CHAPTER 2

Philosophical foundations of teaching styles

Constructivism
Constructivism is an action-oriented approach to learning, requiring students to build
upon existing knowledge to understand better and apply new concepts. It is a learning theory
that states students learn new information by building on top of a foundation of what they
have already learned.
Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting
on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in (Brook &
Brook). It is based on a type of learning in which the learner forms, or constructs much of
what she learns or comprehends. (Cushman et al., 2005).
Constructivism highlights the social aspect of knowledge construction (Dewey, 1938
cited in Simply Psychology,2025).John Dewey believed students need to confront real-life
problems and reflect on the consequences in a deep, emotional [Link] this active
experience, learners may only adopt superficial habits and miss genuine conceptual change.
All teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and negotiating socially constituted
knowledge.
Vygotsky (1978) states that cognitive development stems from social interactions
from guided learning within the zone of proximal development as children and their partners'
co-construct knowledge.
One cannot think of constructivist teaching, however, as a monolithic, agreed- upon
concept. The extent of agreement among the the various constructivist approaches is that
constructivism is a learning or meaning-making theory. It suggests that individuals create
their own new understandings, based upon the interaction of what they already know and
believe, and the phenomena or ideas with which they come to contact. Constructivism is a
descriptive theory of learning (the way people learn or develop); it is not a prescriptive theory
of learning (the way people should learn).
According to Krahenbuhl (2016),“constructivism is an epistemological view of
knowledge, arguing that knowledge is derived in a meaning-making process through which
learners construct individual interpretations of their experiences and thus, construct meaning
in their minds”.
Schrader (2015) stated that “Constructivism as a meaning-making philosophy that
informs pedagogical practices dominated the past several decades of educational practice”.
Jones and Brader-Araje (2002) share that across the many definitions of constructivism, the
common aspect is that constructivism emphasizes that the learner is actively involved in
meaning-making. It is a shift from “knowledge as a product to knowledge as a process”
where “knowledge isn’t something that exists outside the learner”.
There are many varieties of constructivism ; educational constructivism, philosophical
constructivism, and sociological constructivism. The teacher must understand the students’
preexisting conceptions, and guides the activity to address them and then build on them
(Oliver, 2000 cited in Simply Psychology,2025).
A constructivist classroom emphasizes active learning, collaboration, viewing a
concept or problem from multiple perspectives, reflection, student-centeredness, and
authentic assessment to promote meaningful learning and help students construct their own
understanding of the world. That is why, constructivism can be used in electing teaching
styles.
In a constructivist setting, the teacher is a facilitator (or "guide on the side") rather
than a lecturer. The teacher should adjust teaching styles which are suitable for the students.
Pragmatism
Pragmatism is a modern philosophical school that emphasizes the practical
application of ideas and concepts. Pragmatism holds that the best way to understand the
world is through experimentation and observation, rather than relying on outdated ideas or
dogma. Pragmatists do not believe in predetermined truth (Singh,2007).
Pragmatism regards teacher as a helper, guide and philosopher. Pragmatists generally
believe that experience is the source of all knowledge. Louis Menand (2001) identifies the
origins of pragmatism in an attitude of skepticism toward absolutist ideologies that arose out
of the carnage of the Civil War.
Pragmatism encourages individuals to think critically about their beliefs and to
challenge accepted truths. Pragmatism is the doctrine that the meaning of a proposition lies in
its practical consequences(Pierce,1878, cited in Spring 2015).
In a pragmatist classroom, the focus shifts from the "sage on the stage" to the "guide
on the side. The teacher doesn't provide all the answers. Instead, they "suggest problems" and
provide the framework for students to find their own solutions. In the spirit of this diversity in
recovering the pragmatist tradition, one way to claim a distinctive accent is to present
pragmatism as a coherent theory of thought and action (Hellmann 2009).
There is no single "correct" teaching method because pragmatism itself is defined by
flexibility, utility, and change. However, the overarching philosophy is "Learning by Doing.
Students are expected to be curious and self-directed. They have a say in what they learn, as
pragmatism prioritizes the Principle of Interest.
Pragmatists reject rote memorization and passive lecturing. Instead, they favor
methods that turn the classroom into a "miniature society" or a laboratory. Pragmatism is
exceptionally well-suited for selecting teaching styles because it encourages educators to be
methodological pluralists—using whatever combination of tools, technologies, and styles
achieves the best learning outcome.
Theoretical| Background of Teaching styles
Social Learning theory
Social Learning theory is considered vital for both sustainable resource management
and encouraging desired behavioral hange (Muro & Jeffrey 2008).
According to this theory, learning is a social process derived from interpersonal
engagement and observational experiences. Individuals assimilate and subsequently imitate
behaviors they observe, with positive or reinforced outcomes enhancing this adaption.
Bandura defines imitation as the precise motoric replication of witnessed activities(Bondcsa
19775).
Social Learning theory, arguably the most impoctful theory in its field, builds upon
traditional learning concepts. It functions as a crucial link between behaviorist and cognitive
theories by integrating elements such as attention, memory and motivation(Muros Jeffrey
2008).
Bandura believed that learning is not soley due to direct reinforcement. Therefore, he
added a social dimensions to his theory, stating that people learn by observing others. This
theory is based on three key principles of learning from others. The principles of social
learning are believed to function consistently across all age. Observational learning can
occur at
any point in life. Since individuals may encounter new, influential models who possess
resources during any life stage, if is always possible to acquire new behaviors through
modeling (Newman,B.M.& P.R,2007).
Social learning theory (SLT) proposes that individuals acquire knowledge from
others through observation, imitation and modeling. A core principle derived from this is that
learning can take place without any immediate change in observable behavior. Behaviorist
theories typically define learning as a permanent change in behavior. In contrast, social
Learning theorists argue that since individuals can absorb information purely through
observation, the acquired learning might not be immediately or ever reflected in their actions
(Bandura, 1965).A change in behavior is not a necessary outcome of learning (Bandura,
2006b).
According to Gousec(1994), social learning theory originated as an effort by
researchers like R. Sears and Rottesr(1954) to integrate psychoanalytic theory with stimulus -
response (S_R) learning into a comprehensive framework for human behavior. This
synthesis aimed to combine the clinical depth of psychoanalysis with the scientific rigors of
behavioral Learning theory . Albert Bandura later moved the theory away from its
psychoanalytic underpinnings and drives, shifting the focus instead toward the cognitive and
information-processing capacities thot influence social behaviours. (Grusec,1994).
These learning theories serve as broad frameworks for understanding human conducts
and many details of theirs development processes require further elaboration. However, as
Bandura(1977) established, the theory provide a robust theoretical foundation. It appears to
effectively explain existing developmental data and continue to guide new research
(Martinez, 2010).
Lyons and Berge (2012) state that social learning theory posit learning the place via
observing others and then replicating the behaviors they model. This theory suggests people
acquire knowledge by watching both the, actions of others and the outcomes that follow.
Individual learn to imitate behaviors that lead to reward and to avoid imitating those that
result in negative consequences. Each observed behaviors can alter an individuals cognition
and the environment during one's upbringing can shape future conduct (Bandura.1986,Zhou&
Brown,20150).
A further feature of Social learning theory is modeling, where a model serves as a
demonstration or template provided to learners to show how an action can be performed
(Banbura, 1977 ).The aim is for observation of the model to influence student's perception
and Comprehension of the topic (Lefrancois,1982;Hill et al.,2009). Bandura suggests that
individuals learn behavior both directly, via social exchanges and indirectly, through media
portrayals . Actions that are rewarded anymore likely to be copied, while those that are
punished are less likely to be imitated (Overskeid,2018).
Bandura(1977) further argues that observational learning is the primary method for
acquiring most human behaviors. By watching others ,an individual forms a mental concept
of how to perform new actions, this encoded information later directs their own behavior.
Consequently, Bandura theory incorporates a crucial social dimension, positing that people
gain new knowledge and skills by attentively observing others(Fryling etal., 2011). Social
cognitive theory posits that people learn partly by watching others through social
interactions , personal experience, and media exposure(Zhou & Brown 2015).
Humanistic learning theory
Humanistic learning theory is rooted in the philosophy of humanistic theories of
psychology, including person-centered theory (Gould,2015).The teacher's role is to facilitate
and support the development of these propensities (Matondo,2014). The key proponents of
this Leaning theory were Abraham Maslow, Car Rogers and Malco Im Knowles
(Parsons,2013). Implementing this theory successfully requires placing the student at the
heart of the process with personalized instruction, where educators facilitate. The humanist
learning theory is fundamentally concerned with the learner's personal development (Leaning
in Adulthood, 2007,cited in Parson,2013). Humanist educators firmly believe in each person's
potential to develop and consider self-directed learning the optimal approach for fostering
that growth. (Combs, 1982, Knowles 1975, Rogers ,1951). Humanistic theorists adapt a
phenomenological perspective ,asserting that an individual's perception of the world
constitutes their personal reality, and that learning is driven by personal needs rooted in one's
internal frame of reference (Combs,1986, Rogers,1951).
For instance, a learner lacking self- belief may avoid challenging tasks due to
thoughts like "I can't do this ,"while a confident learners can adapt and personalize
assignments to better meet their educational goals, viewing themselves as ever-evolving
individuals in acontinuous state of growth (Knowles,1975,Tolan,2017).To achieve this, the
teacher must cultivate a supportive atmosphere where students feel emotionally secure,
actively foster their self-esteem, confidences and motivation to learn, and permit them to
progress according to their individual pace and interests a process fundamentally rooted in
experience learning, which, leverages students' personal backgrounds and prior knowledge to
shape and advance their educational journey.
Knowles' principles of andragogy are deeply grounded in humanistic theory and align
seamlessy with the ideologies put forward by Maslow(1943,cited in Parsons,2013). For
outlined by Knowles, he posits that as individuals mature, they progress from a state of
dependency toward becoming self-directed learners. A further assumption contends thatan
adult's accumulated experience constitutes a valuable resources for education.
Rogers' perspectives align closely with humanistic learning theory, as he views both
therapy and education as fundamentally similar processes. Indeed, his concept of "client-
centered therapy "is frequently paralleled with the educational approach of student -centered
leaning(Learning in Adulthood, 2007,cited in Parson, 2013).For Rogers meaningful learning
is self- directed, holistic and intrinsically revaluated, centeaing on the learner's personal
growth and values-a humanistic view a ligning with Maslow and Knowles. Primary
responsibility for learning lies with the individual , emphasizing personal growth and self-
directed development (Caffarella,1993,cited in Parsons,2013).Humanistic learning theory
advocates for self-directed Learning characterized by the learner's active role and
responsibility in all aspects of their education(Parsons,2013).
Conversely, the instructor's role initially is one of a facilitator or mentor, supporting
the learner's personal development while emphasizing that the learner holds the primary
responsibility for their own education. This guided approach grants the learners more
autonomy and accountability for success, which suits highly motivated, interested, and self-
directed students, though others may benefit from a more structured, directed style of
teaching (Parson,2013).
Humanistic learning theorists reject teacher-centered, knowledge -transmission
approaches, as they hold that the most vital forms of learning and development cannot be
directly passed, from one individual to another (Knowles, 1975; Rogers , 1957,1989).Instead,
they maintain that knowledge integration unfolds organically within a supportive and
facilitative environment (Rogers & Freiberg,1994). Humanistic educators prioritize self-
development to cultivated their capacity for creating optimal learning
environments(Combs,1982, Rogers & Freibergs 1994). This article defines an educator
broadly as anyone who facilitates Learning.
Grasha(1996) outlined several key principles for effective teaching. He argued that
teachers must nature iand support student's self -esteem, set performance expectations that
aligen with learner's skills and abilities, and remain attentive to the appropriateness of
classroom goals. Positive feedback should be prioritized and teachers should adopt a
facilitative role in the learning process. Additionaly students should be encouraged to make
choices, derive personal meaning from content, and develop skills in personal inquiry. Finally
, instructors should view themselves as learners emphasize the integration of facts, concepts
and values, and ensure a safe environment where students can freely express ideas and
collaborate with both teachers and peers (Grasha, 1996).
Contemporary education features a central debate between behaviorist instruction
(teacher-centered, direct information delivery )and, constructivist facilitation (student -
centered, guided discovery). While neither theory is considered perfect, their core difference
lies in who assumes primary responsibility: the teachers in a behaviorist model versus the
learner in a constructivist one. This traditional dichotomy, influenced by Piaget's ideas of
maturation development, persists even as educational theories continue to evolve (Weegar &
Pancis,2012).
Concept of teaching styles
Teachers have a choice of how they approach the teaching-learning transaction. This
approach is referred to as teaching style. The term teaching styles has been used in various
ways in differing research. Some define teaching style in relationship to the characteristics of
the teacher. These characteristics may include the ways that the teacher approaches problem-
solving or making decisions related to teaching (Mazaheri & Ayatollahi, 2019) or their
personal qualities and attitudes demonstrated in the methods and activities in teaching
specific topics (Heydarnejad, Fatemi, & Ghonsooly, 2017). In this view, the teaching style
combines personal factors such as motivation and beliefs and the techniques and strategies
comfortably used in teaching (Cooper, 2001; Grasha, 1996; Karimnia & Mohammdi, 2019).
Numerous variables in studies have also influenced how the term teaching style has been
[Link] the term teaching style has been applied in various ways, overall, the teaching
styles of teachers represent their behavior while teaching in the classroom (Sim & Mohd
Matore, 2022, p. 3). Despite these many nuances, the overall concept of teaching style can be
defined as “the distinct qualities displayed by a teacher that are persistent from situation to
situation regardless of the content” (Conti, 2004, pp. 76–77). Teaching style is related to
educational philosophy (Conti, 1989, 2004; Heimlich & Norland, 1994; Shah, 2020), and “in
today’s school, there are essentially two types of teaching philosophies … teacher-centered
and student-centered teachers. Their philosophies are different” (Gibbs, 2021, para. 2). These
two philosophies differ fundamentally in the educator’s view of the role of the teacher in the
teaching-learning process (Conti, 2004, p. 77; O’Brien, 2001, pp. 172–174). Research
supports that these two styles are distinct constructs rather than “two sides of the same coin”
(Camille et al., 2015, p. 155). These two different roles of the teacher are classified as the
instructor having either a teacher-centered or a learner-centered teaching style (Wilkesmann
& Lauer, 2015). The teacher-centered approach is highly focused on the transmission of
knowledge and getting knowledge to the student (Brown, 2003). In this process, the teacher
controls and directs the learning activities. In contrast, with the student-centered approach,
the planning, teaching, and assessment revolve around the needs and abilities of the students
(Brown, 2008), with the teacher serving as a facilitator to stimulate the growth and
development of each student by utilizing their individual interests and needs as a guide for
meaningful instruction.
 Students’ interest in learning is one of the key factors in achieving optimal learning
outcomes, which ultimately affects their academic achievement (Windasari et al., 2024). This
interest in learning can be encouraged by several elements, including the learning
environment, teaching methods, and adult support, including teachers who directly
accompany them in the classroom (Ngai, et al., 2019). Based on the elements that contribute
to students’ interest in learning, it can be concluded that teachers’ creativity in creating a fun
learning style has a great influence. The collaboration between the learning environment,
teaching methods, and enjoyable teacher support forms a teaching style that can influence
students’ learning experiences and interests.
Teaching styles are tools to enhance student’s abilities to achieve learning objectives
and let students learn easily and effectively. Teaching style is a unique way of teaching.
Every teacher teaches the students in a characteristic way. Teaching style is a way a teacher
prefers to approach the teaching task. A variety of styles blend together in the classroom.
Some attempts have been made to define the term teaching styles. Schultz (1982) points out
that the construct of teaching style has been very crucial in relation to student’s performance.
He further highlighted the fact that the teachers exhibiting different teaching styles attempt to
create class room socio-psychological climate consonant with their styles. Eble (1983) holds
that it is a characteristic way a teacher goes about his work. Butler (1984) conceived
teaching style as a set of attitudes and actions. Hanson and Silver consider teaching style as a
reflection of the individual value system regarding human nature and the kinds of goals and
environment that enhance human learning. Gregorc (1987) opined that different teachers
bring their uniqueness to the way they teach, we call this teaching style. Spear and Sternberg
(1987) said one reason for why teaching style is important is that by adopting a certain style
teacher models a certain role for students. Grasha (1994) holds that teaching style affects how
teachers present information, interact with students, manage classroom tasks, supervise
course work, socialize students to the field and mentor students. Indeed, teaching styles
affect learning style of students as well as what transpires in the classroom. Teaching styles
of teachers have an enormous effect on the classroom transaction with the students and
learning outcome of teaching. They particularly affect how teachers present information,
interact with the students, manage classroom tasks, supervise course work and socialize
students to the field. Teachers use a blend of teaching styles. Mainly five teaching styles
given by Grasha i.e; Expert , Formal Authority, Personal Model, Facilitator and Delegator
are used by the teachers.
 Factors that influence learning interest, especially teaching styles, still require a
deeper understanding because the situations and needs of each learning environment are
different. For example, in classes with fewer students, personalized teaching methods
significantly positively impact students’ learning interests compared to traditional or
technology-based teaching approaches (Haidar et al., 2022). Furthermore, evidence suggests
that when teachers use interactive and creative teaching styles, students’ interest and
engagement in learning can increase, while monotonous and one-sided teaching styles tend
to have different effects (Lekahena et al., 2024). In addition, it is known that each teacher
has different teaching strategies, and these teaching variations are believed to influence the
way students respond and follow the learning process.
Understanding variations in teaching styles can help teachers design more effective
approaches to increase students’ interest in learning. Not only teachers also schools can
design appropriate strategies to develop a more effective teaching approach that suits
students’ needs. Reviewing previous research makes it possible to discover a relationship
between teaching styles and students’ learning interests, which helps teachers develop more
effective teaching strategies. Although various studies have been conducted regarding the
influence of teaching style on students’ interest in learning, there have not been many
comprehensive literature reviews summarizing the findings of these studies to describe
existing models, supporting factors, or barriers. For this reason, it is hoped that this research
can fill this gap, especially in terms of how different teaching styles influence learning
interest and how effective and impactful they are by providing a more comprehensive
understanding.
Types of teaching styles
Teaching style plays a crucial role in education, identifying the elements of our styles
as teachers has proved to be difficult. One reason is that traditionally the concept of style has
been viewed in negatively. "It has been confused with affectation, denigrated as a kind of
posturing to mask a lack of substance, or tolerated as a natural manifestation of personal
eccentricities" [Eble, 1980]. Thus, to define style, to understand it, to develop it, and to use it
effectively entails moving beyond the negative sense in which it is sometimes perceived.
Style in teaching as in art, music, athletics, managing people, and other areas of endeavor is
not something that is put on for the occasion.(Wilkesmann & Lauer, 2015) classified teaching
style into two components namelyteacher-centered and learner-centered approaches. The
teacher-centered approach is highly focused on the transmission of knowledge and getting
knowledge to the student (Brown, 2003). In this process, the teacher controls and directs the
learning activities. In contrast, with the student-centered approach, the planning, teaching,
and assessment revolve around the needs and abilities of the students (Brown, 2008), with the
teacher serving as a facilitator to stimulate the growth and development of each student by
utilizing their individual interests and needs as a guide for meaningful instruction.
Flanders (1970) used different terminology and named teacher-centered teaching as
direct style, student-centered teaching as indirect style and discipline-centered teaching as
eclectic style. Weinberg (1983) also did some work on teaching styles and identified the
following four teaching styles: direct teaching, peer teaching, problem solving, and group
approach. First, in direct teaching style, the teacher makes all of the decisions. S/he describes
and demonstrates what is to be learned, evaluates it and gives feedback. This style needs very
little cognitive or affective involvement on the student's part.
Second, peer teaching style pairs two students of differing ability levels with one
another. The teacher describes and demonstrates the desired response. The students evaluate
each other using criteria presented by the teacher. Third, in problem solving style, the teacher
sets a problem and the students respond it in most appropriate ways for them. Models come
from student creativity and other students' responses. And last, group approach style is used
to foster social skills as well as promote acceptance among different ability levels.
Sternberg (1997) proposed seven teaching styles consisting of (1) the legislative style,
whose central characteristic is creative: (2) the executive style, whose central characteristic is
conforming; (3) the judicial style, whose central characteristic is analytical: (4) the local
style, whose central characteristic is focusing on concrete ideas or details; (5) the global style,
whose central characteristic is focusing on abstract thinking or general problems; (6) the
liberal style, whose central characteristic is employing new ways to deal with tasks (the
liberal style differs from the legislative style in that the creativity or new ideas used by the
liberal person do not have to be the individual's own); and (7) the conservative style, whose
central characteristic is employing traditional ways to deal with tasks (unlike the executive
style, an individual with a conservative style may like to come up with his/her own ideas, but
these ideas are based on existing and accepted. customs).