RADAR AND ATC
SERVICES
Air traffic control began in the 1930's with a system that used teletype machines, wall-sized blackboards, large table
maps, and markers representing airplanes.
Controllers moved the markers across a map to estimate the positions of aircraft. Radar, developed during World War
II, made possible the surveillance of traffic in the air, and was eventually adapted to the control of aircraft taxiing on
the surface of large airports during low visibility. Although radar increased the capacity of the airspace system, ATC
procedures were still labor-intensive. Controllers were required to spend 75% of their time in voice communication
and in activities such as recording flight progress on paper strips. When radar was combined with computers and
aircraft transponders, ATC services became substantially more effective.
RADAR
Radar (radio detection and ranging) uses a synchronized radio transmitter and receiver to emit radio waves and
process their reflections for display.
Primary radar is a ground-based system used by ATC which transmits radio waves in a narrow beam by a rotating
antenna. When the radio waves strike your aircraft, some of the waves are reflected back to the antenna and
processed to provide a display, or echo, which shows your aircraft's location on a radarscope. An electron beam
(sweep) emanates from the center of the scope (a cathode ray tube and rotates in the same direction as the radar
antenna. The intensity of the sweep is too low to generate much light on the face of the tube until it reaches a point
corresponding to your aircraft. At this point, the return echo is intensified to produce a blip of light which represents
your aircraft.
The range of your aircraft (distance from the antenna) is determined by measuring the time it takes (at 186,000 miles
per second) for the radio waves to reach your aircraft and them return to the receiving antenna. The azimuth, or angle
of your aircraft from the radar site, is determined by the position of the rotating antenna when the reflected portion
ofthe radio wave is received. It is measured clockwise from north in a horizontal plane.
In spite of its capabilities, primary radar has some serious limitations.
One of these is the bending of radar pulses, or anomalous propagation. which can be caused by atmospheric
temperature inversions. If the radar beam is bent toward the ground,
extraneous returns, known as ground clutter, may appear on the radarscope.
If the beam is bent upward, detection range is reduced. In addition, precipitation or heavy clouds can produce returns
which can block out the display of aircraft. To help combat ground clutter and weather phenomena, devices called
moving target indicators (MTIs) and moving target detectors (MTDs) eliminate slow-moving and stationary objects.
Two of the most significant drawbacks to the primary radar system are its inability to easily identify an individual
aircraft return and to display an aircraft's altitude.
The air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS), which sometimes is referred to as secondary surveillance
radar, or simply secondary radar, overcomes most of the limitations of primary radar. Although ATCRBS is a separate
system and capable of operating independently, ATC typically uses secondary and primary radar together. The
ATCRBS incorporates three components in addition to primary radar; a decoder, an interrogator, and a transponder.
TRANSPONDER OPERATION
Since transponder returns are the basis for radar separation, regulations require that transponders be tested and
inspected every 24 calendar months for operations in controlled airspace. To operate your transponder correctly, you
need to become familiar with its features. [Figure 5-31 The function selector of a typical transponder has several
positions, which usually include OFF, SBY (STANDBY), ON, ALT (ALTITUDE), and TST (TEST). You can set up to
4,096 four-digit codes on your transponder. The term squawk is used by the controller to assign your aircraft a code,
as well as to indicate which transponder function you should select.
TRANSPONDER PHRASEOLOGY
"Squawk (Number)"
Operate your transponder on designated code.
"Squawk Standby"
Switch your transponder to STANDBY position.
"Stop Altitude Squawk"
Turn off the automatic altitude reporting feature of your transponder.
"Squawk Altitude
Activate the automatic altitude reporting feature of your transponder.
"'Ident"
Press the IDENT feature of your transponder.
"Squawk (Number) and Ident"
Operate your transponder on designated code and press the IDENT
reature.
"Squawk Low/Normal'
Operate your transponder on LOW or NORMAL, as specified. Transponder is operated in NORMAL position unless
ATC specifies LOW. ON is used instead of NORMAL on some types of transponders, and many do not have a LOW
position.
"Stop Squawk!
Switch your transponder OFF.
"Squawk MA YDA Y on 7700**
Operate your transponder on code 7700.
"Squawk VFR"
Operate your transponder on code 1200.
You should be careful to avoid codes 7500, 7600, and 7700 when you are making routine code changes on your
transponder. Inadvertent selection of these codes may cause momentary false alarms at radar facilities. Code 7500
alerts ATC that an aircraft has been hijacked; 7600 is used after the failure of two-way radio communication; and
7700 is used for all other emergencies. For example, when switching from code 2700 to code 7200, switch first to
2200, then to 7200; do not switch to 7700 and then to 7200. This procedure also applies to code 7500 and all codes
in the 7600 and 7700 series (7600-7677 and 7700-7777).
FAA RADAR SYSTEMS
The FAA operates two basic radar systems; airport surveillance radar and air route surveillance radar. Both of these
surveillance systems use primary and secondary radar returns, as well as sophisticated computers and software
programs designed to give the controller additional information, such as aircraft speed and altitude.
AIRPORT SURVEILLANCE RADAR
The direction and coordination of IF traffic within specific terminal areas is delegated to airport surveillance radar
(ASR facilities. Approach and departure control manage traffic at airports with ASR. This radar system is designed to
provide relatively short-range coverage in the airport vicinity and to serve as an expeditious means of handling
terminal area traffic.
The ASR also can be used as an instrument approach aid. Terminal radar approach control facilities (TRACONs)
provide radar and nonradar services at major airports. The primary responsibility of each TRACON is to ensure safe
separation of aircraft transitioning from departure to cruise flight or from cruise to a landing approach.
Most ASR facilities throughout the country utilize a form of the automated radar terminal system (ARTS).
AIR ROUTE SURVEILLANCE RADAR
The long-range radar equipment used in controlled airspace to manage traffic is the air route surveillance radar
(ARR) system. There are approximately 100 ARSR facilities to relay traffic information to radar controllers throughout
the country. Some of these facilities can detect only transponder-equipped aircraft and are referred to as beacon-only
sites. Each air route surveillance radar site can monitor aircraft flying within a 200-mile radius of the antenna,
although some stations can monitor aircraft as far away as 600 miles through the use of remote sites.
The direction and coordination of IFR traffic in the U.S. is assigned to air route traffic control centers (ARTCCs).
These centers are the authority for issuing IF clearances and managing IF traffic, however they also provide services
to VFR pilots. Workload permitting, controllers will provide traffic advisories and course guidance, or vectors, if
requested. Because of their extensive radar coverage, centers can be of assistance if you are lost and disoriented.
VFR RADAR SERVICES
Radar services for VFR aircraft usually are available from any ATC radar facility. This includes ARTCCs, as well as
ASR facilities in terminal areas. Traffic advisories, safety alerts, radar assistance, sequencing, and separation may be
provided by ATC in radar areas, however, the types of services available depend on the facility.
RADAR TRAFFIC INFORMATION
SERVICE
ATC radar facilities routinely provide traffic information to IFR aircraft. As a pilot of a VFR aircraft, you may request
radar traffic information service, also called VFR radar advisory service, which is intended to alert you to air
traffic relevant to your flight. This service also is often referred to as flight following.
When giving traffic alerts, controllers reference traffic from your airplane as if it were a clock. For example, if a
controller says, "traffic at I1 o'clock," it means the traffic appears to the controller to be about 30° left of your nose.
You should look for the traffic anywhere between the nose (12 o'clock) and left wing (9 o'clock) of your airplane.
After you locate the traffic, tell the controller that you have the traffic "in sight." You should maintain visual contact
with the traffic until it is no longer a factor. If you do not see the traffic, acknowledge the advisory by telling the
controller "negative contact."
CONTROLLED FLIGHT INTO TERRAIN
Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) defines a situation when an aircraft is flown into terrain or water with no prior
awareness on the part of the pilot or crew of impending danger. Caused by lack of situational awareness, many FIT
accidents could be avoided through improved planning, understanding, and training.
SAFETY ALERTS
ATC radar facilities issue safety alerts to aircraft under their control when, in the controller's judgment, safety may be
compromised.
May be issued:
- if you are in unsafe proximity to terrain, obstructions, or another aircraft.
TERMINAL VFR RADAR SERVICE
Terminal VFR radar service is a national program which extends the terminal radar services for IFR aircraft to VFR
aircraft. The program has four types of service:
- basic radar service
- terminal radar service area (TRSA) service
- Class C service, and
- Class B service.
The type of service provided at a given airport is published in the Airport/Facility Directory.
Basic radar service
- Includes safety alerts, traffic advisories and limited radar vectoring
ATIS
Automatic Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a system for the continuous broadcast of recorded aeronautical
information. ATIS provides information on the current weather conditions and other non-weather essential information
for landing or departing pilots.
Information includes:
1. Airport name
2. Designated phonetic alphabet
3. Zulu time of report
4. Type of approach
5. Landing and departure rwy
6. Departure frequency
7. Wind direction
8. Wind speed
9. Visibility
10. Low clouds
11. High clouds
12. Temperature
13. Dewpoint
14. Altimeter setting
15. Remarks