1.

The Need for Quality Maintenance

The only way we can achieve our goal of zero quality defects is to discard the reactive, ‘shutting the stable door
after the horse has bolted’ type of approach, where we only examine quality after it has already been built into the
product. Instead, we must set our production processes up in such a way that they cannot produce any quality defects
and then ensure that the processes always operate under those conditions. In Quality Maintenance, this is called
‘establishing and maintaining zero-defect conditions’. In other words, to build quality into the product by means of
the process, as quality experts have been urging us to do for decades, we must switch from controlling the outputs
of our processes (the quality of our products) to controlling the causes of quality (the process and equipment
conditions themselves).

If we really want to create a system that ensures perfect quality, we must prevent defects from happening at all,
rather than just screening them out after they have happened. To do this, we must build a system for controlling the
causes of quality – in other words, we must establish and maintain the ‘zero-defect conditions’ mentioned earlier.
‘Controlling quality through its causes’ is the essence of Quality Maintenance.

2. What is Quality Maintenance?

Quality Maintenance is based on the idea of maintaining perfect equipment in order to maintain perfect quality (i.e.
100% good products). Essentially, it involves:

 Establishing zero-defect conditions in order to create equipment that does not produce any quality defects,
and checking and measuring those conditions periodically,
 Preventing quality defects by keeping those conditions within a standard range of values,
 Predicting the possibility of quality defects by monitoring trends in the measured values, and taking preventive
action.
(See Table 8.1 and Figure 8.1)

Table 8.1 The Definition of Quality Maintenance

Definition Action
Establish zero-defect conditions in order to create equipment and
Establish Conditions
processes that do not produce any quality defects
Daily Checks / Periodic
Check and measure those conditions periodically
Checks
Prevent quality defects by maintaining those conditions within a standard Preventive Quality
range of values Maintenance
Predict the possibility of quality defects by monitoring trends in the Trend Monitoring / Predictive
measured values Maintenance
Take preventive action Preventive Action
Figure 8.1 An Illustration of the Definition of Quality Maintenance
2.1 Establish Zero-Defect Conditions in Order to Create Equipment and
Production Processes that Do Not Produce Any Quality Defects
To consistently produce 100% good product, we must specify clearly which conditions relating to the 4 Ms
(machinery, materials, men/women, methods) have to be controlled, together with the range of values they must be
restricted to.

2.2 Check and Measure Conditions Periodically

If we want to identify potential causes of equipment under-performance, and rectify them before an unwanted result
actually occurs, then we must check the specified conditions routinely (either daily or at longer intervals) to confirm
that they remain within their permitted ranges.

2.3 Prevent Quality Defects by Keeping Conditions within Standard Ranges

To avoid defects, we need to take preventive action, such as restoring basic operating conditions to prevent
accelerated decline of equipment functions.

2.4 Monitor Trends and Predict Possible Occurrence of Quality Defects

A ‘zero-defect condition’ is defined as a condition that will not cause quality defects if kept within its standard
range. We therefore need to understand the mechanisms of equipment deterioration, and estimate the rate at which
our equipment deteriorates, so that we can predict when a condition is likely to exceed its standard range.
2.5 Take Preventive Action
Losses arising from equipment malfunction must be prevented before they occur. This requires us to halt the
equipment and take corrective action whenever the occurrence of a defect has been predicted, or restore functions
systematically during periodic servicing.

3. The Basic Philosophy of Quality Maintenance

To prevent quality defects due to equipment or process conditions, we have to establish the conditions under which
the equipment or process will not produce any defects. To do this, we must fully co-ordinate our quality assurance
activities and equipment management activities, and identify how the product’s quality characteristics are affected
by materials, methods and equipment precision. Establishing zero-defect conditions involves identifying the exact
group of causes behind any possible defects, and then setting ranges for the material conditions, method conditions
and equipment precision, so as to ensure 100% good product. The central philosophy of Quality Maintenance is to
sustain and control the established conditions, and consequently achieve zero defects, and this approach relies on
having operators who are fully conversant with their equipment and have been trained in Autonomous Maintenance
and other relevant skills (see Figure 8.2 ).

Achieving perfect quality requires an important shift in attitude – from the conventional approach, where defects
are only discovered when the product is inspected, and action is taken after the event, to an approach in which each
condition affecting quality is measured periodically, and preventive action is taken before that condition exceeds
its permitted range.

This chapter looks at how to establish, standardise and improve zero-defect conditions for materials, machinery and
methods.

Figure 8.2 The Basic Approach to Quality Maintenance

3.1 The 4 Ms – the Determinants of Quality
The key to ensuring quality (i.e. production standards) on the shop floor is achieving optimal conditions for the 4
Ms (Men/Women, Machinery, Materials, Methods) (see Table 8.2 The 4-M Conditions – The Determinants of
Quality).

Improving quality means establishing optimal conditions for the 4 Ms, raising the quality assurance capability (Cp)
of the process until it stabilises at a high level, and setting work standards and inspection standards to maintain that
capability. Sustaining quality, on the other hand, means faithfully applying the work standards and inspection
standards that maintain the optimum conditions we have set. Figure 8.3 illustrates this relationship.
Figure 8.3 The 4 Ms – The Determinants of Quality
Table 8.2 The 4-M Conditions – The Determinants of Quality
3.2 Raising the Quality Assurance Capability (Cp)
* Raising the Cp value (see Table 8.3) means minimising any variations in the quality characteristics.

* An effective approach for eliminating variations is one based on eradication of minor imperfections in the
machinery, jigs and tools, measuring equipment, materials and work environment.

Calculating the process capability index

If a standard has upper and lower limits, the process capability index, Cp (or Cpk), is given by the formula
Table 8.3 Assessing Quality Levels

4 Prerequisites for Promoting Quality Maintenance

If we want to build quality into the product by means of the equipment, then the following prerequisites must be
satisfied.

4.1 Eliminate Forced Deterioration, to Achieve Stable Equipment Subject to

Natural Deterioration Only
and
4.2 Ensure that All Staff, from Managers through to Operators, Are
Equipment Experts
(1) Eliminating forced deterioration

If equipment is in a state of forced deterioration, any attempts to control its precision will be frustrated, because the
components that determine that precision will have short, highly-variable lifetimes, making checking very difficult.
This makes it essential to eliminate forced deterioration through Autonomous Maintenance, thereby extending and
stabilising component lifetimes.

(2) Developing an equipment-competent workforce

Both managers and the operators who actually work with machinery must have excellent equipment skills, as well
as the ability to sustain the required conditions. To achieve zero defects, production must be carried out in a situation
where people and machines are in perfect balance. For this, operators must be trained so that they can immediately
spot any abnormality in the causal system which they think might lead to a defect, and know how to deal with that
abnormality promptly and accurately.

To ensure that the people in the Operations Department have this level of competence, it is vital to implement
Autonomous Maintenance, Focused Improvements, machine diagnosis techniques, skills training, and other related
initiatives.

Promoting Quality Maintenance also involves some other important issues: (3) Activities for achieving zero
equipment failures

The most important aspect of Quality Maintenance is eliminating sudden or gradual equipment failures. A
particularly constructive approach is to identify the exact correlations between product quality characteristics and
equipment conditions (modules and individual components), and then develop and apply diagnostic techniques that
expose any deterioration in these conditions.
(4) MP design of new products and new machinery

It is important to establish a system that allows defect-free products and equipment to be created right from the
initial design stages. ‘MP design’ (maintenance prevention design) is discussed in the chapter on Early
Management.
Figure 8.4 shows the relationship between Quality Maintenance and the other TPM pillars.

5. Developing Quality Maintenance (A 10-Step Procedure)

Figure 8.5 illustrates the overall process by which Quality Maintenance is carried out, while Table 8.4 shows a 10-
step procedure for developing Quality Maintenance, based on the process shown in Figure 8.5. This procedure
requires us to verify the defect phenomena; investigate the processes that give rise to defects; investigate and analyse
the conditions relating to the 4 Ms; plan action to correct lapses in these conditions and restore the situation; analyse
and assess situations where the conditions required to achieve good products are unclear; carry out quality
improvements to fix deficiencies in these conditions; establish zero-defect conditions for the 4 Ms; consolidate the
checking methods to make the conditions easy to maintain and monitor; establish standard values for checks; revise
the standards relating to the 4 Ms; and monitor trends. Through these QM activities, we can achieve and sustain
zero quality defects (see Figure 8.5).

To achieve this, we must develop the abilities of our people (the first of the 4 Ms) through Autonomous Maintenance
and skills training.

In developing Quality Maintenance, wider-ranging and more technically demanding issues should be handled by a
project team led by a unit manager, whilst comparatively straightforward issues can be dealt with principally by
line team leaders, who will establish zero-defect conditions and implement Autonomous Maintenance activities
focusing on sustainment.

Each step of the development procedure is described below with reference to a real-life example of a PVC resin
drying process. Despite every effort to make improvements, quality defects do sometimes still arise, and Quality
Maintenance is a powerful approach for eliminating them.
Figure 8.5 Carrying Out Quality Maintenance

Table 8.4 The Development of Quality Maintenance (a 10-step procedure)

5.1 Step 1 Verify the Existing Situation
In this step, the existing situation is analysed to establish baseline values and targets for the Quality Maintenance
project and plan for its smooth implementation.
The specifications for the product in question are confirmed, and all quality characteristics and defect modes that
may affect these specifications are identified. A flow chart for the processes that determine the quality of the product
is then created, and the defect situation and phenomena are studied and stratified. The financial costs of the defects
themselves, together with the associated complaints and inspections, should be calculated and made known to
everyone concerned.

(1) Confirm quality standards and characteristics

On the basis of the product specifications, product characteristics, production standards and inspection standards,
we identify the quality characteristics that must be maintained.

(2) Create flow diagram of individual processes that determine product quality

First of all, a flow chart of the individual processes that determine product quality should be created (see upper part
of Figure 8.6).

In addition, the equipment systems’ mechanisms, functions, processing principles, sequences, etc. should be
identified, and the control items (standards and methods) that have been established for maintaining quality in each
individual process should be surveyed, and entered in the process control flowchart (see lower part of Figure 8.6).

(3) Investigate defect situation and phenomena, and stratify

Here, we seek to understand the circumstances under which a defect occurred during processing. We stratify the
defect phenomena and identify the particular processes in which they occurred.
Figure 8.6 Example of Process Flow Diagram and Control Items
5.2 Step 2 Investigate the Processes where Defects Occur
In this step, we draw up a QA matrix (see Figure 8.7) that analyses the relationships between the individual
processes and defect modes identified in Step 1. This allows us to identify the processes in which defects that impair
quality occur, and understand what kinds of defect will arise if certain equipment or method conditions are not
observed. At the same time, we analyse past records of defect modes and their seriousness.
Figure 8.7 Example of QA Matrix

QA Matrix For Ordinary PVC Drying Process

5.3 Step 3 Investigate and Analyse 4-M Conditions
Here, we study the drawings, standards, and actual equipment and materials with the aim of identifying the 4-M
conditions (relating to materials, machinery, methods, and checks) under which the defect modes in each of the
individual steps in the QA matrix would not occur. As Table 8.5 illustrates, we identify the conditions that must be
observed in order for no defects to be produced, and work out where they are deficient, by assessing whether there
are clear standards for them, whether these standards are being observed, and whether any necessary standards have
been omitted. It is generally found that required conditions and/or standards have not been specified at all, or are
unclear and are left to the subjective judgement of the operators who are supposed to implement them.
Table 8.5 Example of QA Matrix. 4-M analyses of defect modes of medium process feeds indicate that many
instances of X, Y and Z occur in machinery and methods (people), so solutions to abnormalities are needed in these
areas.
5.4 Step 4 Plan Action to Correct Deficiencies
Here, we identify any lapses in the 4-M conditions for each process as found in Step 3, and list them in a Deficiencies
Chart. We then work out how to correct these deficiencies (see Table 8.6). If the actions required to correct a
particular deficiency are immediately obvious, then someone can be assigned to do them right away. If not,
however, we go to Step 5 and work out how to proceed.
Table 8.6 Chart of Countermeasures for Deficiencies in the 4 Ms
List of Abnormalities in Ordinary PVC Drying Process

FMEA of Abnormalities in Ordinary PVC Drying Process

5.5 Step 5 Analyse Situations where the Conditions for Building in Quality Are
Unclear
In Step 5, we employ methods such as P-M Analysis, FMEA and design of experiments, to find ways of correcting
deficiencies listed in the Deficiencies Chart at Step 4 that did not seem to have an obvious solution (where the
conditions required for building in quality are hard to specify). Figure 8.8 shows an example of P-M Analysis.
Figure 8.8 Example of P-M Analysis of Ordinary PVC Drying Process

5.6 Step 6 Eliminate Flaws in 4-M Conditions

In this step, we actually implement the improvements proposed in Step 5. The results are then assessed at prescribed
intervals to ensure that they satisfy the product’s designed quality characteristics (see Figure 8.9).
Figure 8.9 Eliminating Flaws in 4-M Conditions through Kaizen

5.7 Step 7 Finalise 4-M Conditions

On completing Step 6, we revise the conditions and standards identified in Step 3 (Investigate and analyse 4-M
conditions) in order to establish zero-defect 4-M conditions (see Figure 8.10)
Figure 8.10 Finalising 4-M Conditions

5.8 Step 8 Consolidate Checking Methods

Each of the 4-M conditions established in Step 7 must be controlled in order to ensure 100% quality. However, they
are usually very numerous, and the time required to check all of them can strain available resources. To make them
manageable, they must be fixed (made so that they cannot change with time and do not need to be checked so often)
and consolidated (grouped together to reduce their number) in accordance with the procedure shown in Figure 8.11.

(1) Consolidating static precision checks

Starting at the top with the quality defect phenomenon, we must identify the entire causal system, branching right
down to the basic underlying causes, and standardise the condition checks as close to the top level as possible,
bearing in mind the nature of the equipment and whatever easy measurement procedures are currently available.

(2) Consolidating dynamic precision checks

Measuring vibration is an easy and effective way of checking many of the conditions that lead to surface defects
such as imperfect finishing, and it allows us to integrate a large number of checks. (See Table 8.7)
Figure 8.11 Basic Approach to Consolidating Checks

Table 8.7 Example of Check Consolidation in Chemical Plant

5.9 Step 9 Determine Standard Values for Checks
To ensure that the checks can always be carried out easily and reliably, it is important to use a Quality Maintenance
Matrix (a QM Matrix) to detail the relationships between the product’s quality characteristics and the standard
precision values for each part of the machinery. This matrix, sometimes also called a Quality Check matrix, is an
essential tool for making certain that everyone understands what checks are required, and when, where, how, by
whom and why they should be carried out. Of course, we must also introduce improvements at this stage to increase
the reliability of checks, simplify them and reduce the number of people required (see Figure 8.12).
Figure 8.12 Example of QM Matrix
Ordinary PVC Drying Process Quality Maintenance Matrix
5.10 Step 10 Revise Standards
We have now established certain conditions relating to the causes of defects, which, if adhered to, will ensure
perfect quality. The next thing we must do is to perform the required checks reliably, at pre-set intervals and using
the specified methods, to ensure that these conditions are maintained. We must also monitor trends in the conditions
over time. To establish a condition monitoring system of this kind, we must ensure that operators and maintenance
personnel understand the need for the checks, the methods to be used, and so on, and coach them on incorporating
this information into their standards and manuals, following the steps illustrated in Figure 8.13

Figures 8.14 shows an example of how the Quality Check matrix can be integrated into standards.

Figure 8.13 Standardisation

Figure 8.14 Example of Work Standard

In addition, by examining the items to be checked and the standard values for individual items of equipment, we
can identify any components that will inevitably produce a quality defect if they deviate from the standards. Such
components are called Q Components (Quality Components). To make sure that these components are a
maintenance priority, we can draw up Q Component Tables and display them on the relevant parts of the equipment.
We can achieve zero defects by strictly observing the relevant standards and continually monitoring the trends in
these components.

Figure 8.15 shows an example of a Q Component Table for one piece of equipment. Another good idea is to create
a maintenance calendar based on cards (see Photo 8.1), to ensure that regular Autonomous Maintenance checks are
carried out.
Figure 8.15 Example of Q Component Table
Photo 8.1 Example of Autonomous Maintenance Calendar

5.11 Results
Perfect, right-first-time quality has been achieved in numerous cases through the painstaking application of Quality
Maintenance to model products on model lines or machines, followed by rollout to other areas. This also leads to
reduced inspection labour-hours and fewer complaints. Figure 8.16 shows an example of the positive results that
can be achieved.
Figure 8.16 The Results of One Company’s Quality Maintenance Programme

6. The Figure-of-Eight Method for Quality Maintenance

6.1 The History of Quality Maintenance and the Emergence of the Figure-of-
Eight Method
Many Japanese companies started building Quality Maintenance systems in the early 1980s. As these companies
strove to improve the quality of their products through Quality Maintenance, they came to see that it consists of
two principal activities, quality sustainment, and quality improvement. By the mid-1990s, a large number of them
had arrived at an approach consisting of the following 7 steps:

(1) Identify Existing Situation

(2) Eliminate deficiencies

(3) Analyse Causes

(4) Eradicate Causes

(5) Establish Conditions

(6) Improve Conditions

(7) Maintain Conditions

The Figure-of-Eight method aims to establish a system that builds in quality by means of the process, from the twin
perspectives of sustainment and improvement. It should therefore only be started after the 10-step Quality
Maintenance procedure has been completed at least once. The Figure-of-Eight Method includes the QM matrix but
not the QA matrix, because it assumes the latter has already been compiled.
Table 8.8 The Evolution of Quality Maintenance

6.2 The Figure-of-Eight Method : Basic Concepts and Development Steps

Many different companies have adopted the Figure-of-Eight method over recent years. It is based on the 7 steps
noted above, distributed around two interconnecting loops (a ‘sustainment’ loop on the left and an ‘improvement’
loop on the right), and it seeks to improve the level of both these activities in a never-ending upward cycle. Figure
8.17 illustrates the basic concepts and the steps to be followed.
Figure 8.17 Overview of the Figure-of-Eight Method for Quality Maintenance
Only by fully understanding the aim of each step can we create a reliable, robust system for building quality into
the product. The steps and their objectives are described below.

(1) Step 1 : Identify Existing Situation

In the Figure of Eight method, ‘identify existing situation’ has a slightly different meaning to the usual. The
difference is that, as well as investigating the quality situation and identifying current rules and procedures, it is
also necessary to assess how strictly they are being complied with.

1 Investigate quality situation

The current quality situation is identified by finding out what quality characteristics must be maintained in each
work area or process, together with their standard values.

2 Identify rules and procedures

Here, we examine QC process charts, work standards, processing condition tables, etc., to find out all the rules and
procedures that are currently seen as necessary in each work area or process for building quality into the product.

3 Assess compliance
Next, we examine the extent to which these rules and procedures are being observed.
By carrying out these three sub-steps, we can summarise the existing quality situation in the form of a QM Matrix
(or Quality Assurance Level Evaluation Table) for each work area.
(2) Step 2 : Restore

Any deficiencies discovered in Step 1 are now addressed, with the aim of restoring the situation to what it should
be. The results are then checked and evaluated, to indicate what to do next.

1 Restore to current optimal state

If we find in Step 1 that any of the existing rules or procedures are not being observed, then we must ensure that
they are, in order to restore the situation to what it should currently be.

2 Check results

Next, we check the results obtained by restoring the current optimal state.
The key point in Step 2 is to determine what to do next, by checking the results (see Figure 8.18). The action
required will be one of the following three types:
Type I : If satisfactory results are not achieved by restoring the current situation, then we move on to Step 3 in the
Improvement loop, where we examine the conditions and reassess the standard values to find out where our current
rules and procedures are incomplete or insufficiently rigorous.

Type II : If the results are good, we advance to Step 6, where we revise our sustainment systems.

Type III : If the results are better than before but still do not clear our targets, then as well as moving to Step 6 to
maintain the results achieved so far, we also advance to Step 3 to rise to our targeted level.

Figure 8.18 Actions Taken After Checking Results

(3) Step 3 : Analyse Causes

If we have still not got the results we are looking for, even after ensuring that all the current rules and procedures
are being observed, this means that either the rules and procedures are incomplete or the standards are too lenient.
We must therefore analyse the causes of poor quality in order to determine exactly what standards we do need.
Analyse causes
When analysing causes, it is important to get back to basics and clarify the exact phenomena that occur, expressing
these phenomena as deviations in physical quantities, based on an accurate understanding of the principles and
parameters involved. We must then identify possible causes of these deviations by taking account of the processing
mechanisms and the functions and structure of the equipment used. P-M Analysis is an extremely powerful tool for
doing this.
Revise standard values
When revising the standard values, we need to check how ‘robust’ they are. Many firms have recently introduced
Quality Engineering (Taguchi Methods) to help them with this.
(4) Step 4 : Eradicate Causes

Here, we carry out three sub-steps based on the analysis of causes carried out in Step 3.

Investigate causes
Using Quality Engineering, optimal conditions must be determined for all the possible causes of poor quality
identified by P-M Analysis. In other words, we must identify what necessary conditions were missing from the
existing system, and which of the existing standards were too lenient.
Restore and improve
Next, we add any missing conditions, revise any insufficiently robust standards, and make improvements where
necessary. It is important to devise improvements that are easy to maintain, in order to facilitate the sustainment
activities carried out later on.
Check results
We then devise quick methods for evaluating the results of our improvements. When we have confirmed that the
results are satisfactory, we can move on to the next step (Step 5).
(5) Step 5 : Establish Conditions

If we have obtained satisfactory results, we establish exactly what is required to maintain this state. The key to this
is revising the QM matrix.

Revise QM matrix
First of all, we take the provisional QM matrix created in Step 1 and amend it in the light of all the items highlighted
by our P-M Analysis and Quality Engineering studies. This involves revising standard values, adding or removing
certain items, altering methods, and so on.
Revise standards
It is important that each revision made to a standard is referenced clearly to a technical report, improvement report,
or other such document, so that everyone understands the reasons for the revision.
(6) Step 6 : Improve Conditions

Having resolved the defect phenomena by restoring the situation in Step 2, it is vital to think hard about why the
conditions were not observed, and how we can adapt our methods of sustainment to ensure that they are. The ideal
situation may be hard to maintain, or it may be hard to notice when conditions have slipped.

When we look at what actually happens on the factory floor, it is more usual that workers are not able to observe
the conditions, rather than that they do not want to observe them. So, in order to achieve a reliable sustainment
system, it is essential to make the conditions easy to comply with. To do this, we must come up with ideas for
reducing the number of different actions required and making it possible to perform them quicker and less often.
(7) Step 7 : Maintain Conditions
One possible reason for not sustaining the required conditions is failure to notice when this is happening. This
requires us to do two things:

Revise checksheets
If we want to make sure that what ought to be done is actually being done, and done reliably, by the people who
ought to do it, then it is crucial to establish a checking system for confirming that each worker and manager is
fulfilling his or her responsibilities.
Monitor trends
Any conditions that tend to deteriorate should be extracted from the QM matrix and monitored on charts to predict
the occurrence of defects.
Having dealt with the first problem by completing one cycle of the Figure-of-Eight, we now need to move on to the
next problem and make a second trip, starting again from Step 1, while sustaining the solution we have installed
for the first problem. By continually repeating this cycle of sustainment and improvement, we can progressively
improve our workplaces’ capacity to build in quality, which is in fact the aim of the Figure-of-Eight method for
Quality Maintenance.

Figure 8.19 shows a general view of how Quality Maintenance can be developed using the Figure-of-Eight method

7. Quality Maintenance in a Manual Operation

This section describes what must be done to develop Quality Maintenance in processes where quality is built into
the product by manual work, as opposed to processes where machines are the major determinant of product quality.
This approach uses Process Quality Assurance Rate Evaluation Tables, rather than the QM Matrix. It also uses the
Figure-of- Eight Method from the start, without first applying the 10-Step Procedure.
7.1 Step 1 : Identify Existing Situation (Clarify Quality Characteristics and
Work Conditions)
In this step, we identify the quality characteristics that are to be built into the product during the process, along with
the work conditions that must be fulfilled to achieve this quality. This gives us the framework of the Process Quality
Assurance Rate Evaluation Table, and puts us in a position to assess the assurance rate. It involves the following
sub-steps:

(1) Clarify the quality characteristics

(2) Investigate the situation of in-process defects and passed-on defects

(3) Identify the work conditions for each process

(4) Create a Process QA Rate Evaluation Table

7.2 Step 2 : Restore (Assess Control Level and QA Level, and Calculate Process
QA Rate)
Here, we assess the control level for each work condition, and find the current QA rate for the process. This
involves:

(1) Evaluating the control level for each work condition (see Table 8.9)

(2) Evaluating the QA level for each quality characteristic

(3) Calculating the QA rate for the process

Table 8.9 Standards for Evaluating Level of Control of Rules and Procedures
7.3 Step 3 : Analyse Causes (Investigate Relationship between QA Level and
Defects (In-Process Defects and Passed-On Defects)
This requires us to look for cause–effect relationships between the defect situations examined in Step 1, and the
QA levels identified in Step 2. If we can find what causes lead to what effects, then we can move on to the next
step and improve the QA level. But if these relationships are not clear, then we must go back and re-evaluate the
control levels for each work condition.

7.4 Step 4 : Eradicate Causes (Establish Improvement Targets)

Improvement topics are listed in order of importance, starting from the control levels that currently show the greatest
degree of error. From experience, the target QA rate should be set to 80% or above.

7.5 Step 5 : Establish Conditions (Propose Improvements and Implement)

When proposing improvements, it is important that we start by searching for ideas at control level A, rather than
just being content to find easy solutions at level B. Although it may be possible to reach level A by applying a
combination of different ideas, we must first try to find one-shot solutions.

(1) Think of ways to prevent defects occurring before ways to prevent passing them on. (2) Think of single solutions
to assure quality before applying combinations of solutions.

7.6 Step 6 : Improve Conditions (Check Results and Evaluate)

Check the results to ensure that the improved control levels are translating into fewer defects.
7.7 Step 7 : Maintain Conditions (Consolidate Gains and Sustain)
If the results are favourable, then we must find ways of locking down the situation so that the improved work
conditions are maintained, and we must sustain these improvements consistently.

Figure 8.20 gives an outline of how Quality Maintenance can be developed through the use of Process Quality
Assurance Rate Evaluation Tables.
Figure 8.20 Procedure for Developing Quality Maintenance in Manual Work Processes

8. Quality Maintenance in Manual Work Processes (a Case

Study)
This case study looks at how QM can be developed in an assembly process, and it comes from a company that
makes automatic transmission systems for cars. Figure 8.21 shows how the company defined the quality assurance
rate in its assembly process.
8.1 Step 1 : Identify Existing Situation
(1) Investigate defect situation

Figure 8.22 relates to one of the assembly lines for front-engine front-wheel-drive transmissions, and shows the
level of defects created in that line and carried over to subsequent processes. The company was relying on pre-
shipment performance inspections to prevent these defects from being passed on to the end customer.

The firm therefore instigated a company-wide QA accreditation scheme to reward excellence in the field of quality.
Their aim was to build quality into the product through their processes, and the initiative was very successful. Here,
we look in detail at how this was applied to the assembly line, and what results it achieved.
(2) Create Process Quality Assurance Rate Evaluation Table

To develop their programme for recognising and rewarding excellence, the company drew up an evaluation table
based on forecasting the occurrence of defects and assessing the QA rate of the assembly process. Firstly, each
assembly operation was listed, with the actual and predicted deficiencies for that process, and the quality assurance
(checking) procedures used (see Table 8.10).
8.2 Step 2 : Restore
(1) Evaluate QA levels for each process and calculate process QA rate

The company took the Process Quality Assurance Rate Evaluation Table, or ‘QA Matrix’, as they called it, and
noted down what checks were used and what level of assurance was established for each of the deficiencies (QA
items). They then made an overall judgement about each item and what assurance rate it had actually achieved (see
Table 8.10) This process of investigation revealed a process QA rate of 87.2%.

(2) Ensure the rules are followed and assess the results

The QA figure of 87.2% included points that were not being implemented fully, and the company decided at this
stage to re-educate the workers about the ideal conditions, so that they would really take them on board. Although
this reduced quality fluctuations, the QA level was still low in many cases, so the company embarked on an
improvement cycle while sustaining the current situation.
8.3 Step 3 : Analyse Causes
(1) Investigate current work
The company undertook a detailed investigation of the work procedures and methods currently used, looking at the
areas where the assurance level was not good enough. In doing this, they took account of the importance of each of
the transmission system’s functions.

(2) Analyse correlation between assurance levels and defects

By studying the likelihood of a defect occurring in each of the work procedures, and the assurance level for each
work operation, the team were able to identify the precise mechanisms behind defects. In practical terms, what they
did was to work with the operators to investigate the situations in which defects arose, and then analyse the
differences between the standard work procedures and the work actually carried out. This allowed them to discover
exactly why conditions were not being observed. (See Figure 8.23).

8.4 Step 4 : Eradicate Causes

(1) Propose and implement improvements
Having established the potential defects and the mechanisms behind them, the company then devised improvement
proposals aimed at nipping these in the bud. With help from technical staff and maintenance personnel, a total of
twenty improvements were implemented on the line. The key aim was to find improvements that would minimise
the number of operations relying on workers’ judgement and powers of concentration and make it impossible for
them to carry out their work other than in the standard manner. Figure 8.23 (1) and (2) illustrates specific examples
of some of these improvements.
Figure 8.23 (1) Improving Operator-Dependent Assurance Modes

Figure 8.23 (2) Improving Operator-Dependent Assurance Modes

(2) Check results

These improvements helped to raise the quality assurance rate for the assembly process to 95.3%, meaning that
fewer potential defects were passed on to later processes (see Figure 8.24). The system had been shown to be
effective – by identifying potential defects and nipping them in the bud, the company was able to improve the QA
rate of the process.
Figure 8.24 Confirmation of Results
8.5 Step 5 : Establish Conditions
(1) Revise Quality Assurance Rate Evaluation Table

The QA Rate Evaluation Table was revised each time the team completed a particular improvement.

(2) Revise standards

Making improvements meant changing the operational benchmarks, and therefore the team revised all of the task
guidelines and other work standards appropriately. These changes affected, for example, the order in which
components were assembled, the way components were arranged, and the way jigs and tools were used.

8.6 Step 6 : Maintain Conditions

The company wanted to make sure that the new situation was faithfully sustained after the accreditation for
excellence had been achieved, so they instituted a system of daily checks to ensure that the employees were
maintaining the equipment and work area in the proper condition, and organising and observing the job site control
forms and standards properly. They also wanted to confirm that the work standards had been established and were
being obeyed, and that if any defects occurred, they would be dealt with painstakingly, and reliably prevented from
happening again.

8.7 Step 7 : Improve Conditions

Factors such as the arrangement of the components, the difficulties of using a particular jig or tool, or the inclusion
of strenuous operations that require twisting or stretching, may not directly cause defects, but they can be a
contributing factor.

Therefore, after restoring the situation at Step 2, Company B sought to improve difficult tasks to make them easier
to carry out correctly. In conjunction with this, they instituted tagging and detagging of such tasks as part of their
Autonomous Maintenance programme.

9. P-M Analysis in Eight Easy Steps

9.1 Step 1 : Clarify Phenomenon

To identify exactly what a phenomenon consists of, we cannot rely on simply stratifying the data in a Pareto chart.
We also need to make a careful study of the genbutsu (the actual objects and materials) that we have homed in on.
In the example in Figure 8.25, we should observe, for instance, that there are too many process defects, that most
of these are coil defects, and that voltage resistance defects are the principal cause of these coil defects. Ultimately,
our close study of the genbutsu relating to the defect shows us that the windings are too thick and touch the outer
case, causing the voltage resistance to fall. This is the only way we can pinpoint the problem to be solved.
Figure 8.25 Using Pareto-diagram Stratification to Observe the Genbutsu

9.2 Step 2 : Do Physical Analysis of Phenomenon

Our physical analysis concentrates on the points of interaction between the product and the process, and it requires
a full understanding of the principles and parameters involved (see Figure 8.26). We express our results in the
‘ABCD’ format, where A stands for the equipment, B stands for the product, C stands for the physical quantity
involved, and D stands for the deviation in this physical quantity that brings about the phenomenon. In other words,
we try to answer the question, ‘What physical quantity (C) connecting the equipment (A) and the product (B)
deviates in what way (D) in order to produce the phenomenon?’

Figure 8.27 shows a physical analysis of the ‘thick windings’ phenomenon.

Figure 8.26 Understanding the Contact point and the Principles of Processing

Figure 8.27 Physical Analysis Using ABCD Diagram

9.3 Step 3 : Identify Contributing Conditions
We must identify the conditions in each functional part (unit) of the machinery that bring about the phenomenon.
This requires us to draw a simple sketch of the equipment mechanisms, like that in Figure 8.28, from which we can
work out the function of each unit. Any function that affects the physical quantity (C) is a contributing condition
(see Table 8.11).

Figure 8.28 Simple Mechanism Diagram (Compact Turntable Winder)

Table 8.11 Unit Function Investigation Table

9.4 Step 4 : Study 4-M Correlations

In Step 3, we identified the contributing conditions at the unit level. Here, we look for correlation between these
conditions and the 4-Ms, by picking out every conceivable cause at the sub-assembly (primary) level and component
(secondary) level (see Table 8.12).
Table 8.12 P-M Analysis Table

9.5 Step 5 : Revise Optimal Conditions (Standards)

Determining the optimal conditions means setting standard values we can use to judge whether a state is normal or
abnormal. Chronic problems often arise at the border between the normal and abnormal zones, so we must pay
particular attention to this ‘grey area’.

9.6 Step 6 : Investigate Measurement Methods

When considering measurement methods, it is important to start from the standards set at the unit level. We should
choose methods that will help us to consolidate the checks required to sustain the improvements.

9.7 Step 7 : Identify Deficiencies

Here, we must highlight all deficiencies, regardless of how important they may be in causing the phenomenon.

9.8 Step 8 : Restore, Improve and Sustain

Table 8.13 shows the details of our P-M Analysis up to this point, and Figure 8.29 shows the results achieved.
Figure 8.29 Condition of Windings and Trend in Voltage Resistance Defects After Improvement