graph in which the frequencies are represented by areas in form of bars. All
scores are assumed to be evenly or uniformly distributed over the
entire step.

Frequency Polygon - a graph in which the frequencies are represented by dot above the
midpoint of each interval. It is assumed that all scores in a given
step are represented by the midpoint of the step.

Ogive / Cumulative Frequency Polygon – from it we can read off directly the
percentage of observations less than any specified values.

THE NORMAL PROBABILITY CURVE

Frequency Distribution

- a particular kind of arrangement of a set of observations.

Properties of Frequency Distribution

- can be viewed as descriptive of the frequency distribution or as descriptive of the set

of observations which the distribution comprises.

1. Central Location – refers to the value of the variable near the center of the frequency
distribution. It is middle point. Measures of central locations are called averages.

(Averages are central reference of the variable near the center to the point of greatest
concentration of the measurements and may in some sense be thought to typify the whole
set.)

Types of Averages:

1.1 Arithmetic Mean – a value obtained by adding together a set of measurements and
then by dividing by the number of measurements in the set.
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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

- or the sum of the set of measurements divided by the number of measurements

1.2 Median – a value such that half of the observations fall above it and half below it.

1.3 Mode the most frequently occurring value.

2. Variation – refers to the extent of the clustering about a central value. If all the
observations are close to the central value, their variation will be less than if they tend to
depart more markedly from the central value.

2.1 Range – the difference between the largest and smallest measurements.

2.2 Mean Deviation – the arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations from the arithmetic
mean.

2.3 Variance – the sum of squares of deviations about the mean.

2.4 Standard Deviation – a value which can be obtained by taking the square root of the
variance. It is a measure of dispersion among all scores in the distribution rather
than through extreme scores.

3. Skewness refers to the symmetry or asymmetry of the frequency distribution.

3.1 Positively skewed – an asymmetrical distribution and the larger frequencies tend to
be concentrated toward the low end of the variable and the smaller frequencies
toward the high end.

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

3.2 Negatively skewed – the larger frequencies being concentrated toward the high end
of the variables and the smaller frequencies toward the low end.

4. Kurtosis refers to the flatness or peakedness of one distribution in relation to another.

4.1 Leptokurtic – more peaked distribution.

4.2 Platykurtic – less peaked distribution.

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 Prof Ed 6 (ASL 1); PAR
1st Semester, 2025 - 2026
Nueva Vizcaya State University

4.3 Mesokurtic – a normal distribution.

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