Scribd
Upload
4 views52 pages

MLL - Physics

The document covers fundamental concepts of electric charge, electric fields, and potential, including Coulomb's Law, electric dipoles, and Gauss' Law. It explains electric current, current density, and Ohm's Law, detailing the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance. Additionally, it discusses capacitance, energy stored in electric fields, and the behavior of dipoles in electric fields.

Uploaded by

Yuva Swasthik G
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
4 views52 pages

MLL - Physics

The document covers fundamental concepts of electric charge, electric fields, and potential, including Coulomb's Law, electric dipoles, and Gauss' Law. It explains electric current, current density, and Ohm's Law, detailing the relationship between current, voltage, and resistance. Additionally, it discusses capacitance, energy stored in electric fields, and the behavior of dipoles in electric fields.

Uploaded by

Yuva Swasthik G
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF or read online on Scribd
MINIMUM LEVEL OF LEARNING CHAPTER -1 ELECTRIC CHARGE & ELECTRIC FIELD, Electric Charge - Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electrical and magnetic effects. S.1 unit of charge is Ampere x sec = coulomb (C) Q=sne with m=1,2,3 Coulomb's Law - If two stationary and point charges Q, and Q, are kept at a distance r, then it is found that force of attraction or repulsion between them is It’s Dimensional formula is -'*r4°) Vector form of coulomb’s law : Vector form of Coulomb’s law is A» Where i is the unit vector from first charge to second experienced by a unit positive charge placed at that point, E= — qo Newton __volt Jovle It’s SL unit— si il re Electric fild duc to a positive charge is always away from the charge and that duc to a negative charge is always towards the charge. Electric field at point P due to a point charge Qis E=k 2 orE=k 2? Dipole moment : It is a vector quantity and is directed from negative charge to positive charge along the axis. It is denoted as p and is defined as the product of the magnitude of either of the charge and the dipole length i.e, p= q(2/) Jts S.1. unit is coulomb-metre its dimensions are ML‘! Electric field due to an electric dipole At axial point : £, = (directed from —q to +g) 2 +qt0— 7 F (directed from +4 to- 4) net foree experienced by the dipole is zero(translator motion) The net torque (rotatory motion) experienced by the dipole is, DE sin# 10. EXERCISE Define electric charge. Explain briefly — 1. Conservation of charge Tl. Quantization of charges. State Coulombs law in electrostatics and write it in vector form, for n-system of charges. Define relative permittivity. Explain why two electric field lines never cross to each other. An electrostatic field line is @ contimuous curve. That is, afield line cannot sudden breaks. Why is it so. s of Define electric dipole moment. An electric dipole of dipole moment ji con: point charges +q and—q separated by a distance 2a apart, Deduce the expression for the electric field E due to the dipole at a distance x from the centre of the dipole on its Heeallinoan fad ef tie divele momencpl ereeshew tiatinthe irnitxe= en wi ree An electric dipole of dipole moment # consists of point charges +q and ~q separated by a distance 2a apart. Deduce the expression for the electric field E due to the dipole ata distance x from the centre of the dipole on its equatorial line in terms of the dipole moment. Hence show that in the limit x >> a, E = > Deduce an expression for the force & torque acting on an electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field. Depict the orientation of dipole is stable and unstable equilibrium in uniform electric field, State Gauss’ law in electrostatics, Using this law, obtain the expression for the electric field due to an infinitely long straight conductor of linear charge density), State Gauss’ law. Using this law, obtain the expression for the electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell of charge density p. State Gauss’ law. Using this law, obtain the expression for the electric field due to an infinite plane sheet conductor of surface charge density 0. Electric Potential at a point in a field is defined as the amount of work done in bringing a unit positive test charge, from infinity to that point along any arbitrary path (infinity is point w of zero potential). Electric potential is a scalar quantity, it is denoted by V; V=— qo qf imensi Joule Unit and dimensional formula S. I. unit: -T"— = volt & Dimension : (Y] =[1 *A"] Potential difference : In an electric field potential difference between two points 4 and B is, defined as equal to the amount of work done (by external agent) in moving a unit positive W charge from point 4 to point B ie, Vy-V,=— % Electric potential at point P due to a point charge Q is V =k 2. Graph Potential gradient relates with electric field according to the following relation E volt This relation gives another unit of electric field is “°™ In the above relation negative sign indicates that in the direction of electric field potential decreases. Negative of the slope of the Vr graph denotes intensity of electric field i. tan =~ ieeracereane Wcharee enecanhertenrttiee erie) Gees aeT) wv v OV With the help of formula E = -2”, a ar ov potential difference between any two points in an electric field can be determined by knowing. the boundary conditions av =~" [Link]= [ [Link] Electrostatic Potential Energy - Work done in bringing the given charge from infinity to a point in the electric field is known as potential energy of the charge. Potential can also be written as potential energy per unit charge. ie. Potential energy of a system of two charge U Potential energy of a system of m charge U The factor of 20.0, Ee ye t is applied 2 only with the summation sign because on expanding the summation each pair is counted twice. hr tn tin) Fora system of 3 charges U = f Work energy relation: [fa charge moves from one position to another position in an electric field so it’s potential energy change and work done by extemal force for this change is W=U,-U; Electron volt (eV) : Itis the smallest practical unit of energy used in atomic and nuclear physics. As electron volt is defined as “the energy acquired by a particle having one quantum 1 of charge (Le), when accelerated by Iyoll” ke, eV =1.6x10"%Cx42 = 1.610" Energy density : The energy stored per unit volume around a point in an electric field is a given by U, = = eee ee Vojame l f'n place of vacuum some medium is present then U, =—,6,F* Dipole in an external electric field : Work done in rotation : Suppose initially, dipole is kept in a uniform electric field at an angle @. Now to turn it through an angle 0: (with the field) Work done W = pE(cos@, —cos0,) co) =a If @ =0° and & = Oe. initially dipole is kept along the field then it tun through @so work done W = pE(1- cos) Potential energy of dipole : It is defined as work done in rotating a dipole from a direction perpendicular to the field to the given din 1f = 90° and = 0 => W ction, ie. from above formula of work. -pE cos Equilibrium of dipole : When @= 0° ic, dipole is placed along the electric field itis said to be in stable equilibrium, because after turning it through a small angle, dipole tries to align itself again in the direction of electric field. When @= 180° ic. dipole is placed opposite to electric field, itis said to be in unstable equilibrium. Capacitance of a conductor : Charge given to a conductor increases it’s potential ie, Quv >Q= conductor, Hence capacitance is the ability of conductor to hold the charge. "V Where Cis a proportionality constant, called capacity or capacitance of Coulomb It’s S.L. unit is Farad (F) , I's dimension : [C]=[M“'L°T*A"] Volt Capacity of a body is independent of charge given to the body or it’s potential raised and depends on shape and size only. Capacity of an isolated spherical conductor : When charge Q is given to a spherical Lo. conductor of radius R, then potential at the surface of sphere is Gre, R = 2 arar y Energy of a charged conductor : Electrostatic potential energy of a conductor carrying oe charge O, capacitance C and potential Vis given by U = sor 2 sor a Parallel plate capacitor : It consists of two parallel metallic plates (may be circular, rectangular, square) separated by a small distance. If A ~ Effective overlapping area of each plate, Electric field between the plates : E = Potential difference between the plates : V = Exd When a metallic slab is inserted between the plates ET aA a5 Series Combination-Charge on each capacitor remains same and equals to the main charge supplied by the battery but potential difference distributes ie. V= Vit Va + Va Equivalent capacitance Cy = (GI+G' +G') Parallel Combination Potential difference across each capacitor remains same and equal to the applied potential difference but charge distributes ie. Q= Qs + Q2+ Qs Equivalent capacitance Coy = Ci + C2 + Cs EXERCISE 1. Define electric potential. Derive an expression of electric potential due to a single charge. 2. Define electric potential, Derive an expression of electric potential due to a single charge. 3. Find the el trostatic potential at a point on equatorial line of an electric dipole 6 10. 12. 13, Derive an expression for the potential energy of a dipole placed in the uniform electric field. Discuss its equilibrium conditions. Find out the amount of work done in rotating an electric dipole from unstable to stable equilibrium and vice versa Define equipotential surfaces. Why do the equipotential surfaces due to a uniform electric field not intersect each other? Explain why, for any charge configuration, equipotential surface through a point is normal to the electric field, Draw a sketch of equipotential surfaces due to a single charge -q depicting the electric field lines due to the charge. Depict the equipotential surfaces placed a distance d apart. for a system of two identical positive point charges ‘Show that the equipotential surfaces are closed together in the regions of strong field and far apart in the regions of weak field. Draw equipotential surfaces for an electric dipole. Draw equipotential surfaces corresponding to the electric field that uniformly increases in ‘magnitude along with the z-direction. Briefly explain the principle ofa capacitor. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, whose plates are -separated by a dielectric medium /-inserted a dielectric slab of thickness t. Derive an expression for equivalent capacitance of three capacitors when connected in (i) Series (ii) parallel. ELECTRIC CURRENT The electric current in measured by ‘rate of flow of charge'.Or Charge flowing per second from any cross section of the conductor is called electric current, Current i= charge/time = $% if flow is uniform i = 2 Unit : Ampere (A), Dimension : (M°LOT9A1) 1 ampere = | coulomb/second. i.e. if | coulomb of charge flows per second then 1 ampere of current is said to be flowing, Te ene ee ietriomerie osteo | Selectenementecend tech enremen section of conductor CURRENT DENSITY Current density at any point inside a conductor is defined as a vector having magnitude equal to current per unit area surrounding that point, Remember area is normal to the direction of charge flow (or current passes) through that point. Ifthe cross-sectional area is not normal to the current, but makes an angle @ with the fi 5g aJdsos0 TH -sin|7 Theoxs direction of current then If current density 7 is uniform for a normal cross-section A then J=i/A. Current density J is a vector quantity. It's direction is same as that of E. It's SL. unit is amp/n? and dimension [Z74]. In case of uniform flow of charge through a cross-section normal to it as i= nqvA => I-4=nyv aT Current density relates with electric field as ; where o= conductivity and p= resistivity or specific resistance of substance Drift Velocity Drift velocity is the average uniform velocity acquired by free electrons inside a metal by the application of an electric field which is responsible for current through it. —;) A= Are: section, V = potential difference across the conductor, = electric field inside the conductor, i = current, = current density, p= specific resistance, o ne cond conductivity | 6 3) then current relates with drift velocity as i= neAv, we can also ° cok _E_ VY ne pne pine \ y-iut write Vy=— = — nA ne The direction of drift velocity for electron in a metal is opposite to that of applied electric field (ie. current density j).y, < Le., greater the elecic field, larger will be the dr velocity Relaxation time (2) : The time interval between two successive collisions of electrons with the positive ions in the metallic lattice is defined as relaxation time mean five path rms, velocity of electrons decreases. a —. With ris in temperature vims increas consequently + Mobility : Drift velocity per unit electric field is called mobility of electron ie. Its unit is m volt sec Ohm's Law If the physical conditions of the conductor (length, temperature, mechanical strain etc.) remains some, then the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across it’s two ends ie.i«V=>V=iR where R is a proportionality constant, known as electric resistance. (1) Ohm’s law is not a universal law, the substances, which obey ohm’s law are known as ohmic substance. (2) Graph between V and i for a metallic conductor is a straight line as shown. At different temperatures Vi curves are different. wt “wt ‘ aig (A) Slope ofthe ine (2) Here tani tands SRR Ohm's law is true For metallic conductors at low temperature Because with rise in temperature resistance of conductor increase, so graph between V and i becomes non linear. We know that Drift velocity Va nde E ndeV “ers Current I=neAVa = 1= I= 1 m mal Tov 1 1 Resistance R=p—=— Ame A 1 m & Resistivity, From n= p4; p=—% 4 ner Resistance The property of substance by virtue of which it opposes the flow of current through it, is, known as the resistance. Dependence of resistance : Resistance of a conductor depends upon the following factors @) Length of the conductor ‘Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to it’s length [Link] and inversely proportional to it’s area of cross-section Le. R <4 a i) Temperature : For a conductor If Ry=resistance of conductor at 0°C Ry= resistance of conductor at PC and , f= temperature co-efficient of resistance then X, =R,(1 +a) leat, R JER, and Re are the resistances at °C and °C respectively then 2° =———— n ltat, Resistivity (p), Conductivity (o) and Conductance (C) Resistivity : From r= p-; If/= Im, A=? then R =p Le. resistivity is numerically equal to the resistance of a substance having unit area of cross-section and unit length, Unit and dimension : It’s S.1 unit is ohmem and dimension is (ai'74~}. It’s formula Resistivity depends on the temperature. For metals p, = P,(1+ @Af) i. resitivity increases with temperature, Conductivity : Reciprocal of resistivity is called conductivity (6) ie. => with unit mho/m and dimensions (M-\L°T*4") Conductance: Reciprocal of resistance is known as conductance, c= 1 It's unit is 2 oro, t Cell in Various Positions (1) Closed circuit : Cell supplies a constant current in the circuit (@ Current given by the ell = (ii) Potential difference across the resistance (ii) Potential drop inside the cell (iv) Equation of cell E=V+ir (E>V) (¥) Internal resistance of the cell r {e-1 he ince (load) (vi) Power dissipated in extemal re P=Vi=? vn rf R (Retr) (vii) When the cell is being charged ie. current is given to the cell then E = V—ir and EsV. (2) Open circuit : When no current is taken from the cell it is said to be in open circuit 1 (i) Current through the cirfilit i= 0 (ii) Potential difference between A and B, Vas = E (ii)Potential difference between C and D, Veo =0 (3) Short circuit : If two terminals of cell are join together by a thick conducting wire (@) Maximum current (called short circuit current) flows momentarily , - (ii) Potential difference V=0 Kirchoff's Laws (1) Kirehoff’s first law : This law is also known as junetion rule or current law (KCL), According to it the algebraic sum of currents meeting at a junction is zero i.e. Di= 0. Ina circuit, at any junction the sum of the currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the currents leaving the junction. i, +i; =i, +i (Gi) This law is simply a statement of “conservation of charge”. (2) Kirehoff's second law : This law is also known as loop rule or voltage law (KVL) and according to it “the algebraic sum of the changes in potential in complete traversal of a mesh (closed loop) is zeto”, Le ZV=0 (i) This law represents “conservation of energy (3) Sign convention for the application of Kirchof?’s law : For the application of Kirchoff’s laws following sign convention are to be considered (O The change in potential in traversing a resistance in the direction of current is — i while in the opposite direction +iR at soa . (ii) The change in potential in traversing an emf source from negative to positive terminal is +2 while in the opposite direction — E irrespective of the direction of current in the circuit. — 4 “4 Wheatstone bridge : Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistance which ean be used to measure one of them in terms of rest. Here arms AB and BC are called ratio arm and arms AC and BD are called conjugate arms (i) Balanced bridge : The bridge is said to be balanced when deflection in galvanometer is, zero i.e. no current flows through the galvanometer or in other words Y= Vp. In the R P balanced condition — =<, on mutually changing the position of cell and galvanometer this s condition will not change. (ii) Unbalanced bridge : If the bridge is not balanced current will flow from D to B if Vo>Ve ie. W,~ Vp)<(W4 Va) which gives PS>RO. EXERC 1. Define the term drift velocity and relaxation time, On the basis of electron drift derive an expression for resistivity of a conductor in terms of number density of free electrons and relaxation time, 2, Establish a relation between electric current and drift velocity. Prove that the current density of a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the drift speed of electrons. 4, Define the term ‘mobility’ of charge carriers in a current carrying conductor. Obtain the relation for mobility in term of relaxation time. 5. Why are alloys used for making standard resistance coils 6. Define electrical conductivity, Deduce Ohm’s law using the concept of drift velocity. Use this relation to deduce the expression for the electrical resistivity of the material. 7. On what factors does conductivity of a conductor depends. 8, State Kirchhoff’s laws for an electrical network, Using Kirchhoff’s laws, find the relation between the resistances of four arms of a Wheatstone bridge when the bridge is balanced. 9. Distinguish between the terms potential difference and emf, Two cells of emf E} and E> and intemal resistances ri and ra respectively are connected in series. Obtain expressions for the equivalent emf and effective resistance of the combination. 10. Define the term internal resistance. Two cells emf E; and E2 and internal resistances 1) and 1) respectively are connected in parallel,with their terminals of the same polarity connected together. Obtain expressions for the equivalent emf and effective resistance of the combination, CHAPTER, MOVING CHARGES & MAGNETISM GIST OF LESSON Magnetic field- A magnetic field is associated with an electric current flowing through a metallic wire. This is called the magnetic effect of current, On the other hand, a stationary electron produces an electric field only. SI Unit of Magnetic field- The SI unit of magnetic field is Wm-? or T (tesla). The strength of magnetic fieldis called one tesla, if a charge of one coulomb, when moving with a velocity of 1 ms"! along a direction perpendicular to the direction of the magnetic field experiences a force of one newton. T meter! (NA“! m=} 1 tesla (T) = 1 weber meter"? (Wom? ) = 1 newton amper CGS units of magnetic field is called gauss or oersted. 1 gauss = 10 tesla, Right hand thumb rule- Hold a conductor is Right Hand in such a way that thumb indicates the direction of current and curled finger encircling the conductor will give the direction of magnetic field lines. Biot- Savart law- It states that the magnetic field strength B produced due to acurrent clement (of current I and length dl) at a point having position vector r relative to current element is- vo tdlsing 4, gg ta tal ae ane where pio is the permeability of free space, O isthe angle between current element and position vector ras shown in the figure. The direction of magnetic field B is perpendicular To the plane containing Idl and r The value of p= 4 «10? Wb/A-m, Definit ion of ampere: ~ / ampere is the current which when flowing in each ofthe two parallel wires in vacuum separated by I m from each other exert a forceof 2x 10°7N/m on each other. Torque experienced by a current loop in uniform magnetic field: Torque =M x B If the angle between the normal to the coil and the direction of themagnetic field, then @ +0=90° ie, 0=90°-@ Torque = 1.4 B cos (90° - 8) = NIABsin ® The unit of magnetic moment in ST system is Am2, The torque is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the magnetic field and zero when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnetic field. Potential energy of a current loop in a magnetic field- When a current loopof magnetic moment M is placed in a magnetic field, then potential energy of magnetic dipole is, U=-MB cos 6 1. When 0-0, U=- MB (minimum or stable equilibrium position) 2, When o=180, U =+MB (maximum or unstable equilibrium position) 3. When 0=90, potential energy is zero Moving coil galvanometer Uses of galvanometer: (i) Used to detect electric current and direction of its flow in given branch of circuit. (i) Usedto convert the ammeter by putting a low resistor in parellel. (ii) Used to convert voltmeterby putting a high resistor in series. (iv) Used as ohmmeter by making special arrangement Current sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection of coil per unit current flowing -in it. /1=NBAIC Voltage sensitivity: It is defined as the deflection of coil per unit potential /V=NBA/RC Conversion of Galvanometer into Ammeter: - A galvanometer may beconverted into ammeter by using very small resistance in parallel with the galvanometer coil. The small resistance connected in parallel is called a shunt If G is resistance of galvanometer, Ig is current in galvanometer for full scale deflection, then for conversion of galvanometer into ammeter of range I ampere,the shunt is given by + te Conversion of Galvanometer into Voltmeter: - A galvanometer may be converted into voltmeter by connecting high resistance (R) in series with the coil of the galvanometer. If V volt is the range of voltmeter formed, then series resistance is given by V=L(G+R) or R 8 9, QUESTIONS :- 1, State Bio-Savart’s law. Write its vector form. Derive an expression for magnetic field at axial point of a current carrying circular coil 2. State Ampere’s law. Apply itto find magnetic field due to (i) infinitely long straight 3. current carrying wire (ii) Straight Solenoid 4, Derive expression for force between two infinitely long straight current carrying wires, Hence define ampere 5. Derive an expression for the torque acting on a loop of N tums area A, carrying current 1, when held in a uniform magnetic field B at an angle 6. 6. Onwhich principle moving coil galvanometer works. Explain construction, theory and working of moving coil galvanometer (with labeled diagram). How galvanometer is converted into (i) Ammeter (ii) Voltmeter. Explain with circuit diagram in each case. MARK QUESTIONS Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz magnetic force F—» due to a charge moving with velocity V— in a magnetic field B—. What is the direction of the magnetic force? Using the concept of force between two infinitely long parallel current carrying conductors, define one ampere of current, A charge ‘q’ moving B along the X-axis with a velocity v is subjected to a uniform magnetic field B acting along the Z-axis as it crosses the origin O. i, Trace its trajectory. ii, Does the charge gain kinetic energy as it enters the magnetic field? Justify, A steady current (11) flows through a long straight wire. Another wire carrying steady current (12) in the same direction is kept close and parallel to the first wire. Show with the help of a diagram how the magnetic field due to the current II exerts a magnetic force on the second wire. Write the expression for this force. A circular coil of closely wound N turns and radius r carries a current I. Write the expressions for the following i, the magnetic field at its centre b, the magnetic moment of this coil Draw the magnetic field lines due to a current passing through a long solenoid. Write the expression for the magnetic field due to the current I in a long solenoid having n number of turns per unit length. (State Biot - Savart law in vector form expressing the magnetic field B due to an element dl carrying current I at a distance r from the element. (ii) Write the expression for the magnitude of the magnetic field at the centre of a circular loop of radius r carrying a steady current I. Draw the field lines due to the current loop. State Ampere How do convert a galvanometer into an ammeter? Why is an ammeter always connected in ‘rcuital law, How is it similar to the Gauss Law? series CHAPTER S : MAGNE! M & Gist of Chapter .- ‘A magnet is a substance or object that produces a magnetic field, All magnets exhibit magnetic force around them which is representedin magnetic field lines, These lines start from the north pole of the magnet to the south pole. The earth itself exhibits magnetic field lines around making it act like a magnet. The properties of magnetic lines of force are as follows: Magnetic field lines emerge from the north pole and merge at the south pole. As the distance between the poles increases, the density of magnetic linesdecreases. The direction of field lines inside the magnet is from the South Pole to the NorthPole. Magnetic lines do not intersect with each other. The strength of the magnetic lines is the same throughout and is proportionalto how close are the lines, Magnetic field pattern of a bar magnet ‘A magnetic dipole is a magnetic north pole and a magnetic south pole separated by a small distance. Magnetic dipole moments have dimensions of currenttimes area or energy divided by magnetic flux density.m = qm 2 direction south to north pole of magnet Gauss Law of Magnetism essentially states that the flux through a closed surface/loopis zero. ff B-dA=0 Magnetic Properties of Materials Substances can be divided into three groups based on their magnetic properties ie. diamagnetic, paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic. They can be classified based on theirmagnetic. susceptibility Diamagnetic Materials The materials that develop temporary magnetization in the opposite direction to that of the ‘magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Diamagneticmaterials. In simple words, they are repelled by magnets. Their magnetic susceptibility is small and negative. Examples of diamagnetic materials are Bismuth, Copper, Zinc, Lead, ete Paramagnetic Materials The materials that develop temporary magnetization in the same direction as that ofthe magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Paramagnetic materials. They are slightly attracted by magnets. They have positive but very low susceptibility. Examples of Paramagnetic materials are Aluminium, Sodium, Calcium, ete Ferromagnetic Materials The materials that develop temporary but strong magnetization in the same direction to that of the magnetic field in which they are placed are known as Ferromagnetic They are strongly attracted by magnets. They have positive and high susceptibility Properh Dia Para Faro. T. | Bifectofmagnet | They awe feebly| Theyare reebly | They are strongly repelled by | attracted by attracted by magnets. ‘masmets, magnets. 3 | Relative magnetic Os we> 1 PARAMAGNELIC FERROMAGNET . 2 Lee e +s A e ee |\Evee Effect of temperature on magnetic properties According to Curie's Law, the magnetization in a paramagnetic material is directlyproportional to the applied magnetic field. If the object is heated, the magnetization isviewed to be inversely proportional to the temperature pom M Cc HT The Curie temperature (TC) of a ferroelectric material is the temperature at which the material undergoes the phase transition from a low-temperature ferroelectric phase toa high- ‘temperature parmagnetic phase upon heating, Torque on a magnetic dipole (bar magnet) in a uniform magnetic field 7=MB SinO U TIONS 1. Explain the properties of para, dia and ferro-magnetic substances. Write the examples of each, 2. Draw the magnetic field lines pattern when (i) diamagnetic material and (ii) para magnetic material placed in a magnetic field. 3. Name the magnetic material whose magnetic susceptibility is (j) small and negative (Gi) small and positive and (iii) very large and positive. 4. How will the magnetic susceptibility of (i) diamagnetic material and (ii) paramagnetic material vary with temperature. 5. Derive an expression for magnetic moment of revolving electron. (2M QUESTIONS) 1 Is the steady electric current the only source of magnetic field? Justify your answer 2 What are permanent magnets? Give one example. 3 Which of the following substances are diamagnetic? Bi, Al, Na, Cu, Ca and Ni 4 Which of the following substances are para-magnetic ? Bi, Al, Cu, Ca, Pb, Ni 5 Relative permeability of a material, ur = 0.5. Identify the nature of the magnetic material and write its relation to magnetic susceptibility. 6 In what way is the behaviour of a diamagnetic material different from that of a paramagnetic, when kept in an extemal magnetic field? 7 Define magnetic susceptibility of a material. Name two elements, one having positive susceptibility and the other having negative susceptibility. What does negative susceptibility signify? CHAPTER 6: ELE ‘TROMAGNETIC INDUCTION GIST OF THE CHAPTER Area Vector(A) : Anarea vector is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the area of a plane and direction is normal to the plane of the area Magnetic Flux do The total number of magnetic lines of force passing normally through an area placed in a magnetic field, is equal to the magnetic flux linked with that area, Net flux through the surface On = B.A= BAcos0 Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. S. unit: weber (Wb), CGS. unit : Maxwell or Gauss em? (1 Wb = 10* Maxwell) Faraday’s laws of EMI 1. First law :( Cause of emf) The induced emf is due to changing magnetic flux linked with the closed loop/coil. 2. Second law: (magnitude of emf) The magnitude of the induced e.m.f. is directly proportional to the rate of change of the magnetic flux. Induced e.m.f, £=-d@/dt = -(02— 01)/t ‘Negative sign indicates that induced emf (¢) opposes the change of flux Lenz's Law: - This law gives the direction of induced emiflinduced current. According to this law, the direction of induced emf or current in a circuit is such as to oppose the cause that produces it. This law is based upon law of conservation of energy Motional EMF Due to Translatory Motion:~ Ifthe length RQ =x (variable) and RS = 1, the magnetic flux enclosed by the loop PQRS will be © B Ix Since x is changing with time, the rate of change of flux will induce an emt given by: © == dodt =~ d(BL X)ét =Blv The induced emf £-B1_ is called motional emf Motional EMF Due to Rotational Motion:- Emf induces actoss the ends of the rod where v = frequency (revolution per sec) And T= Time period. = BoR22 Inductance is a property of an electrical conductor (like a coil or solenoid) that describes its ability to oppose changes in electric current flowing through it by generating a magnetic field. Self Inductance: Self-inductance (L) of a coil is numerically equal to the magnetic flux (0) linked with the coil, when a unit current flow through it. O=L Tz =-L difdt , S.I. unit of self- inductance is Henry (H). Self inductance of a long solenoid : L=jo uN? AI = po iat? Al Energy stored in an inductor: U=12LP and energy density is given by B20 Mutual Inductance: Whenever the current passing through a coil changes, the magnetic flux linked with a neighboring coil will also change. Hence an emf will be induced in the neighboring coil or circuit. This phenomenon is called ‘mutual induction’ O=MI « =-Mdlidt Slunit is henry (I). Mutual-Inductance between pairs of long Solenoid: Miz= (honmaL an?) , Mar=(uominaL ar’) Hence Mi2=Mat QUESTIONS 1. State Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction and Lentz’ law. 2, Define magnetic flux. Either this quantity is scalar or vector? Write its S.1. unit. 3. Define self-inductance. Derive an expression for self-inductance of a long straight solenoid, On which factors self-inductance of solenoid depends? 4, Define mutual inductance, Derive an expression for mutual inductance of two long straight solenoids, On which factors mutual inductance of two solenoids depends? QUESTIONS (2 marks) 1. State Fi wraday’s first law of electromagnetic induction 2. How does the magnitude of induced EMF relate to the rate of change of magnetic flux according to Faraday’s second law? 3. Deseribe how an EMF is induced in a coil when the magnetic field through it anges. 4, What factors affect the magnitude of the induced EMF in a conductor moving through a magnetic field? 5, State Lenz’s Law and explain its significance in determining the direction of induced current. 6. Provide an example to illustrate Lenz’s Law in a practical scenario. 7. Define self-induction and explain what is meant by the self-inductance ofa coil. 8. What is the physical significance of the self-inductance in an electrical circuit? 9. Define mutual induction and explain the concept of mutual inductance between two coils. [APTER 7: ALTERN, Gist of the chapter Alternating current and voltage: A signal changing its values periodically is called an alternating signal. & represented as I= In sin ot , alternating voltage (or emf) is V = Vo sin ot MEAN AND RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENTS ‘The mean or average value of alternating current over complete cycle is zero, For half cycle it’s value is given by (Imean half eycle 2 0.636 Vo = 0.636 lo Vavg for half cycle = An ammeter or a voltmeter read its Root Mean Square value as =0.70710 Vrms =“ Inms = 4 “ a 2 0.707 Vo V= Vo sin at then current is I= To sin (ot + ©) where @ is the phase difference between voltage and current. The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by, P — Enns lms cos where cos ® is called the power factor Purely resistive circuit. hy (1) Current :/=% sino (2) Peak current : "7 (3) Phase difference between voltage and current = 0° (4) Power factor : 6-1 (5) Power: 2 (© Phasor diagram : Both ae in same phase St nents Inductive Circuit (L-Cireuit) (1) Current intaa(er-3) _ (2) Peak current: wl (3) Phase difference between voltage and current $=90" (or ” 2 (4) Power factor ; ©°86= 0 (5) Power dissipated : (6) Phasor diagram : Voltage leads the current by 2 rae2n6 Purely capacitive circuit ‘ 4 Koc = Kano) (2) Peak current 1-4 infor (1) Current : ey (3) Phase difference between voltage and current : $=%° Power factor : °° = 0 (4) Average Power : Paxe= 0 (5) Phasor diagram : Current leads the voltage by [1/2 Fo le, Fora series LCR circuit driven by voltage V = Vo sinot, a Ves Ye, Vente Phasor agra ()I=Isin(ot+®) , where lo=VolZ, and impedence Z = JR? + (X, —Xe)™ (2) tan @ (X- Xe) /R (3) The average power loss over a complete cycle is given by P = Vins lms 60s ® where, the term cos @ is called the power factor (8) cos ©=R/ (RFF = Ko ) (5) fnet reactance is inductive: Circuit behaves as LR circuit (6) Inet reactance is capacitive: Cireuit behave as CR circuit (7) Ifnet reactance is zero: Means Xi - Xc = 0 Xt. = Xc . This is the condition of electric (8) At resonance (series resonant circuit) () XL =Xe= Zmis=R ice. circuit behaves as resistive circuit (ii) V.=Ve= V=Vrice. whole applied voltage appeared across the resistance (iii) Phase difference : [) = 0° =»power factor = cos) = 1 (iv) Power consumption P = Vins Ims (v) These circuits are used for current amplification and as tuning circuits in wireless telegraphy. () Resonant frequency (Natural frequency); At resonance Xi[) Xe k= = 2 wo- &E OR, vo= = |= (Resonant frequency doesn't depend upon the resistance of ic (10) Watt less Current The component of current which does not contribute to the average power dissipation is called watt less current. 0p (i) The average of component of watt less component over one cycle is zero (ii) Amplitude of watt less current = Io sin and r.m.s. value of watt less curren nme Sing To sin 'V2 (11) Transformer:- It is a device which Increase or decreases the voltage or current in ac circuits through mutual induction, It does not work in DC circuit. Principle :It is based on the principle of mutual induction Working :When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary coil ,magnetie flux linked with it changes which links to the secondary coil and induces an emf in it due to mutual induction, ‘Types of transformer: 1. Step up Transformer: Ns> Np. It increases voltage and decreases current. Transformation Ratio must be greater than 1 [Link]-Down Transformer: — Ns< Np; It increases current and decreases voltage. Transformation Ratio must be less than 1 THEORY: From Faraday’s laws the emf induced in the primary coil — ye a6 od i) also for secondary coil &=- Nee kk (transformation ratio) tN at) For ideal transformer input power = output power > eplp = és By equation (iii) and (iv) Energy losses in a transformer: (i) Copper loss (ii) Hysteresis loss (iii) Flux leakage (iv) Humming losses (v) Eddy current loss QUESTIONS 1. (@) Define(i) inductive reactance (ii) capacitive reactance and (iii) impedance. (b) Draw the graph between (i) XL and frequency (ii) XC and frequency. 2. Find the expression for impedance in the circuit when resistor, inductor and capacitor are connected in series with AC source. Explain resonance condition. 3. Describe the principle, construction and working of AC generator with a neat labeled diagram. 4, Explain the construction, principle and theory of transformer. Write about different losses of transformer SA-T (2 Marks each) Q.1 (i) Define root mean square value of an alternating current, (i) Write the relation between peak and root mean square value of alternating current. Q.2 Draw the graphs showing variation of inductive reactance and capacitive reactance with frequency of applied ac source. Q.3 A lamp is connected in series with a capacitor. Predict your observation when this combination is connected in tum across (i) AC source (i) a DC battery. What change would your notice in each case if the capacitance of the capacitor is increased? QA (i) Define capacitive reactance, Write its SI unit (Gi) Why is the use of AC voltage preferred over DC voltage? Give two reasons. Q.5 State the principal of a transformer. How is the large scale transmission of electric energy over long distances done with the use of transformers? Q.6 Mention various energy losses in a transformer. Q7 Atan airport, a person is made to walk through the doorway of a metal detector, for security reasons. If she/he is carrying anything made of metal, the detector emits a sound. On what principal does this detector work? Q8 (i) Define power factor of an ac circuit (i) What are the maximum and minimum values of power factor of an ac circuit? CHAPTER GIST OF THE CHAPTER Displacement Current: -If there exists an electric current as well as changing electric field, results magnetic field & cause displacement current ol) So, Ampere-Circuital Law was modified called as Ampere-Maxwell Law. fea Electromagnetic Waves: - The electromagnetic waves are those waves in which there are sinusoidal variations of electric and magnetic field vectors to right angles to each other as well as at right angles to the direction of wave propagation. (i¢., electric current and magnetic fields vary with space and time.) Hoic + Hof & ‘Transverse nature of electromagnetic waves: - Electric and magnetic fields oscillate sinusoidally in space and time in an electromagnetic wave. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields, E and B are perpendicular to each other, and to the direction of propagation of the electromagnetic wave, > Conduction current & displacement current are the same. > Conduction current arises due to flow of electrons in the conductor. > Displacement current arises due to electric flux changing with time. Ip= 80 dOv/dt > Maxwell’s equations Gauss’s Law in Electrostaties § [Link] = Q/e0 Gauss’s Law in Magnetism —§ B’.dS=0 + Ampere’s — Maxwell law [B°.dl = ol + poeod@r /dt > Electromagnetic Wave :- The wave in which there are sinusoidal variation of electric and ‘magnetic fields at right angles to each other as well as right angles to the direction of wave propagation. + Velocity of EM waves in free space: c ~ 1/,/w0e0- 3x10* m/s > The Scientists associated with the study of EM waves are Hertz, Jagdish Chandra Bose & Marconi. > EM wave is a transverse wave because of which it undergoes polarization effect. > Electric veetors are only responsible for optical effects of FM waves. > The amplitude of electric & magnetic fields are related by B/B ~ ¢ > Oscillating or accelerating charged particle produces EM waves, > Orderly arrangement of electromagnetic radiation according to its frequency or wavelength is electromagnetic spectrum. > A self made easy Acronym to memorize the electromagnetic spectrum in decreasing order of its frequency. Gandhiji’s X-rays Used Vigorously In Medical Research, > __ EMwaves also carry energy, momentum and information QUESTIONS :- 1. Draw diagram of electromagnetic wave propagating in x-direction. 2. What is the relation between E and B for an electromagnetic wave propagating in vacuum? 3. What is displacement current? Write its expression, 4, Electromagnetic Spectrum: (Radio, micro, infrared, visible, uv, x-ray and gamma rays) Frequency, wavelength and uses(applications) SA- 1 (2 Marks each) Why are infrared waves called heat waves. Explain. What do you understand by the statement “Electromagnetic waves transport momentum”? 2. Why are infrared radiations also referred as heat waves? Write the name of radiations which lie next to infrared radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum, 3. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along z-direction, what can you say about the directions of its electric and magnetic field vectors? If the frequency of the wave is 30 MHz, what is its wavelength? 4, (a) Identify the part of EM spectrum used in (6) RADAR (©) Eye surgery. Write the frequency range. 5. Prove that the average energy density of oscillating Electric field is equal to that of oscillating magnetic field? sary in microwaves ovens to select the Q.6 How are microwaves produced? Why is it ne frequency of microwaves to match the resonant frequency of water molecules? (i) Write two important uses of infrared waves GIST OF THE CHAPTER Reflection of light: - The bouncing of light back into the same medium from a surface is called reflection of light. Laws of reflection: - i) Angle of incidence is equal to the angle of incidence. at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. ray and normal to the surfa ii) The incidence ray, the reflected Types of spherical mirrors: Concave and Convex. The relation between object distance, image distance and the focal length of a mirror is called mirror formula, The ratio of size of image to the size of object is called the magnification produced by the mirror. Derivation of mirror formula: AABCand AA‘B Care similar A’B/AB = B'C/CB= PC-PB’)' (PB-PC) O) AABP and AA’B’P are also similar ABYAB =PBYPB .....2) Compare eqn (1) and (2) PB’/PB ~ (PC-PB’Y (PB-PC) -vieu= QF + Vv) C0426) oF 2uv-2vf2ue Dividing by2uvf on both sides we get, Reffaction of light: - Bending of light from its actual path, when it passes obliquely from one medium to another having different optical densities. Snell's Law: -The ratio of the sine of the incident angle to the sine of the refracted angle s a constant. sini_m Seema sinr 7 n, sini = ngsinr OR vy, sini = vy sinr Examples :- [Link] can be seen before actual sunrise 2, An object under water (any medium ) appears to be raised due to refraction when observed inclined n= (Real depth / Apparent depth) and Shift in the position (apparent) of object is x=({i FA Where tis the actual depth of the medium Gitical angle (ic): - The angle of incidence in denser medium for which the angle of refraction in rarer medium is 90° is called the critical angle Sinic = Nay = =Note:- Ifrarer medium is not air then sini, ==" Total internal re = When angle of incidence of the ray incident on rarer medium from denser medium, is greater than the critical angle, the incident ray does not refract into rarer medium but is reflected back into denser medium. This phenomenon is called total intemal reflection 1 sin C Mathematically: Here, nat is the refractive index of the denser ‘medium 2 wats. the rarer medium 1 and C is the critical angle. ita ‘Gates Incident Applications of Total internal reflection: le Totally reflecting £ ‘> Pri[Link] Bend the light ‘ at either 90° fig (a) or ——t 180° fig (b) Fiber-optic: -Fine fiber of glass or quartz in which light enter from one end and comes out from another end due to total internal reflection is called optical fiber. Used in endoscopy and communication Here neore>Dsidaing Refraction through Spherical surface: (6) Using sign convention, %#—% = 22" Spherical refracting surface. The portion \ ofa refracting medium, whose curved surface forms the part of a sphere, is called a spherical refracting surface. When object is situated in the rarer ‘medium, the relation between m (refractive index of the rarer medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of curvature) with the object and image distances (u and v) is given by From fig, in AMOC, i=a +y (1) mm mom and in AMCLy =r +B3r=y-f-—(2)/" " ® From laws of refraction = = "= (3) For small angles, * =? => nyi = nar- (4) Using (1) and (2) in (4), ma +7) = ne(y—B) 6) Mi ™(p9 + Pc ‘When object is situated in the denser medium, the relation between mi (refractive index of the rarer medium), n2 (refractive index of the spherical refracting surface) and R (the radius of curvature) with the object and image distances ( u and v) can be obtained by interchanging ni ‘and nz. In that case, the relation becomes "#2 Lens maker’s formula. The relation connecting the focal length of the lens with the radii of il of the lens is called lens curvature of its two surfaces and the refractive index of the ma maker's formula. 1 1 sa (n- if r Mathematically: R The focal length of a convex lens is taken as positive, while that of concave lens is taken as negative. Lens equation, The relation between the focal length, the object and image distances is called lens equation. Mathematically: Linear Magnification, The ratio of the size of the image (formed by the lens) to the size of the object is called linear magnification produced by the lens. nto Mathematically, 2 « tu Power of a lens. It is defined as the reciprocal of the focal length of the lens in metre, Pot P Mathematically, fot In the above two formulae; f, Ri and Ro are measured in metre, Two thin lenses placed in contact, When two lenses of ayes focal lengths f, and fare placed in contact, the focal i length of the combination is given by = ‘ 7 oe Power of equivalent lens: P=P{+P2 Magnification produced by equivalent lens: m=m, xm, Refraction through a prism A ray of light incident on one face of the prism suffers, refraction suc it sively at the two surfaces and then emerges out of Mathematically, 1. A=n +m 2, A+D=ite Prism formula: w= “2 Simple microscope. A convex lens of small focal length is called a simple microscope or a magnifying glass. The magnifying power of a microscope is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at eee ——> directly, when both lie at the least distance of distinct vision. Mathematically: I) Pye focussed on near point |----—-» M=|1 2) Here, D is the least distance of distinct vision f Compound microscope. A compound microscope is a two lens system (object, lens and eye lens of focal lengths fand f). Its magnifying power is very large, as compared to the simple microscope. ¥ Mathematically: we rN forsale | Here, us is distance of the object from the object lens and vo(~ “sis the length of the tube of the microscope) is the distance at which the object lens forms the image of the object, Astronomical telescope. It is a two-lens system and is used to observe distant heavenly objects. It is called refracting type astronomical telescope. Astronomical Telescope Normal adjustment. When the final image is formed at infinity, the telescope is said to be in normal adjustment. The magnifying power of a telescope in normal adjustment is defined as the ratio of the angle subtended by the image at the eye . as seen through the telescope to v the angle subtended by the object seen directly, when both the object Mea te and the image lie at infinity. f. Magnifying power in normal adjustment, ‘When the final image is formed at the least distance of distinet vision, (+4) if. D) Reflecting type telescope, In a reflecting type telescope, the objective is a concave spherical mirror of “ee large aperture in place of a convex lens. — The expression for magnifying power of a reflecting type telescope is same as that for refracting type astronomical telescope. QUESTIONS:- 1. A tay of light when moves from denser to rarer medium undergo total internal reflection. Drive the expression for critical angle in terms of speed of light in the respective media, Write the conditions for [Link]. 2. What is optical fiber? Draw its diagram. Write its uses. 3. Draw the ray diagram for a right angled isosceles prism when incident ray (i) deviates through 90 and (ii) deviate through 180° 4. Derive mirror formula, Define linear magnification. 5. Draw the ray diagram for a prism. Derive and expression for refractive index of prism in terms of angle of minimum deviation. 6. Trace the rays of light showing the formation of an image due to a point object placed on the axis of a spherical surface separating the two media of reftactive indices nl and n2. Establish the relation between the distances of the object, the image and the radius of curvature from the central point of the spherical surfaces. Derive the lens-maker’s formula in case of a double convex lens. State the assumptions made and convention of signs used. 7. Draw labeled ray diagram to show the formation of an image by a compound microscope (i) When final image formed at the least distance of distinct vision and (ii) when final image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment), Write the expressions for its magnifying power in each case. 8. Draw a labeled ray diagram to show the formation of an image by a refracting telescope (Astronomical telescope) (i) When final image formed at the least distance of distinct vision and (ii) when final image is formed at infinity (normal adjustment). Write the expressions for its magnifying power in each case. 9. Draw a labelled diagram of a reflecting type telescope. Write four advantages of a reflecting type telescope over a refracting type telescope. (2 MARKS QUESTIONS) 1 What is total internal reflection and what are the conditions under which it occurs? Obtain relation between critical angle between & refractive index. 2a)A convex mirror is immersed in water of refractive index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a diverging lens? Give reason. b) When monochromatic light travels from one medium to another its wavelength changes but frequency remains the same, Explain, 3 Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation by a concave mirror when the object is placed between its focus and pole. Write the value and sign of magnification in this case. 4A plot, between the angle of deviation (6) and angle of incidence (i) for a triangular prism is shown in figure: : Explain why any given value of" corresponds to two values angie NRincidence the significance of point P on the graph. ? H 5 a)Write two differences between linear and angular magnificatioh. ° ) Three lenses with magnifications 2, 3 and 10 form a combination. What is its total > ' magnification? 6 With the help of a ray diagram, obtain the relation between its focal length and radius of curvature, CHAPTER 10: WAVE OPTICS WAVE OPTICS Awavefront isa surface of constant phase Huygen’s principle of the secondary ‘wavelets‘Each point ‘on the wavefront isthe source ofa secondary ‘Shape of Wavefront wavelets, wave Pr Interference of light Citics + Phase diference doesnot change with time ~ coherent 2 RAE ALAA C08 ee ° ore htaselniesd Diffraction dnt dist betensitanden se ‘ath deren B-AP ao BE:=a sin #2, Position of s (a = + Fringe width = 7 Line Postion of ar at | + Postionof ng bright fing, [| tingeasiners nt (ohere vz uD n-123) Yorn = 3 Position of secondary ST Pastm ofa darkregs, || Snes er) Yongne = 254 i” where + For bright rng, dx — na 2123 angular wid of oie ceotral marin = 20 S25. Linear with of central maximas280r Pri ~ Baus dit Ba Angie widthotteinge 0-2 —2 Wave optics: concept of wavefront. [Link] of light-The phenomena like interference, diffraction and polarization establish the wave nature of light. Whereas the phenomena like photo electric effect, Raman effect, Compton effect establish the particle nature of light. [Link]-It is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of the medium vibrating in the same phase at any instant. A wavefront is a surface of constant phase. The speed with which the wavefront moves outwards from the source is called the phase speed (wave speed).Note-1. Rays are perpendicular to wavefronts. 2. No backward wavefiont is possible. 3. Types of wavefront-It is depends on the source of disturbance. Spherical | Wavefront formed by the point wavefront | source Cylindrical | Wavefront formed by linear or wavefront | cylindrical shape source ‘As a spherical or cylindrical wavefront advances, its curvature ee decreases, so small portion of wavefront | SUch a wavefront ata large distance from the source will be a plane waveftont 4, Huygen’s principle of the secondary oa rope Wavelets-It is the basis of wave theory of light. It * tells how a wavefront propagates through a “ » medium, It is based on the following assumptions i)Each point on a wavefront acts as a source of new disturbance called secondary wavelets. These secondary wavelets spread out in all directions a 6 with the speed of light in the given medium ii) The ° 7 wavefront at any later time is given by the ce ore oe forward envelope of the secondary wavelets at o that time. [Link] refraetion- Frequency of light remains constant, wavelength and speed of light get changed depending on the refractive index. (= Ap and v= vi) (here is the refractive index) [Link] of a prism, lens and mirror- aS wecegeren A aera “& is ’ ‘ | 7 - b Pris eS = if is 5 coi If is small sine =tano =o Sot == lp > byPath difference A: Position of n® bright fringe xq Position of n'* dark fringe ©) Fringe width Separation between position two consecutive maxima or minima, Width of bright and dark fringe will be same. B = xq —Xnca = Barone = Baark =P ue Fringe width in medium Bmea = *88 g)Angular width of fringe 0 = £=4 h) overlapping of fringes if n:"bright fringe overlapped on ns" bright fringe then m:Ai=n2ko if bright overlapped dark my21=(2n2 -I)a!2 Dependence of fringe width = “208 ad, BaD, B al/d) j) Intensity distribution curve- ky) Condition for sustained interference- {Two source of light must be coherent(ii) Having same frequeney (iii)source should be monochromatic (iv)wave must travel in same direction(v) for a better contrast amplitude of waves should be approximately equal [Link] It is the phenomena of bending of light around corners of an obstacle or aperture in the path of light. Due to this bending, light goes into the geometrical shadow region of the obstacle ot aperture. This bending becomes more when the dimensions of the aperture or the obstacle are comparable of the wavelength of light. hip) iif) [Link] of light from a single slit- Intensity in (Plane wavefrono. a) Central maxima-maximum intensity at point 0 because path difference at o is zero. b) Path difference A=BP-AP = BE =asino Note-width of secondary ©)Position of minima- Position of n'* dark fringe maxima eo asin oa= nA where n=1,2,3... Position of secondary maxima Qn+1)N2 — wheren=1,2,3... ©) width of central maxima- the direction of first minima o=2/a, this angle is called half angular width of central maxima angular width of central maxima = 20 =20/a f) Linear width of central maxima= 2x or D(20) = 24D/a g) Graph \ \ aA | \ fan 2 MARKS. 1. How does the fringe width of interference fringes change, when the whole apparatus of ‘Young’s experiment is kept in a liquid of refractive index 1.3? 2. How does the angular separation of interference fringes change in Young’s experiment, if the distance between the slits is increased? 3, State the reason, why two independent sources of light cannot be considered as coherent sources. 4. What type of wavefront will emerge from a (i) point source, and (i) distant light source? 5. In what way is diffraction from each slit related to the interference pattern in a double-slit experiment? 6. Draw a diagram to show refraction of a plane wave front incident in a convex lens and hence draw the refracted wave front. 7 How does the angular separation between fringes in single-slit diffraction experiment change when the distance of separation between the slit and screen is doubled? [Link] a single-slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is made double the original width. How does this affect the size and intensity of the central diffraction band. 9. Ina single slit diffraction experiment, the width of the slit is reduced to half its original width, How would this affect the size and intensity of the central maximum? 10, Define the term ‘coherent sources’ which are required to produce interference pattern in ‘Young's double slit experiment, 3 MARKS. 1. Write the distinguishing features between a diffraction pattern due to a single slit and the interference fringes produced in Young’s double slit experiment? 2. (a) Write the conditions under which light sources can be said to be coherent, (b) Why is it necessary to have coherent sources in order to produce an interference pattern? CHAPTER 11; DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION & MATTE! ‘MINDMAP GIST OF THE CHAPTER * Electron Emission: The phenomenon of emission of electron from a metal surface. 1. Thermionic emission (when metal is heated) 2. Field emission: (by applying very strong electric field to a metal) 3. Photo-electric emission (when light of suitable frequency illuminates a metal surface) ‘+ Work Funetion: The minimum amount of energy required to be given to an electron to escape from the metal surface. It is generally denoted by do and unit is electron volt (eV). LeV=1.602 x 10-"J Work function of platinum is 5.65 eV (metal having highest work function) Work function of caesium is 2.14 eV (lowest work function) ‘© Photoelectric Effect: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface, when light of suitable frequency illuminates it, (Discovered by Heinrich Hertz) ‘© Lenard’s Experimental setup: + Effects on Photoelectric Current 1. Effect of intensity: Photoelectric current increases linearly with intensity of incident light, keeping frequency and voltage constant. 2. Effect of potential. + Increasing positive potential increases current until saturation. Negative retarding potential decreases current. At a certain negative voltage (stopping potential), current becomes zeto. *= Stopping Potential (Vo): Minimum negative potential to stop photoclectrie current fora given frequency. - Independent of intensity, depends only on frequency. - Kinetic energy and stopping potential: Kmx = eVo 3. Effect of frequency: Greater frequency — greater stopping potential — greater Kea = Saturation current remains same (constant intensity) ‘ Sn cet t | Caner teeta ome ag . 1. Photoelectric current o intensity of radiation (fixed frequency) 2. Saturation current « intensity; stopping potential is independent of intensity 3. No emission occurs below threshold frequency (vs). 4, Keux & frequency of incident radiation (v); independent of intensity. 5. Photoelectric emission is instantaneous (delay = 10” s) + Failure of Classical Theory: Wave theory predicts electron absorbs energy continuously. Contradictions: a, Knax should depend on intensity (observed: depends on frequency) . Any frequency should cause emission (observed: only above threshold frequency) ¢. Should be delayed process (observed: instantaneous) ‘+ Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation: Photon energy = hv = Kaus = Explanation Laws of Photoelectric Eff - Intensity increases photon number — incr $03 Kau = (vv) 8 CUTTER = oe V < vo —megative K which is impossible > no ™at emission, - Photon-electron interaction is instantaneous » no time lag. * Graph (freq vs Stopping potential) : Ve straight line. Slope =hie, y-intercept Particle Nature of Light (hieWv — dale > ~ bole = Light interacts with matter as photons. = Photon energy: hv, momentum: hv/e * Photon: no charge, not deflected by E or B fields * Photon collisions conserve energy and momentum, but number of photons may change. = Compton scattering confirmed particle nature of light. + Dual Nature of Radiation - Wave nature: Interference, diffraction, polarisation. - Particle nature: Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering, = Light shows wave-particle duality Dual Nature of Matter: Louis de Broglie (1924) proposed particles have wave nature, + de-Broglie Equation: 2.= hip = himy= hiv 2mK=hiV2meV + Davisson-Germer experiment confirmed electron wave nature experimentally. 2. MARKS. 1 An electron and alpha particle have the same de-Broglie wavelength associated with them. How are their kinetic energies related to each other? [Link] lines, A and B, in the plot given below show the variation of de-Broglie wavelength, 2 versus 1/VV, Where V is the accelerating potential difference, for two particles carrying the same charge. Which one of two represents a particle of smaller mass ? (All India 2008) [Link] figure shows a plot of three curves a, b, ¢, showing the /Pertesttecuront variation of photocurrent vs. collector plate potential for JA three different intensities y, Ie and Is having frequencies Sf & Vi, v2 and vs respectively incident on a photosensitive Jf surface. — Collector pate potential Point out the two curves for which the incident radiations have same frequency but different intensities. 4:The stopping potential in an experiment on photoelectric effect is 1.5 V. What is the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons emitted? The maximum kinetic energy of a photoelectron is 3 eV. What is its stopping potential? [Link] graphically, the variation of the de- Brogtie wavelength (4) with the potential (V) through which an electron is accelerated from rest. 7 Define the term ‘stopping potential’ in relation to photoelectric effect. 8, State de-Broglie hypothesis. 9. A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has greater de-Broglie wavelength and why? 10.A proton and an electron have same kinetic energy. Which one has smaller de-Broglie wavelength and why? 3. MARKS 1. An electron is accelerated through a potential difference of 64 volts. What is the de-Broglie wavelength associated with it? To which part of the electromagnetic spectrum does this value of wavelength correspond? ‘An a-particle and a proton are accelerated from rest by the same potential. Find the ratio of their de-Broglie wavelengths. Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly the three salient features observed in photoelectric effect, which can be explained on the basis of the above equation. Plot a graph showing the variation of stopping potential with the frequency of incident radiation for two different photosensitive materials having work functions Wy and Wo (Wi > W2). On what factors does the (i slope and (ii) intercept of the lines depend? . A proton and a deuteron are accelerated through the same accelerating potential. Which one of the two has (a) greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and (b) less momentum? Give reasons to justify your answer. 6. A proton and an alpha particle are accelerated through the same potential. Which one of the two has () greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated with it, and (ii) less kinetic energy. Give reasons to justify your answer. 7. A deuteron and an alpha particle are accelerated with the same accelerating potential. Which one of the two has (1) greater value of de-Broglic wavelength, associated with it, and (2) less kinetic energy? Explain, 8, (i) Monochromatic light of frequency 6.0 x 10" Hz is produced by a laser. The power emitted is 2.0 x 10° W. Estimate the number of photons emitted per second on an average by the source. ii) Draw a plot showing the variation of photoelectric current versus the intensity of incident radiation on a given photosensitive surface. CHAPTER 12: ATOMS OF CHAPTER : ATOMS. ATOM All elements consist of very small invisible particles, called atom. Every atom is a sphere of radius of the order of 10m, in which entire mass is uniformly distributed and negative charged electrons revolve around the nucleus. Experimental arrangement for a-scattering experiment and trajectory followed by a - particles Impact parameter is a perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of a-particle from the central line of the nucleus of the atom is called impact parameter (b). p= 2.2 toe 4m, Where, K is KE of a-particle, 0 is scattering angle, Z is atomic number of the nucleus and ¢ is charge of nucleus, 4, Basic assumption of Rutherford’s atomic model. (i) Atom consists of small central core, called atomic nucleus in which whole mass and positive charge is assumed to be concentrated Gi The sizeof mulea is mach smaller than the sizeof the atom. ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons and atom is electrically neutral (iv) Electrons revolve around the nucleus and centripetal force is of electrostatic nature. Distance of Closest Approach Ata certain distance fom the nucleus, whole ofthe KE of a-particle converts into electrostatic potential energy and a-particle cannot go farther close to nucleus; this distance (fo) is called distance of closest approach. 2 2 y=. 2, RB of particle in terms of ry is given by K = 1 22 ne) mu? 4ney My 6. Angle of Seattering- Angle by which a-particle gets deviated from its original path around the nucleus is called angle of scattering. 7. Drawbacks of Rutherford’s Model (@ Could not explained stability of atom clearly ii) Unable to explain line spectrum, 8, _Bohr’s Theory of Hydrogen Atom- Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. Th (® Bohr’s first postulate :An electron in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without the emission of radiant energy, contraty to the predictions of electromagnetic theory. i) Bohr’s second postulate(Bohr’s quantization condition) : This postulate states that the electron revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits for which the angular ‘momentum is some integral multiple of lv/2z, where h is the Planck’s constant (= 6.6 x 10" J —s) Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is, quantized, ie. L = nh/2n As, angular momentum of electron (L) = mvr For any permitted (stationary) orbit, mvr = nh/2x where, n= any positive integer ie. 1, 2,3, Itis also called principal quantum number. i) Bobr’s third postulate(Bohr’s frequency condition): It states that an electron might make a transition from one of its specified non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy When it does so, a photon is emitted having energy equal to the energy difference between the initial and final states The frequency of the emitted photon is then given by h Er where, E, and Er are the energies of the initial and final states and Ei >Er Limitations of Bohr’s Model (i) Applicable only for hydrogen like atom. (i) Does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines in H-atom, (ii) Does not explain about shape of orbit. 10. Important formulae related to Bohr’s model of hydrogen atoms are given below: (® Radi of Bobr's Stati bits r= (@ Radii of Bobr’s Stationary Orbits r= 5 (iii) Velocity of Electron in Bohr's Stationary Orbit ue ih Bega (iv) Frequency of Electron in Bobr's Stationary Orbit It is the number of revolutions completed per second by the electron in a stationary orbit around the nucleus. It is represented by ¥, ya kee “he (0) Total Energy of Electron in the Stationary Orbit ~me'Z? _-Rhe _-1360V “a an'eth? ” where, R is Rydberg constant = "= Bech (vi) Bohr’s Radius The radius of the first orbit (n =1) of hydrogen atom (2 = 1) will be We xe ‘This is called Bobr's radius and its value is 0.634. hee? __ Rhe 27 Bregr on™ (viid) Total energy (H,) =~ (kinetic energy) ‘ke* __ 2Rhe ron (®) Potential enrgy = ~ 2 (kinetic energy) (zi When an atom makes a transition from higher energy level (E,) to lower energy level (£3), then Ey ~ E, = hy, where, v= frequency = we (vii) Kinetic energy (és) Potential energy (ei Wave number, v= = R [2 = 4 where, R is the constant called Rydberg constant = 1.097 x 10m (alii) Ionisation potential -(- &. ev n 11. Energy Level The energy of an atom is the least when its electron is revolving in an orbit closest to the nucleus i.e. for which n= 1 ‘The lowest state of the atom is called the ground state, this state has lowest energy. The energy of this state is -13.6 eV. Therefore, the minimum energy required to free the electron from the ground state of the hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. 13. (i) Emission Spectrum Hydrogen spectrum consists of discrete bright lines a dark background and it is specifically known as hydrogen emission spectrum. 12. (ii) Absorption Spectrum There is one more type of hydrogen spectrum exists where we get dark lines on the bright background, it is known as absorption spectrum. 14, The atomic hydrogen emits a line spectrum consisting of various series. 2 MARKS 1 Define ionisation energy. What is its value for a hydrogen atom? 2. Write the expression for Bohr’s radius in hydrogen atom, 3. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding to first excited state and ground state in a hydrogen atom? [Link] radius of innermost electron orbit of a hydrogen atom is 5.3 * 10-'' m, What is the radius of orbit in the second excited state? 5 Find the ratio of energies of photons produced due to transition of an electron of hydrogen atom from its (i) second permitted energy level to the first level, and (i) the highest permitted energy level to the first permitted level [Link] ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV. What are the kinetic and potential energies of electron in this state? 7. Why is the classical (Rutherford) model for an atom—of electron orbitting around the nucleus—not able to explain the atomic structure? 8, When is Ha line of the Balmer series in the emission spectrum of hydrogen atom obtained? 9. What is the maximum number of spectral lines emitted by a hydrogen atom when it is in the third excited state? MARKS 1. i) In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from 2nd excited state to the excited state and then to the ground state, Identify the spectral series to which these transitions belong (ii) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the emitted radiations in the two cases. 2. (i) In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from third excited state to the second excited state and then to the first excited state. Identify the spectral series to which these transitions belong. i) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the emitted radiations in the two cases. 3. In hydrogen atom, an electron undergoes transition from 3rd excited state to the first excited state and then to the ground state, Identify the spectral series to which these transitions belong. (ii) Find out the ratio of the wavelengths of the emitted radiations in the two cases. 4, Using Rutherford model of the atom, derive the expression for the total energy of the electron in hydrogen atom. What is the significance of total negative energy possessed by the electron? 5. Using Bohr’s postulates of the atomic model, derive the expression for radius of nth electron orbit. Hence obtain the expression for Bohr’s radius. 6. Show that the radius of the orbit in hydrogen atom varies as n°, where n is the principal quantum number of the atom. + 7, When an electron in hydrogen atom jumps from the third excited state to the ground state, how would the de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron change? CHAPTER 13: NUCLEI MIND MAP GIST - NUCLEUS Nucleus: The small, dense region consisting of protons and neutrons atthe center of an atom is the atomic nucleus. In every atom, the positive charge and mass are densely concentrated at the central core of the atom, which forms its nucleus. More than 99.9% mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus. Nucleons: The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. They are col nucleons. Atomic Mass Unit (amu) :The unit of mass used to express mass ofan atom is called atomic mass Unit, Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th of the mass of carbon (126C) atom. 1 amu or 1 u=1,660539 x10-27 kg (1) Mass of proton (mp)=1.00727 u (2) Mass of neutron (mn)=1.00866u (3) Mass of electron (me) =0.000549 u Relation between amu and MeV | amu=931 Mev Composition of Nucleus The composition ofa nucleus ean be described by using the following Atomic Number (Z) :Atomic numberof an element is the numberof protons present inside the nucleus of an atom of the clement ‘Atomic number (Z) = Number of protons = Number of electrons (in a neutral atom) Mass Number (A): Mass number of an element is the total number of protons and neutrons inside the atomic nucleus ofthe element. Mass number (A)= Number of protons(Z) +Number of neutrons(N) = Number of electrons +Number of neutrons A~Z+N Size of Nucleus: According to the scattering experiments, nuclear sizes of different elements are assumed to be spherical, so the volume of a nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number. If Ris the radius of the nucleus having mass number A, then Ro A’? R=Ro Al? ively called Where, Rj= 1.2x10“!m is the range of nuclear size. Itis also known as nuclear radius, Nuclear Density Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of nucleus and its volume, pami(4/3aR0°) 2.38x10"kg/m* where, m= average mass of one nucleon and Ro=1.2 m= 1.2x10"Sm ->The nuclear density (p) does not depend on A (mass number). Mass Defect The sum of the masses of neutrons and protons forming a nucleus is more than the actualmass of the nucleus. This difference of masses is known as mass defect. Am=Zmp+(A-Z)mn-M_ where, Z= atomic number, A= mass number, mp = mass of one proton, ‘in= mass of oneneutron and M= mass of nucleus. Mass-Energy Relation Einstein's mass-energy equivalence equation is given by E me’, ( where E is the energy and c is the speed of light =3x10* m/s and m = mass of nucleus) Nuclear Forces Short ranged (2-3 fm) strong attractive forces which hold protons and neutrons together in against of Colombian repulsive forces between positively charged particle is called nuclear force. The nuclear force between neutron-neutron, proton-neutron and proton-proton is approximately the same. The nuclear force does not depend on the electric charge. ‘Nuclear Energy When nucleons form a nucleus, the mass of nucleus is slightly less than the sum of individual masses of nucleons. This mass is stored as nuclear energy in the form of mass defect, Also, transmutation of less stable nuclei into more tightly bound nuclei provides an excellent possibility of releasing nuclear energy. Two distinct ways of obtaining energy from nucleus are Number of nucleons given below The phenomenon of splitting of heavy nuclei (usually A>230) into lighter nuclei of nearly equal masses is known as nuclear fission, ¢.. 920735 + onl seBal4l + 36Kr92 -3 on! Q ‘Nuclear Fusion The phenomenon of fusing or combining of two lighter nucle into a single heavy nucleus is called nuclear fusion, e 1H > 1 HPF el + 10.42 MeV [The energy Teleased'during nuclear fusion is known as thermonuclear energy.) Binding Energy The binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the minimum energy required to separate its nucleons and place them at rest at infinite distance apart. Using Einstein's mass-energy relation, AE~ (Ame?), the binding energy of the nucleus isAE =[Zmp + (A-Z)mn - M]c? Average Binding Energy Per Nucleon of a Nucleus = 10, 4 ae fo 1 C1 oe Ba 2 "A a % 0 100 150 200 280 Mass number ‘The binding enerey per nucleon fs a function of mass number, Itis the average energy required to extract a nucleon from the nucleus to infinite distance. Its given by ‘otal binding energy divided by the mass number of the nucleus. Binding energy curv It is @ plot of the binding energy per nucleon versus the mass number A for a large number of nuclei as shown below: Binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number :Itis used to explain phenomena of nuclear fission and fusion. Nuclear Stability The stability of a nucleus is determined by the value of its binding energy per nucleon. The constancy of the binding energy in the range 30< A n-type semiconductor doped with Pentavalent impurity atom, Examples include Phosphorus (P), Antimony (Sb), Arsenic (As). Here ne >> nh , that is the number of electrons is greater than the number of holes. s > p-type semiconductor doped with Trivalent impurities atom. Examples include Boron (B), Aluminium ( Al), Indium (In). Here nh>> ne, that is the number of holes is greater than the number of electrons. The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor in thermal equilibrium is given by me. men? P-N Junction By Considering a thin p-type silicon (p-Si) semiconductor << Hlectron aiftusion wafer and adding precisely, a small quantity of pentavalent __Elestron drt “> impurity, part of the p-Si wafer can be converted into n-Si. eee The wafer now contains p-region and n-region and a pees on metallurgical junction between p-, and n- region. eee fe <— Depletion region ‘Two important processes occur during the formation of a p- Hole diffusion = > 1 junetion are diffusion and drift. Hole drift Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small, As the diffusion process continues, the space-charge regions on either side of the junction extend, thus increasing the electric field strength and hence drift current. This process continues until the diffusion current equals the drift current. Semiconductor Diode ‘A semiconductor diode is basically a p-n jimetion with metallic contacts provided at Ee | the ends for the application of an external oss voltage. It is a two-terminal device. om Daten cnvact Symbol- “> > When an external voltage Vis applied across a si semiconductor diode such that p-side is et Comcdtohepaivecrinloticticy || ei | and n-side to the negative terminal , itis said to |] be forward biased. In forward bias, it offers very iH low resistance. waseeouy p Ssenes on > When an external voltage () is applied across the diode such that n-side is positive and p-side is negative, it is said to be reverse biased. In reverse bias, it offers very high resistance. > The ratio of forward biased to reverse biased resistance for p-n junction diode is 1041 rnc ra teem ers fone neti eae a orcad ana eae cole gg mete) y Application of Junction Diode ectifier An clectrical device that converts alternating current into direct current with the help of a diode is called a Rectifier. There are two types of rectifier: 1. Half-Wave Reetifier 2, Full: Wave Rectifier if Wave Rectifier A half-wave rectifier is defined as a type of rectifier that only allows the one-half eyele of an AC voltage and gives the pulsating DC voltage, There is only one diode in the half-wave rectifier, which helps to rectify the AC voltage to DC voltage. The average value of output direct current in a half wave rectifier is, loa. Full Wave Rectifier Full-wave rectifiers have two diodes where the first diode will conduct in the positive half eycle and other diode will conduct in the negative half eycle. It will give full pulsating DC. The average value of output direct current in a full wave rectifier is, loin The sinusoidal wave is complete and with the help of the capacitor or inductor we will filter and convert pulsating DC into constant DC. Application of Full Wave Rectifier and Half Wave Rectifier The use of a half-wave rectifier can help us achieve the desired de voltage by using step- down or step-up transformers. Moreover, to power up the motor and LED that works on DC voltage, full wave rectifiers are used 2 MARKS 1. What is the difference between an N-type and a P-type intrinsic semiconductor? 2. How does the depletion region of a p-n junction diode get affected under reverse bias? How does the width of depletion region of a p-n junction diode change under forward bias? 4 Distinguish between an intrinsic semiconductor and p-type semiconductor. Give reason, why, a p-type semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral although my >> ne? 5, With the help of circuit diagrams, distinguish between forward biasing and reverse biasing of a p-n junction diode. 6, Draw V-I characteristics of a p-n junction diode in (a) forward bias, (b) reverse bias 7. Write any two distinguishing features between conductors, semiconductors and insulators on the basis of energy band diagrams 3 MARK: 1. Three samples are given to you. One is Copper, 2" is Germanium, 3rd is Glass. Identify them as a conductor, an insulator or a semiconductor. Distinguish them on the basis of energy band diagrams. 2. A pure sample of Ge with another Ge sample which is doped with an impurity of 13% or 15" group elements with impurity concentration 1 in million, Identify and compare the properties of both samples formed. 3. A sample of Si doped with trivalent impurity and another Si sample which is doped with pentavalent impurity (each with impurity concentration 1 in million) 4, A student wants to produce 12 V d.e, from 220 V, 50 Hz a.c. signal. Firstly, he steps down the voltage from 220 V a.c. to 12 V acc. using a transformer and to convert 12 V a.c. to 12 Vdc. he uses a semiconductor device which will produce an output frequency of 100Hz. Identify that semiconductor device, Explain its underlying working principle and working with help of a circuit diagram. Depict the input and output wave forms.

You might also like