RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Introduction
Non-destructive Testing is one part of the function of Quality Control and is complementary to
other long established methods.

By definition non-destructive testing is the testing of materials, for surface or internal flaws or
metallurgical condition, without interfering in any way with the integrity of the material or its
suitability for service.

The technique can be applied on a sampling basis for individual investigation or may be used for
100% checking of material in a production quality control system.

Whilst being a high technology concept, evolution of the equipment has made it robust enough
for application in any industrial environment at any stage of manufacture - from steel making to
site inspection of components already in service. A certain degree of skill is required to apply
the techniques properly in order to obtain the maximum amount of information concerning the
product, with consequent feed back to the production facility.

Non-destructive Testing is not just a method for rejecting substandard material; it is also an
assurance that the supposedly good is good. The technique uses a variety of principles; there is
no single method around which a black box may be built to satisfy all requirements in all
circumstances.

What follows is a brief description of the methods most commonly used in industry, together
with details of typical applications, functions and advantages. The methods covered are:

• Radiography

• Magnetic Particle Crack Detection

• Dye Penetrant Testing

• Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

• Eddy Current and Electro-magnetic Testing

However, these are by no means the total of the principles available to the N.D.T. Engineer.
Electrical potential drop, sonics, infra-red, acoustic emission and spectrography, to name but a
few, have been used to provide information that the above techniques have been unable to yield,
and development across the board continues.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Radiography - X And Gamma

Introduction to Radiography

This technique is suitable for the detection of internal defects in ferrous and non- ferrous metals
and other materials.

X-rays, generated electrically, and Gamma rays emitted from radio-active isotopes, are
penetrating radiation which is differentially absorbed by the material through which it passes;
the greater the thickness, the greater the absorption. Furthermore, the denser the material the
greater the absorption.

X and Gamma rays also have the property, like light, of partially converting silver halide
crystals in a photographic film to metallic silver, in proportion to the intensity of the radiation
reaching the film, and therefore forming a latent image. This can be developed and fixed in a
similar way to normal photographic film.

Material with internal voids is tested by placing the subject between the source of radiation and
the film. The voids show as darkened areas, where more radiation has reached the film, on a
clear background. The principles are the same for both X and Gamma radiography.

In X-radiography the penetrating power is determined by the number of volts applied to the X-
Ray tube - in steel approximately 1000 volts per inch thickness is necessary. In Gamma
radiography the isotope governs the penetrating power and is unalterable in each isotope. Thus
Iridium 192 is used for 1/2" to 1" steel and Cesium 134 is used for 3/4" to 21/2" steel.

In X-radiography the intensity, and therefore the exposure time, is governed by the amperage of
the cathode in the tube. Exposure time is usually expressed in terms of milliampere minutes.
With Gamma rays the intensity of the radiation is set at the time of supply of the isotope. The
intensity of radiation from isotopes is measured in Becquerel’s and reduces over a period of
time. The time taken to decay to half the amount of curies is the half life and is characteristic of
each isotope. For example, the half life of Iridium 192 is 74 days, and Cesium 134 is 2.1 years.
The exposure factor is a product of the number of curies and time, usually expressed in curie
hours. The time of exposure must be increased as the isotope decays - when the exposure period
becomes uneconomical the isotope must be renewed.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

As the isotope is continuously emitting radiation, it must be housed in a container of deleted

uranium or similar dense shielding material, whilst not exposed to protect the environment and
personnel.

To produce an X or Gamma radiograph, the film package (comprising film and intensifying
screens - the latter being required to reduce the exposure time - enclosed in a light tight cassette)
is placed close to the surface of the subject.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

The source of radiation is positioned on the other side of the subject some distance away, so that
the radiation passes through the subject and on to the film. After the exposure period the film is
removed, processed, dried, and then viewed by transmitted light on a special viewer.

Various radiographic and photographic accessories are necessary, including such items as
radiation monitors, film markers, image quality indicators, darkroom equipment, etc. Where the
last is concerned there are many degrees of sophistication, including fully automatic processing
units. These accessories are the same for both X and Gamma radiography systems.

Also required are such consumable items as radiographic film and processing chemicals.

Recent developments in radiography permit ‘real time’ diagnosis. Such techniques as

computerized tomography yield much important information, though these methods maybe
suitable for only investigative purposes and not generally employed in production quality
control.

Advantages of Radiography

• Information is presented pictorially.

• A permanent record is provided which may be viewed at a time and place distant from
the test.
• Useful for thin sections.
• Sensitivity declared on each film.
• Suitable for any material.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Disadvantages of Radiography

• Generally an inability to cope with thick sections.

• Possible health hazard.
• Need to direct the beam accurately for two-dimensional defects.
• Film processing and viewing facilities are necessary, as is an exposure compound.
• Not suitable for automation, unless the system incorporates fluoroscopy with an image
intensifier or other electronic aids
• Not suitable for surface defects.
• No indication of depth of a defect below the surface

Magnetic Particle Inspection

Introduction to Magnetic Particle Inspection

This method is suitable for the detection of surface and near surface discontinuities in magnetic
material, mainly ferritic steel and iron.

An Illustration of the Principle of Magnetic Particle Inspection

The principle is to generate magnetic flux in the article to be examined, with the flux lines
running along the surface at right angles to the suspected defect. Where the flux lines approach
a discontinuity they will stray out in to the air at the mouth of the crack. The crack edge
becomes magnetic attractive poles North and South. These have the power to attract finely
divided particles of magnetic material such as iron fillings. Usually these particles are of an
oxide of iron in the size range 20 to 30 microns, and are suspended in a liquid which provides
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

mobility for the particles on the surface of the test piece, assisting their migration to the crack
edges. However, in some instances they can be applied in a dry powder form.

The particles can be red or black oxide, or they can be coated with a substance, which fluoresces
brilliantly under ultra-violet illumination (black light). The object is to present as great a
contrast as possible between the crack indication and the material background.

The technique not only detects those defects which are not normally visible to the unaided eye,
but also renders easily visible those defects which would otherwise require close scrutiny of the
surface.

There are many methods of generating magnetic flux in the test piece, the most simple one
being the application of a permanent magnet to the surface, but this method cannot be controlled
accurately because of indifferent surface contact and deterioration in magnetic strength.

Modern equipments generate the magnetic field electrically either directly or indirectly.

In the direct method a high amperage current is passed through the subject and magnetic flux is
generated at right angles to the current flow. Therefore the current flow should be in the same
line as the suspected defect.

If it is not possible to carry out this method because of the orientation of the defect, then the
indirect method must be used. This can be one of two forms:

1. Passing a high current through a coil that encircles the subject.

2. Making the test piece form part of a yoke, which is wound with a current carrying coil.
The effect is to pass magnetic flux along the part to reveal transverse and circumferential
defects.

If a bar with a length much greater than its diameter is considered, then longitudinal defects
would be detected by current flow and transverse and circumferential defects by the indirect
method of an encircling coil or magnetic flux flow.

Subjects in which cracks radiating from a hole are suspected can be tested by means of the
threading bar technique, whereby a current carrying conductor is passed through the hole and
the field induced is cut by any defects. Detection of longitudinal defects in hollow shafts is a
typical application of the threader bar technique.

The electricity used to generate the magnetic flux in any of these methods can be alternating
current, half wave rectified direct current or full wave rectified direct current. A.C. generated
magnetic flux, because of the skin effect, preferentially follows the contours of the surface and
does not penetrate deeply into the material. H.W.D.C. penetrates more deeply but is inclined not
to follow sharp changes in section. H.W.D.C. is useful for the detection of slightly subsurface
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

defects. The pulsing effect of A.C. and H.W.D.C. gives additional mobility to the indicating
particles. D.C. penetrates even more deeply but does not have this facility.

Furthermore, demagnetizing of the material after D.C. magnetizing is far more difficult than
after A.C. magnetizing.

Normally, to ensure that a test piece has no cracks, it is necessary to magnetize it in at least two
directions and after each magnetizing - and ink application - visually examine the piece for
crack indications.

Since this double process, which would include adjustment of the magnetizing equipment
controls in between each magnetizing takes time it is obviously advantageous to have the
facility to reduce the time required. The recent development of the Swinging Field method of
multi-directional magnetizing will indicate all defects, regardless of their orientation on the
surface, with one magnetizing shot and therefore requires only one inspection. (Please refer to
our paper entitled Faster Magnetic Crack Detection using the Multi-directional Swinging Field
Method).
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Basically magnetic crack detection equipment takes two forms. Firstly, for test pieces which are
part of a large structure, or pipes, heavy castings, etc. which cannot be moved easily, the
equipment takes the form of just a power pack to generate a high current. This current is applied
to the subject either by contact prods on flexible cables or by an encircling coil of cable. These
power packs can have variable amperages up to a maximum of 2000 Amps for portable units,
and up to 10,000

Amps for mobile equipments. Both A.C. and H.W.D.C. magnetizing current is available. The
indicating material is applied by means of a spray and generally the surplus runs to waste.

For factory applications on smaller more manageable test pieces the bench type of equipment, as
represented by our EUROMAG range, is normally preferred. This consists of a power pack
similar to those described above, an indicating ink system which recirculates the fluid, and
facilities to grip the work piece and apply the current flow or magnetic flux flow in a more
methodical, controlled manner. The work pieces are brought to the equipment and can be
individually tested. Subjects up to approximately 100" long can be accommodated is such
equipments and can be loaded by crane if necessary. This type of universal equipment is ideally
suited to either investigative work or routine quality control testing.

These bench type equipments often incorporate a canopy to prevent direct light falling on the
subject so that ultra-violet fluorescent material can be used to the best effect. The indicating
particles may be suspended in very thin oil (kerosene) or water. In some circumstances the
indicating medium can be applied dry.

These equipments are suited to production work and in certain circumstances can be automated
to the extent of loading, magnetizing, inking and unloading. The work pieces still have to be
viewed by eye for defect indications.

Specialized equipments are also frequently manufactured to test a particular size and type of test
piece.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Magnetic Particle Inspection

 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Dye Penetrant Testing

Introduction to Dye Penetrant Testing

This method is frequently used for the detection of surface breaking flaws in non- ferromagnetic
materials.

The subject to be examined is first of all chemically cleaned, usually by vapour phase, to
remove all traces of foreign material, grease, dirt, etc. from the surface generally, and also from
within the cracks.

Next the penetrant (which is a very fine thin oil usually dyed bright red or ultra-violet
fluorescent) is applied and allowed to remain in contact with the surface for approximately
fifteen minutes. Capillary action draws the penetrant into the crack during this period.

The surplus penetrant on the surface is then removed completely and thin coating of powdered
chalk is applied.

After a further period (development time) the chalk draws the dye out of the crack, rather like
blotting paper, to form a visual, magnified in width, indication in good contrast to the
background.

The process is purely a mechanical/chemical one and the various substances used may be
applied in a large variety of ways, from aerosol spray cans at the most simple end to dipping in
large tanks on an automatic basis at the other end. The latter system requires sophisticated
tanks, spraying and drying equipment but the principle remains the same.

An Illustration of Dye Penetrant Testing

 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Advantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Simplicity of operation.
• Best method for surface breaking cracks in non-ferrous metals.
• Suitable for automatic testing, with reservation concerning viewing. (See automatic
defect recognition in Magnetic Particle Inspection)
• Quantative.

Disadvantages of Dye Penetrant Testing

• Restricted to surface breaking defects only.

• Decreased sensitivity.
• Uses a considerable amount of consumables.

Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Introduction to Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

This technique is used for the detection of internal and surface (particularly distant surface)
defects in sound conducting materials.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

The principle is in some respects similar to echo sounding. A short pulse of ultrasound is
generated by means of an electric charge applied to a piezo electric crystal, which vibrates for a
very short period at a frequency related to the thickness of the crystal. In flaw detection this
frequency is usually in the range of one million to six million times per second (1 MHz to 6
MHz). Vibrations or sound waves at this frequency have the ability to travel a considerable
distance in homogeneous elastic material, such as many metals with little attenuation. The
velocity at which these waves propagate is related to the Young’s Modulus for the material and
is characteristic of that material. For example the velocity in steel is 5900 metres per second,
and in water 1400 metres per second.

Ultrasonic energy is considerably attenuated in air, and a beam propagated through a solid will,
on reaching an interface (e.g. a defect, or intended hole, or the backwall) between that material
and air reflect a considerable amount of energy in the direction equal to the angle of incidence.

For contact testing the oscillating crystal is incorporated in a hand held probe, which is applied
to the surface of the material to be tested. To facilitate the transfer of energy across the small air
gap between the crystal and the test piece, a layer of liquid (referred to as ‘couplant’), usually
oil, water or grease, is applied to the surface.

As mentioned previously, the crystal does not oscillate continuously but in short pulses, between
each of which it is quiescent. Piezo electric materials not only convert electrical pulses to
mechanical oscillations, but will also transduce mechanical oscillations into electrical pulses;
thus we have not only a generator of

sound waves but also a detector of returned pulses. The crystal is in a state to detect returned
pulses when it is quiescent. The pulse takes a finite time to travel through the material to the
interface and to be reflected back to the probe.

The standard method of presenting information in ultrasonic testing is by means of a cathode ray
tube, in which horizontal movement of the spot from left to right represents time elapsed. The
principle is not greatly different in digitised instruments that have a LCD flat screen. The rate at
which the spot moves is such that it gives the appearance of a horizontal line on the screen. The
system is synchronised electronically so that at the instant the probe receives its electrical pulse
the spot begins to traverse the screen. An upward deflection (peak) of the line on the left

hand side of the screen is an indication of this occurrence. This peak is usually termed the initial
pulse.

Whilst the base line is perfectly level the crystal is quiescent. Any peaks to the right of the
initial pulse indicate that the crystal has received an incoming pulse reflected from one or more
interfaces in the material. Since the spot moves at a very even speed across the tube face, and
the pulse of ultrasonic waves moves at a very even velocity through the material, it is possible to
calibrate the horizontal line on the screen in terms of absolute measurement. The use of a
calibration block, which produces a reflection from the back wall a known distance away from
the crystal
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

together with variable controls on the flaw detector, allows the screen to be calibrated in units of
distance, and therefore determination of origins of returned pulses obtained from a test piece.

It is therefore possible not only to discover a defect between the surface and the back wall, but
also to measure its distance below the surface. It is important that the equipment is properly
calibrated and, since it is in itself not able to discriminate between intended boundaries of the
object under test and unintended discontinuities, the operator must be able to identify the origin
of each peak. Further as the pulses form a beam it is also possible to determine the plan position
of a flaw.

The height of the peak (echo) is roughly proportional to the area of the reflector, though there is
on all instruments a control, which can reduce or increase the size of an indication - variable
sensitivity in fact. Not only is part of the beam reflected at a material/air interface but also at
any junction where there is a velocity change, for example steel/slag interface in a weld.

Probing all faces of a test piece not only discovers the three-dimensional defect and measures its
depth, but can also determine its size. Two-dimensional (planar) defects can also be found but,
unlike radiography, it is best that the incident beam impinges on the defect as near to right
angles to the plane as possible. To achieve this some probes introduce the beam at an angle to
the surface. In this manner longitudinal defects in tubes (inner or outer surface) are detected.

Interpretation of the indications on the screen requires a certain amount of skill, particularly
when testing with hand held probes. The technique is, however, admirably suited to automatic
testing of regular shapes by means of a monitor - an electronic device that fits into the main
equipment to provide an electrical signal when an echo occurs in a particular position on the
trace. The trigger level of this signal is variable and it can be made to operate a variety of
mechanical gates and flaw warnings. Furthermore, improvements in computer technology allow
test data and results to be displayed and out-putted in a wide variety of formats.

Modern ultrasonic flaw detectors are fully solid state and can be battery powered, and are
robustly built to withstand site conditions.

Since the velocity of sound in any material is characteristic of that material, it follows that some
materials can be identified by the determination of the velocity. This can be applied, for
example in S.G. cast irons to determine the percentage of graphite nodularity.

This process can also be automated and is now in use in many foundries. Typical equipment is
the Qualiron.

When the velocity is constant, as it is in a wide range of steels, the time taken for the pulse to
travel through the material is proportional to its thickness. Therefore, with a properly calibrated
instrument, it is possible to measure thickness from one side with an accuracy in thousandths of
an inch. This technique is now in very common use.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

A development of the standard flaw detector is the digital wall thickness gauge. This operates
on similar principles but gives an indication, in LED or LCD numerics, of thickness in absolute
terms of millimetres.

These equipments are easy to use but require prudence in their application.

Illustration of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

Advantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

• Thickness and lengths up to 30 ft can be tested.

• Position, size and type of defect can be determined.
• Instant test results.
• Portable.
• Extremely sensitive if required.
• Capable of being fully automated.
• Access to only one side necessary.
• No consumables.

Disadvantages of Ultrasonic Flaw Detection

 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

• No permanent record available unless one of the more sophisticated test results and data
collection systems is used.
• The operator can decide whether the test piece is defective or not whilst the test is in
progress.
• Indications require interpretation (except for digital wall thickness gauges).
• Considerable degree of skill necessary to obtain the fullest information from the test.
• Very thin sections can prove difficult.

Eddy Current Method

Introduction to Eddy Current Testing

The main applications of the eddy current technique are for the detection of surface or
subsurface flaws, conductivity measurement and coating thickness measurement. The technique
is sensitive to the material conductivity, permeability and dimensions of a product.

Eddy currents can be produced in any electrically conducting material that is subjected to an
alternating magnetic field (typically 10Hz to 10MHz). The alternating magnetic field is
normally generated by passing an alternating current through a coil. The coil can have many
shapes and can between 10 and 500 turns of wire.

The magnitude of the eddy currents generated in the product is dependent on conductivity,
permeability and the set up geometry. Any change in the material or geometry can be detected
by the excitation coil as a change in the coil impedance. The most simple coil comprises a ferrite
rod with several turns of wire wound at one end and which is positioned close to the surface of
the product to be tested. When a crack, for example, occurs in the product surface the eddy
currents must travel farther around the crack and this is detected by the impedance change.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Coil with single winding

Coils can also be used in pairs, generally called a driven pair, and this arrangement can be used
with the coils connected differentially. In this way ‘lift off’ (distance of the probe from the
surface) signals can be enhanced

with two windings, known as a driver pair or differential probe

Coils can also be used in a transformer type configuration where one coil winding is a primary
and one (or two) coil windings are used for the secondaries
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

Transformer type coil with 3 windings

The detected eddy current signals contain amplitude and phase information and which can be
displayed on CRT type displays – non digital displays. Signals can be displayed as the actual,
i.e. absolute signal, or with appropriate electronics, only a signal change is displayed. The best
results are obtained where only one product parameter is changes, e.g. the presence of a crack.

In practice changes in eddy current signals are caused by differences in composition, hardness,
texture, shape, conductivity, permeability and geometry. In some cases the effects of the crack
can be hidden by changes in other parameters and unnecessary rejection can occur. However,
the coils can be selected for configuration, size and test frequency in order to enhance detection
of cracks, conductivity, metal loss etc. as required.

The depth to which the eddy currents penetrate a material can be changed by adjusting the test
frequency – the higher the frequency, the lower the penetration; however, the lower the
frequency, the lower sensitivity to small defects. Larger coils are less sensitive to surface
roughness and vice versa. The latest electronic units are able to operate a wide range of coil
configurations in absolute or differential modes and at a wide range of frequencies.

For surface testing for cracks in single or complex shaped components, coils with a single ferrite
cored winding are normally used. The probe is placed on the component and ‘balanced’ by use
of the electronic unit controls. As the probe is scanned across the surface of the component the
cracks can be detected. Where surfaces are to be scanned automatically the single coil windings
are suitable only if the lift off distance is accurately maintained. Generally differential coil
configurations are used with higher speed scanning systems where lift off effects, vibration
effects, etc. can be cancelled out to an acceptable extent.

Tubes, bar and wire can be inspected using an encircling coil and these usually have a coil
configuration with one primary and two secondaries connected differentially.

Most eddy current electronics have a phase display and this gives an operator the ability to
identify defect conditions. In many cases signals from cracks, lift off and other parameters can
be clearly identified. Units are also available which can inspect a product simultaneously at two
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

or more different test frequencies. These units allow specific unwanted effects to be
electronically cancelled in order to give improved defect detection.

The eddy current test is purely electrical. The coil units do not need to contact the product
surface and thus the technique can be easily automated. Most automated systems are for
components of simple geometry where mechanical handling is simplified.

An Illustration of Eddy Current Testing Equipment

Advantages of Eddy Current Testing

• Suitable for the determination of a wide range of conditions of conducting material, such
as defect detection, composition, hardness, conductivity, permeability etc. in a wide
variety of engineering metals.
• Information can be provided in simple terms: often go/no go. Phase display electronic
units can be used to obtain much greater product information.
• Extremely compact and portable units are available.
• No consumables (except probes – which can sometimes be repaired).
• Flexibility in selection of probes and test frequencies to suit different applications.
• Suitable for total automation.

Disadvantages of Eddy Current Testing

 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

• The wide range of parameters which affect the eddy current responses means that the
signal from a desired material characteristic, e.g. a crack, can be masked by an unwanted
parameter, e.g. hardness change. Careful selection of probe and electronics will be
needed in some applications.
• Generally tests restricted to surface breaking conditions and slightly sub- surface flaws.

Non-Destructive Testing Methods & Applications

Flaw Type
Material Internal Flaws Lack of Bond Non-Metallic Laminations,
Surface Cracks Sub-Surface Material
& or Lack of Inclusions - Thickness
& Flaws Cracks & Flaws Quality
Discontinuities Fusion Slag, Porosity Measurement

R.T. R.T.
Ferrous M.T. M.T.
Forgings &
Stampings U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.

Ferrous Raw
M.T. M.T. M.T.
Materials &
Rolled
U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
Products

M.T. M.T. M.T.

Ferrous Tube
& Pipe
U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.
R.T. R.T. R.T.
M.T.
Ferrous
Welds
U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.

R.T. R.T.
M.T. M.T.
Steel
Castings
U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.

R.T.
M.T.
Iron Castings
U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.
R.T.
Non-Ferrous
Components P.T. P.T.
& Materials U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.
R.T.
Ferrous M.T. M.T.
Components
Finished U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.
 RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15

R.T.
Non-Ferrous
Components P.T.
Finished E.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T. E.T.
R.T. R.T.
Aircraft M.T. M.T. M.T.
Ferrous
Components U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.
R.T. R.T. R.T.
Aircraft Non- P.T.
Ferrous P.T.
Components U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T. U.T.
E.T.

R.T. - X or Gamma Radiography M.T. - Magnetic Particle Inspection

P.T. - Dye Penetrant U.T. - Ultrasonic
E.T. - Eddy Current
RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15
RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15
RIT Rajaramnagar 2014-15