Introduction to Sustainable

Energy Engineering
Prof. Dr. Manar Salih Mahdi
Ass. Prof. Dr. Hussam Sami Deyab
THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

These processes cannot occur even though they are not in violation of the first
law.
MAJOR USES OF THE SECOND LAW
[Link] second law may be used to identify the direction of processes.
[Link] second law also asserts that energy has quality as well as
quantity. The first law is concerned with the quantity of energy and the
transformations of energy from one form to another with no regard to
its quality. The second law provides the necessary means to
determine the quality as well as the degree of degradation of energy
during a process.
[Link] second law of thermodynamics is also used in determining the
theoretical limits for the performance of commonly used engineering
systems, such as heat engines and refrigerators, as well as predicting
the degree of completion of chemical reactions.
THERMAL ENERGY RESERVOIRS
• A hypothetical body with a relatively large thermal
energy capacity (mass x specific heat) that can
supply or absorb finite amounts of heat without
undergoing any change in temperature is called a
thermal energy reservoir, or just a reservoir.
• In practice, large bodies of water such as oceans,
lakes, and rivers as well as the atmospheric air
can be modeled accurately as thermal energy
reservoirs because of their large thermal energy
storage capabilities or thermal masses.
HEAT ENGINES
HEAT ENGINES: The devices that convert heat to work.
[Link] receive heat from a high-temperature source
(solar energy, oil furnace, nuclear reactor, etc.).
[Link] convert part of this heat to work (usually in the
form of a rotating shaft.)
[Link] reject the remaining waste heat to a low-
temperature sink (the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
[Link] operate on a cycle.
Heat engines and other cyclic devices usually involve a
fluid to and from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid.
A steam power plant

Qin = amount of heat supplied to steam in boiler

from a high-temperature source (furnace)
Qout = amount of heat rejected from steam in
condenser to a low temperature sink (the
atmosphere, a river, etc.)
Wout = amount of work delivered by steam as it
expands in turbine
Win = amount of work required to compress
water to boiler pressure

Schematic of a steam power plant.

A steam power plant

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑊𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑊𝑖𝑛 (kJ)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 (kJ)

Thermal efficiency
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡
⟹ 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑄𝑖𝑛
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄𝐻
𝑄𝐿
⟹ 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑄𝐻
Thermal efficiency

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑡ℎ =
𝑄𝐻
𝑄𝐿
⟹ 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 −
𝑄𝐻
Net Power Production of a Heat Engine

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑄𝐻 − 𝑄𝐿 = 80 − 50 = 30 𝑀𝑊

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡,𝑜𝑢𝑡 30
𝜂𝑡ℎ = = = 0.375 𝑜𝑟 37.5%
𝑄𝐻 80
THERMODYNAMICS AND HEAT TRANSFER

• Heat: The form of energy that can be transferred from one

system to another as a result of temperature difference.
• Thermodynamics is concerned with the amount of heat
transfer as a system undergoes a process from one equilibrium
state to another.
• Heat Transfer deals with the determination of the rates of such
energy transfers, temperature distribution, modes of heat
transfer (conduction, convection, radiation)
Application Areas of Heat Transfer

The human body Air conditioning systems Heating systems

Electronic equipment Power plants Refrigeration systems

HEAT TRANSFER
Energy Transfer
Energy can be transferred to or from a given mass by
two mechanisms:
heat transfer and work.
• Heat transfer rate: The amount of heat transferred
per unit time. 𝐽
𝑄ሶ → = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 = 𝑊
𝑠
∆𝑡
𝑄 = ‫׬‬0 𝑄ሶ 𝑑𝑡, when 𝑄ሶ is constant, then 𝑄 = 𝑄ሶ ∆𝑡 (J)
• Heat flux: The rate of heat transfer per unit area
normal to the direction of heat transfer.
𝑄ሶ 𝑊
𝑞ሶ = → 2
𝐴 𝑚
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
1 kJ/ kg.℃ ≡ 1 J/g.℃ ≡ 1 kJ/kg. K ≡ 1J/g.K
du= cv dT and dh= cp dT
ΔU= m cavg ΔT
Δu= cv,avg ΔT and Δh= cp,avg ΔT (J/g)
ΔU= m cv,avg ΔT and ΔH= m cp,avg ΔT (J)
Specific Heats of Gases, Liquids, and Solids
Steady, rate form
𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
Rate of net energy transfer in Rate of net energy transfer out
by heat, work, and mass by heat, work, and mass

In heat transfer problems it is convenient to write a heat

balance and to treat the conversion of nuclear, chemical,
mechanical, and electrical energies into thermal energy
as heat generation.
𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸𝑔𝑒𝑛 ≡ ∆𝐸𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (J)
Net heat Heat Change in thermal
transfer Generation energy of the system
Energy Balance for Closed Systems (Fixed Mass)
A closed system consists of a fixed mass.
The total energy E for most systems encountered in
practice consists of the internal energy U.
This is especially the case for stationary systems since
they don’t involve any changes in their velocity or
elevation during a process.
Stationary closed system:
𝐸𝑖𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 (J)
Stationary closed system, no work:
𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 (J)
Energy Balance for Steady-Flow Systems
• A large number of engineering devices such as water
heaters and car radiators involve mass flow in and out of a
system, and are modeled as control volumes.
• Most control volumes are analyzed under steady operating
conditions.
• The term steady means no change with time at a specified
location.
• Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing through a
cross section of a flow device per unit time.
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌 𝑣 𝐴𝑐 (kg/s)
• Volume flow rate: The volume of a fluid flowing through a
pipe or duct per unit time.
ሶ𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐴𝑐 = 𝑚ሶ (m3/s)
𝜌
𝑄ሶ = 𝑚ሶ ∆ℎ = 𝑚ሶ 𝑐𝑝 ∆𝑇 (kJ/s)
Surface Energy Balance
A surface contains no volume or mass, and thus no
energy. Therefore, a surface can be viewed as a
fictitious system whose energy content remains
constant during a process.
Surface energy balance: 𝐸ሶ 𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡
This relation is valid for both steady and transient
conditions, and the surface energy balance does not
involve heat generation since a surface does not have
a volume.
𝑄ሶ 1 = 𝑄ሶ 2 + 𝑄ሶ 3
HEAT TRANSFER MECHANISMS
• Heat can be transferred in three basic modes:
✓ conduction
✓ convection
✓ radiation
• All modes of heat transfer require the existence of a
temperature difference.
CONDUCTION
• Conduction: The transfer of energy from the more
energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less
energetic ones as a result of interactions between the
particles.
• In gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions
and diffusion of the molecules during their random
motion.
• In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the
molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons.
CONDUCTION
Area Temperature difference
Rate of heat conduction ∝
Thickness
𝑇1 −𝑇2 ∆𝑇
ሶ
𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 = 𝑘 𝐴 = −𝑘 𝐴 (W)
∆𝑥 ∆𝑥
Fourier’s law of heat conduction

Thermal conductivity, k: A measure of the

ability of a material to conduct heat. The rate of
heat conduction through a solid is directly
proportional to its thermal conductivity.

Temperature gradient dT/dx: The slope of the

temperature curve on a T-x diagram.
CONDUCTION Thermal Conductivity
CONDUCTION
Thermal Conductivity
CONDUCTION
Thermal Conductivity

The variation of
the thermal
conductivity of
various solids,
liquids, and
gases with
temperature.
CONDUCTION
Thermal Diffusivity

cp Specific heat, J/kg · °C: Heat capacity per unit

mass
ρcp Heat capacity, J/m3·°C: Heat capacity per unit
volume
α Thermal diffusivity, m2/s: Represents how fast
heat diffuses through a material
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑘
𝛼= = (m2/s)
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 𝑐𝑝

The larger the thermal diffusivity, the faster the propagation

of heat into the medium.
CONVECTION

Convection: The mode of energy

transfer between a solid surface and
the adjacent liquid or gas that is in
motion, and it involves the combined
effects of conduction and fluid motion.
CONVECTION

The cooling of a boiled egg by forced and natural convection.

CONVECTION

𝑄ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = ℎ 𝐴 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇∞ (W) Newton’s law of cooling

h convection heat transfer coefficient, W/m2 ·°C

As the surface area through which convection heat transfer takes place
Ts the surface temperature
T∞ the temperature of the fluid sufficiently far from the surface.

Note: h is not a property of the fluid. It depends on

- the surface geometry
- the nature of fluid motion
- the properties of the fluid
- the bulk fluid velocity
CONVECTION
 RADIATION
Radiation heat transfer:
Any substance with a body temperature above the absolute zero
temperature (Tbody > 0 K) emits radiation in the form of electromagnetic
wave over a wide range of wavelength.
Only, radiation falls in range
0.1 𝜇𝑚 ≤ 𝜆 ≤ 100 𝜇𝑚
produce the sense of heat transfer and termed as Thermal Radiation.
The fundamental radiation heat transfer equation is expressed by Stefan–
Boltzmann law
RADIATION
𝑄ሶ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡,𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜎 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 (W) Stefan–Boltzmann law
𝜎 = 5.67 × 10−8 𝑊/𝑚2 𝐾 4 Stefan–Boltzmann constant
T in (K)
Blackbody: The idealized surface that emits radiation at
the maximum rate.
Blackbody radiation represents the maximum amount of
radiation that can be emitted from a surface at a specified
temperature.

Radiation emitted by real surfaces: 𝑄ሶ 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑡 = 𝜀 𝜎 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 (W)

Emissivity (ε) : A measure of how closely a surface approximates a blackbody for
which ε = 1 of the surface. 0≤ ε ≤ 1.
RADIATION
Absorptivity α: The fraction of the radiation energy incident on a surface
that is absorbed by the surface. 0≤ α ≤ 1
A blackbody absorbs the entire radiation incident on it (α = 1).
Kirchhoff’s law: The emissivity and the absorptivity of a surface at a given
temperature and wavelength are equal.
𝑄ሶ 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 = 𝛼 𝑄ሶ 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑡 (W)

The absorption of radiation incident on an opaque surface of absorptivity .

RADIATION
• Radiation is usually significant relative to conduction or natural
convection, but negligible relative to forced convection.
• When a surface is completely enclosed by a much larger (or black)
surface at temperature Tsurr separated by a gas (such as air) that does
not intervene with radiation, the net rate of radiation heat transfer
between these two surfaces is given by
𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 𝜀 𝜎 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4
(W)
When radiation and convection occur
simultaneously between a surface and a gas:
𝑄ሶ 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑄ሶ 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 + 𝑄ሶ 𝑟𝑎𝑑
= ℎ 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟 + 𝜀 𝜎 𝐴𝑠 𝑇𝑠4 − 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑟
4
SIMULTANEOUS HEAT TRANSFER
MECHANISMS
Heat transfer is only by conduction in opaque solids, but by conduction and
radiation in semitransparent solids.
A solid may involve conduction and radiation but not convection. A solid may
involve convection and/or radiation on its surfaces exposed to a fluid or other
surfaces.
Heat transfer is by conduction and possibly by radiation in a still fluid (no bulk fluid
motion) and by convection and radiation in a flowing fluid.
In the absence of radiation, heat transfer through a fluid is either by conduction or
convection, depending on the presence of any bulk fluid motion.
Convection = Conduction + Fluid motion
Heat transfer through a vacuum is by radiation.
Most gases between two solid surfaces do not interfere with radiation.
Liquids are usually strong absorbers of radiation.
Although there are three
mechanisms of heat transfer, a
medium may involve only two
of them simultaneously.