G A S T U R B I N E S B A S I C

GAS TURBINES BASIC

Chapter

1. Introduction
2
Gas turbines, also known as combustion turbines, are common
prime movers for many applications. Their historically high fuel
consumption, especially for small units (less than 10,000 kW), as
well as at part load, and at high inlet air temperatures has made
them less desirable than diesel engines for prime power plant
applications. They have been utilized extensively in standby and
peaking applications where their relatively low installed cost
outweighs other factors. Open or simple cycle gas turbines are
used in virtually all power plant applications. Combined cycle
systems, where heat is recovered from the gas turbine exhaust
and used to make steam which then drives a steam turbine, have
become much more common in recent years.
Gas turbines are based on the Brayton or Joule cycle which
consists of four processes: compression with no heat transfer,
heating at constant pressure, expansion with no heat transfer,
and in a closed cycle system, cooling at constant pressure. In
open cycle gas turbines, the fourth step does not exist since inlet
air is taken from the atmosphere and the exhaust is dumped to
atmosphere. Due to its higher temperature, there is more energy
available from the expansion process than is expended in the
compression. The net work delivered to drive a generator is the
difference between the two. The thermal efficiency of the gas
turbine is a function of the pressure ratio of the compressor, the
inlet temperature of the power turbine, and any parasitic losses
(especially the efficiency of the compressor and power turbine).
Practical limitations on thermal efficiency due to losses and
materials technology yield a maximum of about 40 percent at
pressure ratios of 30 to 40 and temperatures of approximately
2,500°F. These temperatures and pressure ratios are found only
in recently developed, large gas turbines. Typically pressure
ratios of 5 to

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20 and turbine inlet temperatures from 1,400 to 2,000°F are

common in gas turbines for this application, resulting in
efficiencies from 20 to 33 percent. As improved materials and
cooling technologies are introduced to smaller units, the
efficiencies can be expected to improve if the cost is not
prohibitive.

1.1. Theory of Operation

(Fig. 1) shows the processes that take place. To begin the cycle,
air is drawn in from atmosphere, through an air filter, into the
compressor. As the air passes through the compressor, pressure
is raised within the range 150 - 250 psi, depending upon the
particular unit. Where the pressure ratio is 10:1 the pressure of
the air as it leaves the compressor is 10 Atmospheres that is
about 147 PSIA, 1035 Kilopascals or 10.35 Bar. The temperature
of the air will also rise as it is compressed typically to about
450°F (230°C). Atmospheric pressure is about 14.7 PSIA. Air or
gas pressures may be indicated in psi, kg per square centimeter,
kilopascals, atmospheres or bars. Appendix 1 has more details.
The compressed air is routed into the combustion section, where
it is mixed with incoming fuel. The fuel may be oil, or natural
gas, or even gasified coal in some instances.
As a result of combustion, the temperature of the gas entering
the turbine is raised to say 1,800°F (980°C). On large modem
machines the turbine inlet gas temperature may be as high as
2,400°F, (1.300"C). As the gas passes through the turbine, the
temperature and pressure fall as energy is given-up to the
turbine to perform mechanical work-The turbine shaft is coupled
to drive a load such as an electric generator. Eventually the gas
discharges at close to atmospheric pressure and a temperature
of, say, 1,000°F (537°C). These values are given merely as an
example. Make sure that you know the specific figures related to
your particular machine. The cycle described in this paragraph is
often called the simple cycle or the Brayton cycle.
The efficiency of the Brayton cycle depends upon the pressure
ratio that is the ratio between the pressure of air entering the
compressor and the air leaving see (Fig. 2). The compressor
absorbs a large amount of energy; typically 50% to 65% of the
turbine output may be used to drive the compressor.
On most large gas turbines used for power generation the
compressor is mounted en the same shaft as the turbine.
However on smaller units it is quite common to have a two shaft

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arrangement as shown in (Fig. 3), in this machine both the

compressor and the generator are driven by separate turbines.
This has a certain advantage as it allows the compressor to run
at much higher speed where greater efficiency may be obtained.
The exhaust gas leaving the turbine contains a lot of heat. In
order to recover some of this heat, a heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG) may be placed in the gas passage. The aim is
to lower the gas exhaust temperature to about 500°F or lower if
possible, and produce steam in the process. This steam, typically
in the range of 100 to 1000 PSI, can then be used for industrial
purposes, district heating, or some other heating requirements.
One of the best applications is to use the steam to drive a steam
turbine generator. This is the well known combined cycle. (Fig.
4) show a combined cycle arrangement where two 100 MW gas
turbine generators provide exhaust heat to run one 100 MW
steam turbine generator. The advantage of this arrangement is
that the overall efficiency, (electrical energy out. compared with
heat energy in) is higher than either the standard steam turbine
cycle or the gas turbine cycle alone. The combined cycle also
offers an economic gain as the capital cost of installing a gas
turbine generator, is much less than the equivalent steam
turbine installation, with its associated boiler and auxiliary plant.
The majority of gas turbines currently in operation, range in size
all the way from 2 or 3 MW up to about 100 MW. A number of
larger units under construction range up to 150 and even 200
MW.
Many of the smaller units, say 15-20 MW in capacity are
installed as stand-by peaking units or to provide black-start
capability. The gas turbines in these units are usually multi-shaft
derivatives of aircraft engines, typically Rolls Royce or Pratt and
Whitney. Although these units burn expensive light oil, they have
the advantage of being able to start-up quickly. This is ideal for
stand-by service.
Aircraft type turbines are also used to drive larger generators
say 15 to 30 MW. In this arrangement several turbines drive one
generator.
For continuous operation gas turbines are usually heavier single
shaft machines.

1.2. Turbines Configuration

Gas turbines are lightweight in comparison to diesel
engines, are very compact, and due to their small, well-balanced
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rotating mass are able to operate at very high speeds (from

10,000 to 25,000 rpm in sizes from 900 to 10,000 kW). Smaller
gas turbines are usually single-shaft design that is the
compressor and power turbine are mounted on the same shaft.
Larger gas turbines are frequently two-shaft machines in which
the power turbine is divided into two sections, one of which
drives the compressor and the other which drives the generator.
The two-shaft design allows the compressor section to be
operated at a variable speed (within limits) thus varying the flow
to the power turbine section as a function of load.

1.3. Turbines Designation

General electric designates its gas turbines according to
frame size as shown in (Fig. 5). It shows also a table of
Westinghouse and ABB gas-turbine ratings and model numbers.
(Fig. 6) shows typical gas-turbine-generator layouts for coupling
at the hot or cold end.

Of course there are many other manufacturers offering similar

size models such as A.B.B., Mitsubishi, Solar, M.A.N., G.E.C.,
and so on. Most of these units have similar, but not identical,
features. This program cries to cover all of the generic items
associated with different manufacturers of gas turbines.
When comparing different units, the specified values of efficiency
will often be quoted. Usually around 35% to 40%. Take great
care when comparing quoted values of efficiency, to check that
the numbers use the same basis of measurement. Many
manufacturers apply the "lower heating value" (T-HV) of fuel and
consequently arrive BE a higher efficiency number. Both natural
gas and oil (the major fuel sources for gas turbines) contain a
considerable amount of hydrogen. When combustion takes place
this hydrogen mixes with oxygen to form steam and heat is
released. This steam passes through the turbine and eventually
exhausts to atmosphere. The steam is at too high a temperature
to condense and therefore the latent heat is not recovered (about
900 BTU per pound). The value of this unrecoverable heat can be
subtracted from the measured calorific value of the fuel to give
us the so called lower heating value (LHV). (Fig. 7) shows
typical heating values. Most North American standards
recommend that the higher heating value (HHV) be used to give
a realistic comparison of heat in against energy out.
Here are some acronyms you may find in manufacturers'
literature. STAG is G.E.'s proprietary name for their combined
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cycle power plant. It means steam and gas. STIG is another G.E.
term, used to describe a steam injected $as turbine.
Westinghouse uses the term PACE to describe their combined
cycle plants. PACE is derived from power and combined
efficiency.
In this arrangement steam is injected into the gas stream as it
leaves the combustion chambers. It actually increases the mass
flow through the turbine and so increases the work performed at
the turbine. This should not be confused with steam which is
injected into the combustion chamber for control of nitrous
oxides. The subject of "NO" and other environmental
considerations are discussed in other videotapes in this series.

Figure 1. Basic Gas Turbine

Figure 2. Brayton Cycle Efficiency VS Pressure Ratio

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Figure 3. Two Shaft Arrangement

Figure 4. Combined Cycle

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Figure 5. Gas Turbine Designations

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Figure 6

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Figure 7

Figure 8

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2. DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

2.1 Principles of Operation
The air entrance is usually identified as engine station one.
Understanding the function of the inlet duct and its importance
to engine performance makes it a necessary part of any on gas
turbine design and construction.
The air inlet to a turbine engine must furnish a uniform supply of
air to the compressor so the compressor can operate stall-free,
and it must cause as little drag as possible. It takes only a small
obstruction to the airflow inside the duct to cause a significant
loss of efficiency. If the inlet duct is to deliver its full volume of
air with a minimum of turbulence, it must be maintained as
closed to its original Condition as possible, and any repair to the
inlet duct must retain its smooth aerodynamic shape.

Figure 9

Figure 10

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Figure 11
2.2 Accessory Section
The engine-drive gearbox is the main unit in accessory section.
Another common gearbox location is on the front or rear of the
engine if the inlet and exhaust locations permit. This location is
particularly desirable because it allows the narrowest engine
diameter and thus the lowest drag configuration.
As a secondary function, the main gearbox acts as a collection
point for oil scavenged from the engine before it is pumped back
to the oil tank. This allows many of the internal gears and
bearings to be lubricated by splash lubrication.
2.3 Compressor Section
The compressor section of a turbine engine houses the
compressor rotor and the stator vanes and it supplies air in
sufficient quantity to satisfy the needs of the combustor. The
primary purpose of the compressor is to increase the pressure of
the mass of air entering the engine inlet and then to discharge it
into the diffuser and the combustors at the correct velocity,
pressure and temperature. The problems associated with these
requirements are great because the compressor must move air at
a velocity of around 400 to 500 feet per second and increase its
pressure by perhaps 20 to 30 times in a space of only a few feet.

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The secondary purpose of the compressor is to supply engine

bleed air to cool the internal hot section, and supply heated air
for inlet anti-icing. Air is also extracted for such aircraft uses as
cabin pressurization, air conditioning, fuel system deicing heat,
pneumatic engine starting, and various other functions that
require compressed air.
3. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS
The centrifugal compressor, sometimes referred to as a radial
outflow compressor is the oldest design and it still in use today
Many of the smaller flight engines as well as the majority of gas
turbine auxiliary power units use this design .
A centrifugal compressor performs its duties by receiving the air
at its center and accelerating it outward by centrifugal force. The
air then expands into a divergent duct called a diffuser, and as it
spreads out, it slows and its static pressure increases.
Centrifugal compressors consist basically of an impeller rotor, a
diffuser, and a manifold. The impeller is usually forged from
aluminum alloy, and can be either single- or double-sided.
The diffuser acts as a divergent duct in which the air spreads out
slows down and increases I static pressure. The compressor
manifold distributes the air in a smooth flow to the compressor
section.
A single-stage, dual-side impeller allows a high mass airflow from
a small diameter engine, and it has been used in a number of
flight engines in the past for those reasons. This design does not,
however, receive the full benefit from ram effect because of the
corners the air must turn as it enters and leaves the compressor.

Figure 12

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A single-sided impeller does benefit from ram intake and its less
turbulent air entry makes it well suited for aircraft installation.

Figure 13

Compression ratios attainable are about the same for both of the
single-stage types of centrifugal impellers. More than one stage
of compression can be used but the use of more than two stages
of single-entry compressors is considered impractical. The
energy lost in the airflow as it slows down to make the turns
from one impeller to the next, the added weight, and the amount
of power needed to drive the compressor all seem to offset the
benefits of additional compression by using more than two
stages.
The most generally used centrifugal compressor is the single-
sided type with either one or two stages.
Recent developments in centrifugal compressors have produced
compression ratios as high as 15:1. In past, pressures this high
could be obtained only with axial flow compressors.
Centrifugal compressors are shorter than axial flow compressors
and because of their spoke-like design they can accelerate air
faster and immediately diffuse it in the direction of flow. Tip
speed of centrifugal impeller may reach speeds as high as Mach I
.3, but the pressure within the compressor casing prevents
airflow separation and provides a high transfer of energy into the
airflow.
A centrifugal compressor may be used in combination with an
axial compressor, and this is done in some of the smaller flight
engines, but all of the larger engines today use axial flow
compressors.
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Figure 14

3.1 Advantages of centrifugal compressors

 High pressure rise per stage-up to 10:1 to 15:1 in a dual
stage.
Good efficiency over a wide rotational speed range, idle to
approximately Mach 1.3 tip speed.
 Simplicity of manufacture and relatively low cost.
 Low weight
 Low starting power requirements.

Figure 13

3.2 Disadvantages of a centrifugal compressor

a) Large frontal area for a given airflow.
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b) More than two stages are not practical because of the

energy
losses between the stages.
4. AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS
There are three types of compressors: single-spool, dual-
spool, and triple-spool. Single- and dual-spool compressors are
used in turbojet and turbo shaft engines while dual and triple-
spool compressors are commonly used in turbofan engines.
The front compressor is referred to as the low pressure low
speed, or N1 compressor. Its turbine is referred to in the same
manner. The rear compressor is called the high pressure, high
speed, or N2 compressor.
The rotor arrangement we see in Fig. 19 is such that the fan is
referred to as the N1, or low speed compressor, the compressor
next in line is called the N 2, or intermediate compressor and the
innermost compressor is the high pressure, or N3 compressor.

Figure 14

Dual-and triple-spool compressors were developed for the

operational flexibility they afford the engine in the from of high
compression ratios, quick acceleration, and better control of the
stall characteristics.
For any given power lever setting, the high pressure compressor
speed is held relatively constant by the fuel control governor.
And, assuming that there is a fairly constant energy level
available at the turbine, the low pressure compressors will speed
up or slow down with changes in the aircraft inlet conditions
resulting from atmospheric changes or flight maneuvers. The N 1
compressor tries to supply the N2 compressor with a fairly
constant air pressure for each power setting by speeding up or

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slowing down to maintain a constant mass airflow at the inlet of

N2.
Low pressure compressors will speed up as altitude is gained, as
the atmosphere is less dense and more speed is needed to force
to needed amount of air through the engine. Conversely , as the
aircraft descends, the air becomes more dense and easier to
compress so the N1 compressor slow down.

Figure 15

Figure shows a geared fan-type engine. This compressor

was developed for smaller engines so higher turbine
speeds could be converted to torque to drive the fan. Also
since the fan is geared to the compressor, the compressor
is not restricted to fan speed.
Fan tip speed may be allowed to exceed Mach one so the
compressor can deliver the correct amount of air. The pressure
within the fan duct helps to retard airflow separation from the
blades at speeds over Mach one so there is an effective transfer
of energy to the air at the required compression ratio.
There are several advantages of the axial flow compressor. They
are:
 High peak efficiencies from ram, created by its straight-
through design.
 High peak pressure attainable by addition of compression
stages.
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 Small frontal area and resulting low drag.

4.1 The disadvantages of the axial flow compressor
 Difficulty of manufacture and high cost.
 Relatively high weight.
 High starting power requirements.
 Low pressure rise per stage, approximately 1.27:1.
 Compression ratio.
Small gas turbine engines used in business jet aircraft may have
a compression ratio in the order of 6:1 in older models, up to as
high as 18:1 in the newer designs. By comparison, the engine
used in some of the jumbo jets will compress the air as much as
30 atmospheres.
Compression ratio is found by comparing the discharge pressure
of the last stage of compression with ambient air pressure. For
example, if the ambient pressure is 14.7 psi and the compressor
static discharge is 97 psi, the compression ratio is expressed as
6.6:1.
A typical example of the compression ratio of a dual-spool
compressor may be computed as:
N1 compression ratio = 3:1.
N2 compression ratio 4:1
Total compression ratio = 12:1
Note that the compression ratio of one compressor is multiplied
by the other to get the total compression ratio. Normally N2 will
turn at a higher speed than N1, and because of its small
diameter, it will have a higher compression ratio. Therefore, a
dual compressor having 10 stages would have a higher
compression ratio than 10 stages in single-spool compressor.
This is one of the principle advantages of dual -spool
compressors.
Compression ratio of the fan section may be found by dividing
the fan discharge pressure by the fan inlet pressure. An example
of compression ratio of a fan might be:
inlet pressure = 14.7 psi.
Fan discharge pressure = 26.5 psi.
Fan compression ratio = 1.8: 1

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The rated compression ratio of a gas turbine engine is calculated

at standard conditions and full takeoff power and any deviation
from these conditions will affect the discharge pressure.
If the mass airflow eating for given engine is 50 pounds per
second under standard-day conditions at full power, the mass
airflow will increase as the compressor discharge pressure
increases. In fact, the mass airflow change which occurs after
takeoff will require the pilot to reduce power to keep from over
boosting the engine. The climb to altitude will result in a drop in
ambient pressure, but an airplane flying at an altitude where the
ambient pressure is only about one third of sea level pressure
has ram compression in the engine inlet of approximately 1.5:1,
and this helps compensate for the decreased air density.
Actually, the engine is designed to operate most efficiently with
this lower mass airflow at cruise altitude by a corresponding
reduction in fuel flow.

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4.2 BLADES AND VANES

An axial flow compressor has two main elements, the rotor
and the stator. The rotor blades force air rearward through each
stage which consists of one set of rotor blades and the following
set of stator vanes. The speed of the rotor determines the air
velocity in each stage. As the velocity increases, kinetic energy is
added to the air. The stator vanes are placed to the rear of the
rotor blades to receive the high velocity air and act as diffusers,
changing the kinetic energy of velocity into potential energy of
pressure the stators also serve a secondary function of directing
the airflow into the next stage of compression.

Figure 16

Figure 17
Compressor blades are constructed with a varying angle of
incidence, or twist.
This twist compensates for the blade velocity change caused by
its radius. The further from the axis of rotation, the faster the
blade section travels. The blades also decrease in size, from the
first stage to the last to accommodate the converging, or
tapering, shape of the space in which they rotate.

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The length, chord, thickness, and aspect ratio (ratio of the length
to the width) to the compressor blade are designed to suit the
performance factors required for a particular engine and aircraft
combination.
Axial flow compressors normally have from 10 to 18 stages of
compression with the fan considered to be the first stage of
compression. Some tong fan blades have a mid-span shroud each
blade to from a circular ring which helps support the blades
against the bending forces from the air stream. The shrouds,
however, block some of the airflow, and the aerodynamic drag
they produce reduces the efficiency of the fan. The section of the
fan blade, from the mid-span shrouds to the root, is the
compressor blade section for the core engine.
The roots of the compressor blades are often loosely fitted into
the compressor disk for ease of blade assembly and for the
vibration damping it provides. As the compressor rotates,
centrifugal force keeps the blade in its correct position, and the
air stream over the airfoil provides a shock absorbing or
cushioning effect. These blades are attached to the disk with a
dovetail and are secured with a pin and a lock tab or lock wire.
Some blades are cut off square at the tip and these are referred
to as flat machine tips. Other blades have a reduced thickness at
the yips and these are called profile, or squealer, tips. All
rotating machinery has a tendency to vibrate, and profiling a
compressor blade increases the natural frequency of the blade.
By raising the natural frequency of the blade beyond the
frequency of rotation, the vibration tendency is reduced.

Figure 18
Profiling changes the aerodynamics at the tip to produce a
smooth axial airflow even if the tip is rotating at speeds beyond
the speed of sound and flow separation has started to occur.
On some of the newer engines, the compressor rotor tips are
designed to have a tight running clearance and rotate within a
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shroud tip strip of abradable material. This strip will wear away
rather than cause blade damage if contact takes place and the
strip is replaced when the engine is overhauled. A high pitch
noise can be head on coast down if the compressor blade touches
the shroud tip strip and this is the reason profile tips are called
squealer tips.
4.3 Variable vanes
Stator vanes may either be stationary or may have their angle:
variable. The inlet guide vanes which are the vanes immediately
in front of the first stage rotor blades may also be stationary or
variable. The function of the inlet guide vanes is to direct the
airflow into the compressor at the most desirable angle. Exit
guide vanes are placed at the compressor discharge to remove
the rotational moment imparted to the air by the compressor.
5. COMBINATION COMPRESSORS
To take advantage of the points of both the centrifugal and the
axial flow compressor and eliminate some of their disadvantages,
the combination axial-centrifugal compressor was deigned. This
application is currently being used in many small turbine engines
installed in business jet airplanes and helicopters.
The combination compressor is especially well suited to engines
using reverse-flow annular combustors.
The engine diameter is wider to accommodate this type of
combustor so there is no disadvantage in using the centrifugal
compressor which, by the nature of its design, is much wider
than a comparable axial flow compressor.

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Figure 19
6. INTER-STAGE AIRFLOW
Compressor airfoils experience an infinite variety of angles of
attack and air densities, and controlling the angle of attack is a
design function of the inlet duct, the compressor and the fuel
control sensors.

Figure 20

The rotating compressor blades speed up the air in the inlet duct
and the air passes through the inlet guide vanes, which changes
its angle of flow, but does not change either its velocity or its

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pressure. The amount the inlet guide vanes change the angle of
the air entering the compressor is determined by their position
and by the curvature of the vanes. Note that the entering and
exiting arrows are the same length, showing that there has been
no change in velocity, but only a change in direction.

Figure 21

There are two vector forces acting on airflow. One vector is the
ram effect giving velocity to the air entering the compressor.
This is shown by the arrow labeled “inlet guide vane effect”. The
other force is created by the aerodynamic shape of the airfoil
(rotor blade). Air is pulled into the compressor and flow over the
airfoil in the direction opposite to the blade rotation. This vector
is labeled “rotor speed effect.

Figure 22

The resultant of the two force vectors gives us the angle of

attack, or the angle between the resultant vector and the chord
line of the blade. Airflow through the compressor, in spite of the
spinning rotor, is relatively straight, with no more than about
180 degrees of rotation as the air passes through the engine. Air
leaving the last stage of compression passes through a stationary
set of exit guide vanes which straightens the air flow before it
enters the combustor.

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The duct, formed by the top, or cambered, side of one blade and
the bottom side of the adjacent blade is diverging in shape, and
air passing through a diverging duct has its static pressure
increased, and work done on the air by the rotating blades
increases its velocity.
AS the air leaves the trailing edge of the compressor rotor
blades, it flows through a row of stator vanes which also form
diverging ducts. But since no energy is added by the stator, the
velocity of the air decreases, and its static pressure increases.
The action of the compressor rotor blades and the stator vanes
continues through all of the stages of compression, and when the
air leaves the compressor it has approximately the same velocity
it had when it started, but it has a much a higher static pressure.
The air can flow rearward against the ever increasing pressure
only because energy is transferred from the turbine as it drives
the compressor. When a compressor blade or a stator vane has a
positive angle of attack, the pressure on the bottom of its airfoil
shape is higher than the pressure on the top.
The high and low pressure areas formed on the airfoils allow air
passing through one stage to be influenced by the next stage.
This is called the cascade effect.
Fig. 22 shows the high-pressure area of the first stage blade
being pulled into the low-pressure area of the stator. Notice that
the leading edge of the stator vane faces in the opposite
direction as the leading edge of the rotor blade. This
arrangement produces a pumping action. The high-pressure area
of the first-stage stator vane pumps air into the low- pressure
area of the second-stage rotor blade and so on through the
compressor.
According to- Bernoulli’s principle, as pressure builds up in the
rear stages of the compressor, its velocity should decrease. To
keep the velocity constant, the shape of the path of the gas
through the compressor converges.
7. ANGLE OF ATTACK AND COMPRESSOR STALL
As we see in Fig. 23, the angle of attack of the compressor blade
is determined by the inlet air velocity and the compressor RPM.
These two forces combine to form a vector force which gives us
the angle of attack of the airfoil. A compressor stall is a condition
of airflow when the angle of attack becomes excessive.

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Figure 23

A compressor stall causes the airflow to slow down, stop, or even

reverse its direction, depending upon the severity of the still.
Stalls can range from a slight air vibration, or fluttering sound,
to a louder pulsating sound, or even to a violent backfire or
explosion. Quite often the gages in the cockpit do not show a
transient stall condition, and these stalls are usually not to an
engine. They often correct themselves after one or two
pulsations. But severe stalls, called hung stalls, can significantly
impair engine performance, cause loss of power and can, even
damage the engine. The pilot can identify a stall con4tion by its
audible noise, by fluctuations of the RPM, by an incr1ase In the
exhaust gas temperature, or by a combination of these clues.
Compressor stalls may be caused by:
a) Turbulent or disrupted airflow to the engine inlet, which red
the velocity vector.
b) Excessive fuel flow caused by abrupt engine acceleration.
This increases the back pressure of the combustor and
reduces the velocity vector.
c) Contaminated or damaged compressor blades or stator
vanes.
d) Damaged turbine components which cause a loss of shaft
horsepower delivered to the compressor. This decreases the
compressor speed and reduces the velocity vector.
The remedy for an acceleration stall is to reduce the power and
allow the inlet air velocity and the engine RPM to get back into
their proper relationship.
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In case of a severe compressor stall or surge caused by a fuel

control malfunction or from foreign object ingestion, a reversal
of airflow can occur with such force that the compressor blades
may be bent enough to cause them to contact the stator vanes:
This extreme condition will result in disintegration of the
compressor and complete engine failure.
7.1 Stall, or surge, margin curie
Another way to describe the compressor stall is by the use
of a stall surge, margin curve. A stall is a localize condition,
while a surge occurs across the entire compressor. Every
compressor has a best operation condition for a given
compression ratio, speed, and mass airflow. This is commonly
called the design point.

Figure 24
In (Figure 24 above), the steady-state operating line indicates
that the engine will perform without stall at the various
compression pressure speeds, and mass airflow along the line.
This line falls well below the stall zone. The design point is
located on this line and-it represents the conditions under which
the engine will for most of its life-that is, at high altitude cruise
From, this curve, it may be seen that for any given compressor
speed, only a narrow band of compressor pressure ratios are
acceptable. Only those between the steady-state line and the
stall zone will provide satisfactory engine operation.
This band of compression ratios is called the stall margin.

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Also, for any given mass airflow, there exists only a narrow band
of compressor pressure ratios which will allow the engine to
operate stall free.
If compressor contamination, cold- or hot- section damage,
incorrect fuel scheduling or other engine malfunctions cause a
significant change in any of three parameters on the chart, a stall
or occur, or if not a stall.
The inter-stage airflow we have discussed has all been at
sonic speed. But some of the newer and more advanced
compressor have supersonic airflow with speeds up to Mach 1.3
over some of the airfoil sections of both blades and vanes in
compressors of this design have thin leading edges and a twist
that forms a slightly convergent-divergent airflow passage,
similar to the C-D flight inlet duct we have discussed.
7.2 Comparison of axial flow with centrifugal flow compressors
Axial flow and centrifugal flow compressors both raise the
pressure of the air inside the engine. The centrifugal compressor
raises the pressure by accelerating the air outward into a single
divergent-duct diffuser where according to Bernoulli’s principle
the air spreads out and slows down, and its pressure increases.
An axial compressor raises the air pressure by accelerating the
air rearward through many small diffuser or divergent ducts
formed by the shape and position of the rotor blades and stator
vanes. The trailing edges of the blades pairs also form divergent
ducts which start the rise in pressure prior to entry into the
stators.
8. DIFFUSER SECTION
The diffuser, located directly behind the compressor, provides
the space for the air leaving the compressor to spread out. It is
in the form of a divergent duct, and is usually a separate section,
bolted to the compressor case. The pressure in the diffuser is the
highest in the engine, and this high-pressure gives the
combustion products something to push against.

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Figure 25

Figure or Typical diffuser section located between the

compressor and the combustion The air is at hi heat
pressure ü the diffuser, and it is from air that bleed air is
taken.

Fig 26 shows Through-flow combustors

9. COMBUSTION SECTION

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The combustors, or burners, in a gas turbine engine have an

outer casing, an inner perforated liner, usually made of stamped
sheet metal, a fuel injection system, and an ignition system for
starting Heat energy is added to the flowing gases in the
burners, and this energy expands the gases and accelerates them
as they leave the engine.
When heat energy from the fuel is added, the gases expand, but
since the area through which the gas must flow remains the
same, the flowing gases speed up.
Most combustors are of the through-flow configuration which is
sometimes called a through flow combustor. Gases entering from
the diffuser are ignited and then pass directly through the
combustor into the turbine section. The multiple can, annular,
and an-annular combustors are of this type.
Another configuration is the reverse-flow annular type where
gases leaving the diffuser flow to the rear of the combustor
where fuel is sprayed in and ignited. Then the burning gases
following a reverse-S path into the turbine section.
To function properly, the combustors must mix the air and the
fuel for efficient combustion. Then it must lower the temperature
of the hot combustion products enough that they will not
overheat the turbine components. To do this, the air flow through
the combustor is divided into primary and secondary air paths.
Approximately 25 to 35 percent of the air is routed to the area
around the fuel nozzle for combustion. This is the primary air.
The secondary air, or the remaining 65 to 75 percent, forms a
cooling air blanket on either side of the liner and centers the
flames so they do not contact the metal. The secondary air also
dilutes and cools the hot primary air to a temperature that will
not shorten the service life of the turbine components.
Developments in recent years have brought out the smokeless or
reduced smoke combustor. Incomplete combustion in the early
engines left unburned fuel in the tail pipe where it entered the
atmosphere as smoke. By shortening the flame pattern and using
new materials that can with stand higher operating
temperatures, manufacturers have been able to almost
completely eliminate the smoke emissions from turbine engines
as more complete combustion occurs.

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Figure 27 shows Reverse-/tow combustor

Figure 28
Figure shows secondary airflow in the combustor cool is
burning gases enough that they will not damage.
The secondary air in the combustors may flow at a velocity of up
to several hundred feet per second, but the primary airflow is
slowed down by swirl vanes, which gives the air a radial motion
and retards its axial velocity to about five or ix feet per second
before it is mixed with the fuel and burned. The vortex created in
the flame area provides the required turbulence to properly mix
the fuel and the air. This reduction in the airflow velocity is
important because of the slow flame propagation rate of
kerosene-type fuels. If the primary airflow velocity was too high,
it would literally blow the flame out of the engine. As it is, the
combustion process is complete in the first third of the
combustor length, and the burned and unburned gases then mix
to provide an even distribution of heat at the turbine nozzle.
Although flameout is uncommon in modern engines, combustion
instability still occurs and, occasionally, a complete flameout.
Turbulent weather, high altitude) slow acceleration during
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maneuvers and high-speed maneuvers are some of the typical

conditions which induce combustor instability which could lead
to flameout
There are two types of flameouts: a lean flameout usually occurs
at low engine speed and low fuel pressure, at high altitude where
the flame from a weak mixture can be blown out by the normal
airflow. A rich flameout occurs during rapid engine acceleration
where an overly-rich mixture causes the combustion pressure to
increase so much that the compressor airflow stagnates and
slows down or even stops. The interruption of the airflow then
causes the flame to go out. Turbulent inlet conditions and violent
flight maneuvers can also cause compressor stalls which could
result in airflow stagnation and flameout.
Combustor instability sometimes causes small gas pressure
fluctuations. These low pressure cycles cause high fuel flow
pulsations, which increase the combustor instability until the
pilot makes the necessary adjustments to the flight conditions or
to engine controls.
Combustor efficiency ranges between 95 and 99 percent, which
means that 95 to 99 percent of the heat energy in the fuel is
released. The combustor efficiency is high, but only about one
third of the mass airflow is used for combustion, with the
remainder of it used for cooling, to keep the temperatures within
acceptable limits for the combustor and the turbine.
9.1 Multiple-can combustor
This older type of combustion chamber (not commonly used
today) consists of a series of outer housings, each with its own
perforated inner liner. Each of the multiple combustor cans is
actually a separate burner unit, with all of them discharging into
the open area at the turbine nozzle inlet. The individual
combustors are interconnected with small flame propagation
tubes so that when combustion starts in the two having igniter
plugs, the flame will travel through the tubes and air mixture in
the other cans.

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Figure 29 shows Multiple-can combustor

Figure 30 shows annular combustor

9.2 Annular Combustor

The annular combustor consists of an outer housing and a
perforated inner liner called a basket, with both parts encircling
the engine. Multiple fuel spray nozzles stick out into the basket
and both primary and secondary air for combustion and cooling
flow through it in the same way as in the other combustor
designs.
Annular combustors are in common use today in both small and
large engines. They are the most efficient type from the
standpoint of both thermal efficiency and weight, and they are
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also shorter than the other types. The small amount of surface
area requires less cooling air, and makes the best use of the
available space, especially for large engines where other types of
combustors would be much heavier for the large mass airflow
these engines use.
9.3 Can-Annular Combustor
The can-annular combustor is used for commercial aircraft
powered by Pratt and Whitney engines. This type of combustor
consists of an outer case with multiple inner liners located
radially around the axis of the engine. Flame propagation tubes
connect the individual liners and two igniter plugs are used for
starting
The combustor in figure below uses eight cans, and each can has
its own fuel nozzle supporting its forward end. The outlet duct
with its eight openings supports the cans at cans at their aft end.
An advantage of this type of combustor is its ease of on-the-wing
maintenance because the forward half of the outer combustor
casing may be unfastened to slide rearward exposing the cans
for inspection.

Figure 31 shows Can-annular combustor

9.4 Reverse-Flow Annular Combustor

This design is used by the Pratt and Whitney PT6 and the
Garrett TFE 731 and several of the other engines instanced in

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business aircraft. The reverse-flow combustor serves the same

function as the through-flow combustor but it differs by the air
flowing around the chamber and entering from the rear, causing
the combustion gas flow to be in the opposite direction as the
normal airflow through the engine.
Notice in Figure below that the turbine wheels are inside the
combustor area rather than in tandem, as they are with through-
flow combustors. This allows for a shorter and lighter engine and
it also uses the hot gases to preheat the compressor discharge
air. These factors help make up for the loss of efficiency caused
by the gases having to reverse their direction as they pass
through the combustor.

Figure 32 shows Reverse-flow combustor

10. TURBINE SECTION

The turbine section is bolted to the combustor and it
contains the turbine wheels and the turbine stators. The turbine
transforms a portion of the kinetic energy and heat energy in the
exhaust gases into mechanical work, so it can drive the
compressor and the accessories.
The compressor adds energy to the air by pressure, and the
turbine extracts energy by pressure of the flowing gases.

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Figure 33 shows an impulse turbine is driven by the

impulse of hot gases on the blade.

Figure 34
Figure shows When the hot high velocity gases flow
through an in pulsar action turbine, an aero dynaink force
as well as the impulse force moves the, blades in the
direction needed to spin the wheel
This is done by converting pressure into velocity at the nozzles
formed at the training edge of the stator vanes and rotor blades.
The airflow is directed in a tangential rather than axial direction,
and this slows the gas flow and reduces its reactive power, but it
adds torque power to the rotor system. The mass of the airflow is
not changed by the transfer of energy to the rotor system, but
the velocity of the air flowing through the engine is decreased as
power is taken to drive the compressor. Turboprop and turbo
shaft engine have very little reactive thrust in the tail pipe after
their multi-stage turbines extract power.
An efficient turbine performs a maximum amount of work with

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the least fuel consumption, and efficient turbines operate at their

design point of temperature and RPM when the compressor is
operating at its design point of compression ratio and mass
airflow.
The turbine absorbs most of the energy released by the
combustion, and it is the most highly stress component in the
engine. The disk, usually a heavy forging of a nickel alloy, must
withstand extremely high temperature loading and high
rotational speed.
The blades are held in the disk by a method similar to the
compressor blades. The stator vanes for the turbine are located
ahead of the rotor rather than behind the rotor, as they are in
the compressor. The compressor stators act as diffusers to
decrease to velocity and increase the pressure of the gas, but the
turbine stators act as nozzles, to increase the velocity and
decrease the pressure.
Most turbine nozzles operate in a choked condition from cruise
to takeoff power. This provides a fairly constant flow of energy to
the turbine wheel over its normal operating range. Since the
nozzle is choked, the velocity of the gases depends upon their
temperature, which affects the local speed of sound. The
downstream pressure has little effect on a choked turbine nozzle,
as it creates its own back pressure. The turbine stator also
directs the gases at the optimum angle to the turbine blades so
the wheel will turn with maximum efficiency.
The gas flowing through the turbine stator is at the highest
velocity of any point in the engine, and this velocity is controlled
by the total area of the opening between the vanes.
Turbine is classified as impulse, reaction, or a combination
impulse-reaction type. An impulse turbine causes no net change
in the pressure across the turbine wheel. The nozzle guide vanes
are so shaped that they change the direction of the gases so they
will strike the turbine wheel at the correct angle and at an
increased velocity.
Reaction turbines produce their turning force by an aerodynamic
action. The nozzle guide vanes are shaped in such a way that
they only direct the gas in the correct direction; they do not
increase the velocity of the gas. This gas passes between the
blades of the turbine, which form converging nozzles that further
increase its velocity. As the gases flow over the airfoil- shaped
blades, a force component in direction of the plane of rotation
causes the turbine to spin.

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Most turbines are neither totally of the reaction nor of the

impulse type, but are of the impulse-reaction type that causes
the turbine to spin because of a combination of the impulse
pressure and the reaction force of the flowing gases.
11. Gas Turbine Auxiliary Systems
Gas turbine auxiliary systems include starting, fuel supply,
lubrication, governor/controls, speed reduction gear, inlet air,
and engine exhaust.

11.1. Starting System

Gas turbines utilize a variety of starting systems based on
size of the unit and other considerations. Common starting
methods include compressed air, direct current (DC) electric
motors with dedicated batteries, or a hydraulic pump driven by
an alternating current (AC) motor, small gas turbine, or diesel
engine, which in turn drives the hydraulic motor on the gas
turbine. Where used, an auxiliary gas turbine or diesel engine
also requires a starting system, usually a DC motor and
batteries. Regardless of the equipment used, the starting system
brings the unit up to a minimum speed at which the burners may
be ignited and the turbine is then brought up to operating speed.
Gas turbines installed in power plants may be started with
compressed air,
DC motors, or an engine driven hydraulic system. Dedicated
compressors typically provide starting air at pressures from 150
to 500 psig, depending on the specific requirements of the gas
turbine. The system must provide adequate storage of
compressed air to allow multiple attempts to start the engines.
DC motors are driven from batteries located at the engine skid,
which are charged by a dedicated battery charger. Hydraulic
systems are composed of a prime mover, usually a diesel engine
or small gas turbine, hydraulic pump, drive motor, and
accessories, including hydraulic reservoir, air cooled heat
exchanger, and filter.

11.2. Fuel System

Although gas turbines are capable of burning either gas or
liquid fuels, only liquid fuels are addressed in this chapter since
they are preferred for standby power generation. The following
fuel system components are commonly provided as part of the
gas turbine package: motor driven booster pump, low-pressure
duplex fuel filter, main turbine driven fuel pump, high pressure
filter, main fuel control valve (regulated by the governor), fuel
manifold and injectors at the combustor, and igniter.
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The gas turbine is dependent on the fuel oil system to provide

fuel to the engine skid. The fuel oil must have the proper
characteristics required for the specific engine installation. In
general, gas turbines can utilize a wider range of liquid fuels
than diesel engines. Most facilities use kerosene, No. 1 fuel oil,
or No. 1 diesel, but some use No. 2 fuel (if acceptable to the
manufacturer) since it is less expensive than the lighter grades
of fuel.

11.3. Lubrication System

Most gas turbines are provided with complete lubrication
systems which include a cooler (air cooled), filter, pre/post lube
pumps, engine driven main lube oil pump, alarms, oil storage
tank (located in engine skid), and heater. The system is usually
packaged with the gas turbine and only the lube oil cooler is
remotely located. The lube oil system may supply the speed
reduction gear and generator in addition to the gas turbine.
The proper lubrication of the moving parts inside a gas turbine is
critical to obtain satisfactory operation of the engine and
maximum life of its components. The lube oil must be approved
by the engine manufacturer and analyzed on a regular basis to
determine the optimum interval for changing the lube oil. Lube
oil change intervals are much longer than those for diesel
engines, since the oil does not become contaminated by products
of combustion. Lube oil systems cool and filter the lube oil to
provide both proper lubrication and cooling of critical
components within the engine.

11.4. Governor/Control
The gas turbine speed and fuel flow are controlled by the
governor in response to load changes. Typically two types of
governors are used on gas turbines driving electric generators:
self-contained mechanical-hydraulic type or remote electronic
governor with separate engine mounted actuator. Electronic
governor systems with load sharing capability are the usual
choice for multiple engine plants. Plants with multiple engines
must have compatible governors to ensure proper operation of
engines in parallel.
The basic control of the engine is maintained by the governor
during operation and the control is independent for each engine.
The overall control of a multiple engine power plant can be
relatively simple or very sophisticated. Possible control options
range from local or manual starting and synchronization of each
engine to automatic starting, synchronization, and load sharing
of the engine generators.
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11.5. Speed Reduction Gear System

The high operating speeds of most gas turbines require that
a speed reduction gear be installed to drive the generator at the
appropriate synchronous speed, usually 1,200 to 1,800 rpm. The
reduction gear is typically an epicyclic design that permits a
straight-through shaft arrangement, thus simplifying alignment.
A variety of epicyclic designs are used and depending on the
speed of the gas turbine, a two-stage reduction may be required.
Two common designs are the standard planetary system and the
star compound system. The reduction gear is typically lubricated
by the main lube oil system.

11.6. Inlet and Exhaust Systems

Gas turbines require significantly more combustion air than
diesel engines. Flows are typically four to five times as much as
that required by a diesel engine of the same capacity. This leads
to much larger air filters, intake ducts, and exhaust ducts. Proper
air filtration is critical to gas turbine performance. Deposits on
compressor and turbine blades can significantly reduce
efficiency.
The engine intake and exhaust systems provide filtered air to the
engine and remove products of combustion from the engine
room. These systems may be very simple or relatively complex,
incorporating such features as preheating or pre-cooling of the
intake air, or hardened design. Restrictions or blockage of either
the intake or exhaust systems will severely impact engine
performance.

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