Kalyan Palit
Lecturer in Electrical Engineering
Baruipur Government Polytechnic
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Basic Features
Synchronous Machine i.e. It rotates only at synchronous speed NS given by
NS = 120f/P
In DC generator e.m.f. induced is actually ac in nature. It is converted into
dc by commutator. If only slip rings are used without commutator, the
e.m.f. developed will be ac.
Electromagnetic field needs lower voltage dc supply. So it is separately
excited, self excited ac generator is not possible.
Single phase small ac generator is just like dc generator without
commutator.
If 3 phase winding (insulated from each other) ,placed in the rotor slots, 3
phase ac e.m.f. will be induced on rotating armature, but it is only possible
in small generators.
Actual large size 3 phase ac generators, commonly called alternators have
magnetic field placed on rotor and armature on stator .i.e. unlike dc
generators they have rotating field and stationary armature coils.
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Working Principle
Field on rotor is excited by external weak dc supply and rotated by prime mover.
Alternated poles are developed.
3φ winding insulated from each other and displaced at electrical angle 120° is
placed on stator slots.
Due to relative motion of rotating field and stationary conductor, ac e.m.f. Is
induced as per Faraday’s laws of Electromagnetic Induction and the direction is
given by Fleming's Right Hand Rule.
2 alternate poles produce 1 complete electrical cycle.
1 complete mechanical revolution involves P no of poles i.e. P/2 complete
electrical cycle.
If speed is N rps, then it is equivalent to N revolution per sec i.e. rotation of NP
no of poles and hence, is equivalent to NP/2 complete electrical cycles in 1 sec.
No of complete cycles in 1 sec is called frequency (f). So, it can be concluded that
f = (NxP)/2 or N = (2xf)/P. If N is in rpm then f = 120f/P.
Since f and P are fixed, then this speed is constant and known as Synchronous
speed Ns and is given by Ns = 120f/P
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Advantages of Stationary Armature
O/P current can easily be drawn from stationary armature.
High voltage armature is stationary and hence can easily be insulted.
Slip rings are now connected to low voltage dc, so insulation
becomes easier.
Armature carries high current, but stationary and hence free from
the danger that could be produced from both high current and huge
centrifugal force.
Now field is rotating which is of lower weight and inertia than high
voltage armature. Rotational loss is also thereby reduced.
Stationary armature design is more easier for forced ventilation.
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Construction
Stator Frame – Holds armature winding & is made of C.I. or M.S.
Stator Core - made of lamination of alloy steel to reduce hysteresis & eddy
current loss.
Alternator is classified based on rotor construction.
Rotor construction is of two types –
Salient Pole or Projecting Pole Type
Smooth Cylindrical Type.
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Difference Between Two Types of Rotor Construction
Salient Pole Type Smooth Cylindrical type
Large no of poles 2 or 4 poles
Smaller Speed Higher Speed
Larger Diameter Smaller Diameter
Shorter axial Length Longer Axial Length
Normally driven by water Normally driven by steam
turbine. turbine or turbo engine.
Generally used in Hydro- Generally used in thermal
Electric Power Plant power plant.
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Exciter and Different Excitation Systems
Lower Voltage (in comparison to Armature i.e. rated Voltage)
DC supply is required for generation of electromagnetic field
placed on rotor. It is called excitation.
There are two types of exciters – 1) Low voltage DC generator
(Lighter slip ring and Brush).
2) 3 phase AC supply
rectified by group of
rectifiers. This method is
called Brushless Excitation.
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Full Pitch and Short Pitch Winding
2 coil sides of a coil when occupy identical position under opposite poles,
then it is called Full Pitch winding. The coil pitch is 180 ° (electrical).
Coils are normally made short pitch instead of full pitch
Advantages are : (i) Cu Savings, (ii) Harmonic elimination (iii) Better
Performance (iv) Iron loss reduced thereby increasing efficiency.
Disadvantages is : E.M.F. Is slightly reduced.
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Pitch Factor Kc or Kp
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Concentrated and Distributed Winding
Imagine a pen, and a string. You start winding the string around the pen, and
you continue to do till you reach the other end. What you get is a concentrated
winding.
Number of slots are equal to number of poles.
Normally the winding is made distributed instead of Concentrated nature.
The advantages are: (i) Better wave form (closer to sine wave) (ii) Better heat
dissipation
The only disadvantage is : Reduced emf.
The winding may be single layer or 2 layer or 3 layer and Lap or Wave or Spiral.
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Distribution Factor Kb or Kd
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Effect of Harmonics on Kc & Kd and Winding Factor
Winding Factor = Kc x Kd
For the order of xth harmonic,
Kcx = Cos(xα/2)
i.e. For the 3rd harmonic, Kc3 = Cos(3α/2)
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E.M.F. Equation of 3 phase Alternator
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Voltage Drop in Alternator
There are 3 kinds of voltage drops –
(a) due to armature resistance RA ( in phase with armature current)
(b) due to leakage reactance XL or XL (in quadrature i.e. At 90° with current)
(c) due to armature reaction XAR (reactive drop .i.e. At 90 ° with current)
Synchronous Reactance Xs = XL + XAR , IA : Armature Current,
EG : Induced E.M.F. , Vt : Terminal Voltage Therefore, EG = Vt + IA x (Ra + j Xs)
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Effect of Armature Reaction
Unity pf –
armature flux: cross magnetising
effect: distortional waveform
Zero pf lagging –
armature flux: wholly demagnetising
effect: weakening of flux & reduction
of emf generation
Zero pf leading –
armature flux: wholly magnetising
effect: strengthening of flux &
increase of emf generation
Lagging pf –
armature flux: partly cross
magnetising & partly demagnetising
effect: partly distorted waveform &
partly reduction of generated emf.
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Voltage Regulation
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Open Circuit & Short Circuit Characteristics
E = 4.44 Kc Kd f φ T
E α φ , because all other parameters are
constant. Again, φ α If . Therefore, E α If.
Reluctance of air gap is constant, but
magnetic property of iron path will be
saturated after a certain point. Hence
the curve takes the similar shape as that
of DC generator OCC.
Terminals are shorted by an ammeter,
which measures short circuit current Isc.
It is started with reduced excitation and
runs at rated speed.
Isc α If. Hence the curve is completely
limear.
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Synchronous Impedance (ZS) & Short Circuit Ratio (SCR)
For a particular excitation If The ratio of
Open Circuit Voltage to Short Circuit Current
is called Synchronous Impedance (Zs).
Zs =
Short Circuit Ratio is the ratio of the field
current required to generate the rated
voltage on No load to the field current
required to generate rated current on Short
Circuit condition.
SCR = 1 / Zs (per unit)
Significance of SCR :
Low SCR means
1) High ZS, high votage drop, poor regulation
2) Low Synchronising Power & low stability
limit for parallel operation
3) High Short Circuit Fault Current.
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Load angle or Torque angle δ
E = V + I (Ra + jXs)
or E = V + IjXs ( Neglecting Ra)
or I = (E –V) / j Xs.....(1)
Again, I = Icosφ – jIsinφ......(2)
Again, E = Ecosδ + jEsinδ........(3)
Fro m (1) & (3)
I = (Ecosδ + jEsinδ – V) / j Xs
= Esinδ / Xs + (Ecosδ– V) / j Xs
= Esinδ / Xs – j (Ecosδ– V) / Xs.......(4)
From (2) & (4)
Icosφ = Esinδ / Xs & Isinφ = (Ecosδ– V) / Xs
So Active Power = Vicosφ = VEsinδ / Xs
And Reactive Power = Visinφ = V (Ecosδ– V) / Xs
Therefore, Pmax is at δ = 90°, when sinδ = 1
Pmax = EV / Xs and Torque T = 3xVEsinδ / (Xs x ωs)
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Losses and Efficiency
Alternator Losses are – 1) Cu loss or I2 R Loss ( in Armature & Field coil)
2) Iron or Magnetic Loss
3) Rotational or Mechanical Loss
Only armature Cu loss is variable and all other are constant loss.
Efficiency = =
Ƞ =
For Maximum Efficiency d/d Ia (Ƞ) = 0
Variable Loss (i.e. Armature Cu Loss) = Constant Loss
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Parallel Operation of Alternators
Advantages Required Conditions
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Current Distribution in Parallel Operation
Induced emf in Generator 1 is E1 & in
Generator 2 is E2
Impedance in two alternators are
respectively Z1 & Z2
Current delivered by two alternators
are respectively I1 & I2
Bus Bar Voltage or Load Voltage = V
Load Current is I
Load Impedance is Z
Therefore, E1 = V + I1 Z1 & E2 = V + I2 Z2
I1 = (E1 – V)/ Z1 and I2 = (E2 – V)/ Z2
I = I1 + I 2
V=IxZ
or V = [(E1 – V) / Z1 + (E2 – V) / Z2] x Z
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Synchronisation : 3 Lamps Method
The process of connecting the
alternator with the Bus Bar i.e. Supply
Voltage fulfilling all necessary
conditions is called Synchronisation.
3 Lams Method :
all the lamps are connected as per
Diagram (No cris cross). If the phase
sequence is same then all lamps
become bright and dark together.
one condition is achieved.
But, at the moment of switching on
the incoming alternator to the bus
bar, they should be in the exact same
phase. That should be checked by one
dark and two bright lamps method
or/and by Synchroscope.
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Synchronisation : 1 Dark & 2 Bright Lamps Method
Lamps are connected as per diagram :
L2 is connected in the same phase of
G1 & G2, but L1 7 L3 are connected in
opposite phase (Cris –Cross).
2 sets of vectors will rotate at unequal
speeds.
If frequency i.e. Speed of incoming
alternator (G2) is higher than the bus
bar then lamps will become dark in
the sequence L2 – L3 – L1
If the frequency of incoming
alternator is lower, then they will be
dark in the sequence L2 – L1 - L3.
Perfect synchronising moment is that
when L2 is dark and L1 & L3 are equally
bright.
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Synchroscope and Synchronizing Power
Synchroscope consists of moving coil
.i.e rotor & fixed coil .i.e. Stator.
It is connected with existing and
incoming alternator as per diagram.
Clockwise rotation of pointer indicates
that incoming alternator has higher
frequency & speed. Anticlockwise
rotation means incoming alternator is
slower.
For correct speed i.e. When both are
in equal speed & frequency the
pointer will be vertically straight and
stationary.
Synchronizing Power is the capability
of synchronous M/C to stay in
synchronism. And it is given by dP/dδ
d/dδ(VEsinδ / Xs) = (VEcosδ / Xs) and
Tsyn = (3VEcosδ / Xs) / ωs
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