Chromatin - unwound DNA, most of the cell’s life is like this

Interphase, the majority of the cell’s life cycle:

1.​ G1 phase - cell grows
2.​ S phase (S for Synthesis) -
-​ When an (unwound) chromosome replicates, it’s still one chromosome (copies
are connected) and one copy of it is called a chromatid
-​ The place where chromatids are connected is called a centromere
-​ The centrosome also duplicates
3.​ G2 phase - cell grows more
-​ G0 phase (resting phase) - cell grows, repairs itself, and carries out its basic cell
functions
Mitosis, cell division:
1.​ Prophase - DNA condenses, nuclear membrane starts to go away, centrosomes migrate
to opposite sides of the cell
2.​ Metaphase - nuclear membrane is fully gone, chromosomes line up in the middle of the
cell, spindle fibers, aka mitotic spindle (made of microtubules) extend from the
centrosomes to kinetochores of chromosomes and each other
Centrioles - cylindrical inside of centrosomes (they each have 2) that help with mitosis
Kinetochores - protein structures on chromosomes that attach to spindle fibers during mitosis
3.​ Anaphase - microtubules pull on each of the sister chromatids to bring them to opposite
sides of the cell
When chromatids are separated, they are then considered separate chromosomes
4.​ Telophase - cellular membrane starts to pinch in to prepare for cytokinesis,
chromosomes start to unwind, nuclear membrane (2 of them now) start to form around
the DNA

Cytokinesis - separation of cells; the large cell with two nuclei divides into two separate ones;
follows but is not considered a part of mitosis

The cell cycle is highly regulated

Internal regulators:
Cyclins - proteins that are
synthesized and broken down at
specific times in the cell cycle;
when they are present, they bind to
and activate CDKs
Cyclin-dependent kinases
(CDKs) - enzymes that with specific
cell components related to the cell
cycle; inactive without cyclins
Complex - a molecular complex is
a group of two or more molecules
that carry out functions that an
individual one could not
Maturation-promoting factor (MPF) - a cyclin-CDK complex that regulates the transition of a
cell from the G2 to the M stage of the cell cycle; aka. M-phase promoting factor; made out of two
proteins - cyclin B and CDK1
-​ When cyclin B and CDK1 bind, they become active MPF
-​ Affects downstream targets involved in chromosome condensation, nuclear envelope
breakdown, and formation of the mitotic spindle
-​ When the level of MPF is high enough, the cell enters mitosis, and towards the end of
mitosis, when cyclin B is broken down, the drop in MPF activity allows the cell to enter
the G1 cycle, beginning the cell cycle again
External regulators:
Density-dependent inhibition - describes a cell’s response to when cell-surface proteins on
two adjacent cells bind; sends signals to stop replicating
Anchorage dependence - describes how a cell must be attached to some sort of surface in a
tissue in order to divide; makes sure cells grow in an optimal location
Extracellular matrix (ECM) - a non-cellular component found in all tissues and organs that
provides structural support and biochemical cues for cells; found in the gaps between cells;
secreted by cells
Chemical regulators:
Hormones - proteins produced by certain glands in the body that can travel to and act on other
cells; can encourage or repress cell division
Growth factors - proteins released by certain cells into the extracellular environment that bind
to and stimulate other cells to divide
-​ etc. platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates cell division to repair wounds and
damaged blood vessels

Cell cycle checkpoints are quality checkpoints that make sure the cell cycle progresses without
errors.
1.​ The G1 checkpoint occurs at the G1/S transition. Factors such as cell size, nutrient
availability, molecular signals, and whether the DNA is damaged determines whether the
cell with progress into the S phase
2.​ The G2 checkpoint occurs at the G2/M transition. The cell will only move onto mitosis if
the DNA was correctly replicated.
-​ If errors or damage is detected, then it will either pause to be corrected or self
destruct in apoptosis
Apoptosis - programmed cell death
3.​ The M checkpoint (aka spindle checkpoint) occurs between metaphase and anaphase of
mitosis. It checks whether the mitotic spindle is properly connected to the chromosomes.

Proto-oncogene - normal genes that promote cell division; when mutated, can cause cancer
Oncogene - the cancer-causing form of a normal proto-oncogene
Tumor-suppressor gene - a gene that inhibits cell division; when mutated, can remove
regulation of cell division which can lead to cancer
Asexual reproduction - a single parent produces offspring, and each offspring has the same
genetic information as the parent; common among single-celled organisms
Sexual reproduction - two parents together produce offspring, and each offspring has a mix of
genetics from each parent; common among multicellular eukaryotic organisms
Gamete - the reproductive cell of an animal or plant, merges with one of the opposite gender
during fertilization to form a zygote with a full set of chromosomes
Haploid cells - contain one complete set of chromosomes; this state is called as “n”; includes
gametes
Diploid cells - contain two complete sets of chromosomes; this state is called as “2n”; most
somatic cells are diploid
Somatic - relating to the body, especially as distinct from the mind

Human development begins with fertilization, then progresses through multiple stages as cells
divide and change. The main stages are the zygotic, embryonic, and fetal stages.
1.​ Zygotic stage - begins at fertilization; the single-celled zygote contains all the genetic
information it needs to develop into a human
2.​ Embryonic stage - begins as soon as the zygote divides
-​ Early on, it’s a blastocyst - a hollow ball of cells with an inner cell cluster
-​ As it develops, the outline of the body parts, heart, brain, and spine are visible
3.​ Fetal stage - after 8 weeks, all major body parts are somewhat present; during this
stage, the body’s structures become more defined

Cell differentiation is when unspecialized cells are transformed into specialized cells, which
are cells with specific structures and functions. The zygote and cells of the early embryo are the
basis of mature organisms because they are stem cells.
Stem cells - cells with the ability to divide many times while remaining unspecialized, and can
differentiate into many different cell types; differ in the amount of cell types they can become
-​ Totipotent stem cells, such as the zygote and placenta, can become any type of
human cell
-​ Pluripotent stem cells, such as the blastocyst’s inner cell cluster, can become many
types of human cells, or any cell inside the embryo
 -​ Multipotent stem cells can differentiate into a limited amount of cell types within a
specific lineage
-​ Oligopotent stem cells can differentiate into a few closely related cell types
-​ Unipotent stem cells can only differentiate into one cell type, but can renew themselves

Morphogenesis is the process that shapes the physical form of the organism that follows
cellular differentiation. During morphogenesis, specialized cells rearrange themselves into
structures and tissues.
●​ etc. after the embryo implants into the uterus, gastrulation occurs, where cells form
three layers that later become the skin and nervous systems (ectoderm), the muscles
and bones (mesoderm), and internal organs (endoderm)

Each cell contains the same genetic information. Cells specialize by only using, or expressing, a
subset of their genes during and after cell differentiation to make proteins. There are two
primary patterns by which gene expression is determined:
1.​ Cytoplasmic determinants - substances found in the cytoplasm that influence gene
expression patterns. Some RNA and protein molecules are unevenly distributed through
the cytoplasm of an egg cell, so when it splits during mitosis, the new cells have different
groups of determinants in their cytoplasms. Each nucleus will then be exposed to
different substances and therefore express different genes.
2.​ Inductive signals - messages sent between neighboring or nearby cells that influence
how they behave and develop. For example, when two cells touch, they can receive
signals through contact with molecules and proteins on the surface of the other cell, or
through growth factors released by it. This can trigger changes in gene expression,
which helps form the body’s different tissue types.

All organisms need food for energy and matter.

Various molecules attach to proteins called enzymes, which change their shape as things
attach. They can put together or break apart molecules.
The chemical compounds that make up all living organisms can be divided into four groups:
-​ Together, these groups are called biological macromolecules or biomolecules
-​ Organic, meaning that their chemical structures always include the element
carbon
-​ Large and complex, and carry out a variety of functions in the cell
Polymer - large molecules made up of monomers
Monomer - small, repeating parts that make up polymers
1.​ Carbohydrates - AKA saccharides (the Greek word for sweet), carbohydrates are
sugars and sugar polymers made up of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They store
energy, provide support, and act as protection. Glucose, one of the most important
monosaccharides (simple sugars), serves as an energy source. Polysaccharides are
another type of carbohydrate. Made up of hundreds to thousands of monosaccharides
linked together, they are often used by cells as energy storage or for structure.
-​ Three important polysaccharides are all made of glucose monomers, but the way
they are attached changes their molecular structure
 -​ Starch - a storage polysaccharide that is used by plants to store excess sugars
that can later be used as energy
-​ Glycogen - a storage polysaccharide stored in animal, fungal, and bacterial cells
as a source of energy
-​ Cellulose - a structural polysaccharide that is a main part of the cell wall in plant
and algae cells
2.​ Proteins - a diverse group of biomolecules made up of nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen, and sometimes sulfur or phosphorus. Involved in many functions, such as
defense, storage, transport, cellular communication, movement, and cell structure.
-​ Amino acids - monomers connected in long chains that make up polypeptides,
which coil and fold into a specific 3D structure that determines a protein’s
function. Proteins are made up of at least one polypeptide.
-​ Collagen - a support and structural protein in connective tissues, like ligaments
and tendons; one of the most abundant proteins in mammals
-​ Hemoglobin - a protein containing iron that helps with the transport of oxygen in
red blood cells (in vertebrates) ; gives blood its red color
-​ Insulin - a protein that controls the amount of glucose in the bloodstream (of
vertebrates); diabetes is a condition where insulin production stops or decreases
3.​ Nucleic acids - biomolecules made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and
nitrogen. Made up of monomers called nucleotides (four different types: adenine (A),
thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C), where A pairs with T and G pairs with C),
and the order of these in a DNA molecule helps determine an organism’s traits.
-​ There are two types of nucleic acids:
-​ DNA - deoxyribose nucleic acid, encodes an organism’s genetic
information. Has two strands of nucleotides that wound around in a
double-helix structure.
-​ RNA - ribonucleic acid, helps the cell use DNA to make proteins and
carries out regulatory functions controlling which genes are turned on and
off; replaces thymine (T) with uracil (U).
4.​ Lipids - organic compounds made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and sometimes
phosphorus, nitrogen, or sulfur; hydrophobic.
-​ Fats - help store energy, cushion organs, and provide insulation to the body.
Most animal fats are saturated fats, solid at room temperature, and most fish and
plant fats are unsaturated fats (aka oils) and are liquid at room temperature; for
example,
-​ Oleic acid - a component of some unsaturated fats and makes up 70% of
olive oil; found in different parts of plants, including legumes (such as
peanuts) and seeds (such as pecans)
-​ Phospholipids - have a hydrophilic head and a hydrophobic tail; come together
to form a phospholipid bilayer, which forms cell membranes; for example,
-​ Sphingomyelin - a phospholipid found in the cell membranes of animals;
an important part of the myelin sheath, a protective layer around the
nucleus that allows information through electrical pulses to move quickly
along nerve cells
-​ Steroids - found in and affect the properties of the cell membrane, and function
as chemical messengers
-​ Cholesterol - is a steroid found in animal cells membranes that can be
used to make other molecules, such as hormones like estrogen and
testosterone