9 THERMODYNAMICS By Pika and Owen

Remark. In addition to hydrostatic equilibrium, stars also satisfy thermal equilibrium, meaning that
the energy generated in the core equals the energy radiated from the surface:

Lcore = Lsurface

where L denotes the luminosity. Stellar equilibrium refers to the combined balance of gravitational, pres-
sure, and energy-transport processes that allow a star to maintain a stable structure over long timescales.

9.3 Ideal Gas Law

The Ideal Gas Law is a fundamental equation in thermodynamics that describes the behavior of an ideal
gas. It establishes a relationship between the pressure P , volume V , temperature T , and the number of
moles of gas n. The equation is expressed as

P V = nRT

where

• P is the pressure of the gas,

• V is the volume of the gas,

• n is the number of moles of gas,

• R is the universal gas constant (R = 8.314 J/mol K),

• T is the temperature of the gas in Kelvin.

For a gas undergoing a change in volume at constant pressure, the work done by the gas is given by

W = P ∆V

9.4 First Law of Thermodynamics

It states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. It is expressed mathematically as

dU = δQ − δW

where

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• dU is the change in internal energy of the system,

• δQ is the heat added to the system,

• δW is the work done by the system.

Q ∆U W
system

Process Condition Description

Adiabatic δQ = 0 No heat exchange with surroundings;

temperature changes due to work done

Isothermal T = constant Temperature remains constant; heat

absorbed equals work done

Isobaric P = constant Pressure remains constant; volume

changes with temperature

Isochoric (Isovolumetric) V = constant No work done since volume is constant;

heat changes internal energy

Polytropic P V n = constant Generalized process covering isother-

mal, adiabatic, and isobaric cases

Cyclic Final state = Initial state Net change in internal energy over one
cycle is zero

Reversible Quasi-static with no losses Idealized process that delivers maxi-

mum possible work

Irreversible Finite gradients and friction Real processes; entropy production is

positive

Table 2: Thermodynamic processes, their conditions, and descriptions

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9.5 Second Law of Thermodynamics

Definition. 9.2: Entropy

Entropy is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. For a reversible process, the change
in entropy dS is given by the heat transferred dQ divided by the temperature T :

dQrev
dS =
T

Theorem. 9.1: Sackur–Tetrode Equation

 3/2 ! !
V 4πmE 5
S = N kB ln +
N 3h2 2

where

• S is the entropy,

• N is the number of particles,

• V is the volume,

• m is the mass of a gas particle, and

• E is the internal energy

Theorem. 9.2: Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law of thermodynamics states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase
over time.
dS ≥ 0

Theorem. 9.3: Gibbs Free Energy

The Gibbs free energy G is related to entropy through the following equation:

G = H − TS = U + PV − TS

where H is the enthalpy, T is the temperature (kept constant), P is the pressure (kept constant),
and S is the entropy.

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9.6 Heat Capacity

Definition. 9.3: Heat Capacity

The heat capacity at constant volume, CV , is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a system by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin) while maintaining constant volume.
Mathematically, it is expressed as  
∂Q
CV =
∂T V

where Q is the heat added to the system, and T is the temperature. The subscript V indicates that
the volume is held constant.

Since the system is not allowed to do any work (because the volume is fixed), the heat added to the system
only changes the internal energy:
dQ = dU

where dU is the change in internal energy.

For an ideal gas, the heat capacity at constant volume is related to the molar heat capacity CV by
 
∂U
CV =
∂T V

For an ideal gas, the internal energy U is a function of temperature alone, and the specific heat capacity
can be derived from the equation of state.

Definition. 9.4: Heat Capacity

The heat capacity at constant pressure, CP , is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of a system by one degree Celsius (or one Kelvin) while maintaining constant pressure.
Mathematically, it is expressed as  
∂Q
CP =
∂T P

where Q is the heat added to the system, and T is the temperature. The subscript P indicates that
the pressure is held constant.

In contrast to constant volume, when heat is added at constant pressure, the system may do work as it
expands. Therefore, the total heat added is the sum of the change in internal energy and the work done
by the system
dQ = dU + P dV

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For an ideal gas, the heat capacity at constant pressure is related to the molar heat capacity CP by
 
∂H
CP =
∂T P

Theorem. 9.4: Mayer’s Relation

cP − cV = nR

where n is the number of moles of the gas and R is the universal gas constant.

Proof. By the first law of thermodynamics,

dU = δQ − pdV = nCV dT

where CV is the heat capacity at constant volume, and n is the number of moles. For the heat added at
constant pressure, we use:
δQ = nCP dT

where CP is the heat capacity at constant pressure.

By the ideal gas equation of state,
pV = nRT

Differentiating this equation with respect to temperature at constant pressure:

pdV + V dp = nRdT

At constant pressure, dp = 0, so we have:

pdV = nRdT

Substitute pdV = nRdT into the equation:

nCV dT = nCP dT − nRdT

CV = CP − R =⇒ CP − CV = nR

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Definition. 9.5: Heat Capacity Ratio

Cp
γ=
CV

In an adiabatic process, there is no heat exchange with the surroundings (dQ = 0). The first law of
thermodynamics gives:
dU = −P dV

For an ideal gas, the relationship between pressure and volume during an adiabatic process is governed by
the equation:
P V γ = constant

9.7 Blackhole Thermodynamics

Black hole entropy is a measure of the amount of information that is hidden inside a black hole. The
famous Bekenstein-Hawking entropy formula links the entropy of a black hole to the area of its event
horizon, rather than its volume. This result was first derived by Jacob Bekenstein and later confirmed by
Stephen Hawking:
kB c 3 A
S=
4Gh̄
Proof. The first law of black hole thermodynamics is given by

dM = T dS + ΦdQ + ΩdJ

where M is the mass, T is the temperature, S is the entropy, Φ is the electrostatic potential, Q is the
charge, and J is the angular momentum.
For a non-rotating, uncharged Schwarzschild black hole, the first law reduces to

dM = T dS

which is similar to the first law of thermodynamics, and implies that the black hole mass is related to its
entropy via its temperature. The area of the event horizon is
 2
GM
A = 16π
c2

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Using the fact that the temperature T of a Schwarzschild black hole is given by the Hawking temperature,

h̄c3
T = (The derivation is out of scope of this note.)
8πGM

The first law dM = T dS implies

dM dM 8πGM
dS = = h̄c3 = dM
T 8πGM
h̄c3

Integrating with respect to M ,

8πGM 2
S=
h̄c3
 2
GM
Using the expression for the area A = 16π ,
c2
√
c2 A
M=
4πG

Substituting this into the entropy expression, we get

kB c 3 A
S=
4Gh̄

9.8 Kinetic Theory

9.8.1 Mean Free Path

Let the number density of the gas (the number of particles per unit volume) be n, and let the cross-sectional
area for a collision between two particles be σ. The cross-sectional area σ depends on the type of collision
and the physical properties of the particles involved. If we assume spherical particles with radius r, the
collision cross-section is given by
σ = π(2r)2 = 4πr2

Next, the relative velocity between two particles in the gas is on the order of the mean speed of the particles
vavg . The total rate of collisions per unit time per particle is

Collision rate = nσvavg

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The mean free path λ is defined as the average distance a particle travels before undergoing a collision.
The relationship between the mean free path and the collision rate is given by

1 1 1
λ= = =
Collision rate nσvavg n · 4πr2 · vavg

9.8.2 Boltzmann Distribution and Maxwell–Boltzmann Distribution

The Boltzmann distribution, also known as the Gibbs distribution, is a fundamental probability distribu-
tion in statistical mechanics that describes the statistical properties of a system in thermal equilibrium
at a fixed temperature. It provides the probability that a system will be in a particular microstate with
energy Ei when it is in contact with a heat bath at temperature T .

Formulation and Derivation Consider a system in thermal equilibrium with a large reservoir at
constant temperature T . The probability Pi of finding the system in a particular microstate i with energy
Ei is given by
1 −βEi
Pi = e
Z
where
1
• β= is the thermodynamic beta
kB T
X
• Z= e−βEi is the partition function
i
X
The partition function Z serves as a normalization constant ensuring that Pi = 1. It contains all
i
thermodynamic information about the system.
Proof. Statistical mechanics often uses the principle of maximum entropy. The entropy of a discrete set
of probabilities {Pi } is
X
S = −kB Pi ln Pi
i

as S = kB ln Ω (where Ω is the number of micro-states by Statistical Mechanics). We want to maximize S

subject to the constraints:

X
Pi = 1 (normalization)
i
X
Pi Ei = hEi (average energy fixed)
i

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Using Lagrange multipliers α and β, define

! !
X X X
L = −kB Pi ln Pi − α Pi − 1 −β Pi Ei − hEi
i i i

Setting the derivative with respect to Pi to zero:

∂L
= −kB (ln Pi + 1) − α − βEi = 0
∂Pi

which gives
Pi = e−1−α/kB e−βEi /kB
X
Defining Z = e1+α/kB = e−βEi /kB , we get the familiar form:
i

e−βEi
Pi =
Z

Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution describes the statistical dis-

tribution of speeds (or velocities) of particles in an ideal gas at thermal equilibrium. It is a special case of
the Boltzmann distribution applied to the translational kinetic energy of non-interacting particles.
For an ideal gas of N identical particles of mass m at temperature T , the probability density function for
finding a particle with velocity v = (vx , vy , vz ) is

 3/2  
m m|v|2
f (v) = exp −
2πkB T 2kB T

This three-dimensional distribution factorizes as f (v) = f (vx )f (vy )f (vz ), where each component distribu-
tion is Gaussian r  
m mvα2
f (vα ) = exp − , α = x, y, z
2πkB T 2kB T
More commonly used is the distribution of speeds v = |v|, obtained by integrating over all directions in
velocity space:
 3/2  
m mv 2
f (v) = 4πv 2
exp −
2πkB T 2kB T
The factor 4πv 2 arises from the spherical shell volume element in velocity space.
Proof. Consider an ideal gas with N particles in thermal equilibrium at temperature T . Each particle
has a mass m and a velocity vector v = (vx , vy , vz ). The total energy of a particle is purely kinetic:

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1
E = m(vx2 + vy2 + vz2 )
2
According to the Boltzmann distribution, the probability of a particle having energy E is

P (E) ∝ e−E/kB T

Note that
P (vx , vy , vz ) = f (vx )f (vy )f (vz )

f (vi ) = Ae− 2 mvi /kB T ,

1 2
i = x, y, z

As ˆ ˆ
∞ ∞ 2
mvx
− 2k
f (vx ) dvx = 1, Ae BT dvx = 1
−∞ −∞

and by ˆ r
∞
−ax2 π
e dx =
−∞ a
we have r r
2πkB T m
A =1 =⇒ A=
m 2πkB T
Hence,
r 2
m −
mvi
f (vi ) = e 2kB T
2πkB T

The speed of a particle is

q
v = vx2 + vy2 + vz2

The probability density function of speeds, F (v), can be obtained by transforming to spherical coordinates
in velocity space:
F (v)dv = 4πv 2 f (vx )f (vy )f (vz )dv

Hence,
 3/2
m − 2k
mv2

F (v) = 4π v2e B T
2πkB T

Three important characteristic speeds are derived from this distribution:

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1. Most probable speed (mode):

r r
2kB T 2RT
vmp = =
m M

2. Mean speed: r r
8kB T 8RT
hvi = =
πm πM

3. Root-mean-square speed: r r
3kB T 3RT
vrms = =
m M

where R = NA kB is the gas constant and M = NA m is the molar mass.

9.9 Boundary Conditions

Solving the stellar structure equations requires proper boundary conditions:

• At the Center (r = 0):

M (0) = 0, L(0) = 0

• At the Surface (r = R):

P (R) = Psurface ≈ 0, T (R) = Teff

These conditions ensure the solution matches physical reality: zero mass at the center, and finite temper-
ature and pressure at the surface.

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9.10 Case Study

z

dr
rdθ

θ dθ

ϕ dϕ y

dϕ
x r sin θ

Suppose a static spherical star consists of N neutral particles with radius R with 0 ≤ θ ≤ π, 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π,
satisfying the following equation of states

TR − T0
P V = Nk (1)
ln(TR /T0 )

where P and V are the pressure inside the star and the volume of the star respectively, k is the Boltzmann
constant, TR and T0 are the temperatures at the surface r = R and the temperature at the center r = 0
respectively. Assume that TR ≤ T0 .

(a) Simplify the stellar equation of state (1) if ∆T = TR − T0 → 0 (this is called ideal star) (Hint: Use
the approximation ln(1 + x) ≈ x for small x).

Suppose the star undergoes a quasi-static process, in which it may slightly contract or expand, such
that the above stellar equation of state (1) still holds.

The star satisfies the first law of thermodynamics:

Q = ∆M c2 + W (2)

where Q, M , and W are heat, mass of the star, and work respectively, while c is the light speed in
the vacuum and ∆M = Mfinal − Minitial .

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In the following, we assume T0 to be constant, while TR ≡ T varies.

(b) Find the heat capacity of the star at constant volume CV and at constant pressure CP , expressed in
CP and CV (Hint: Use the approximation (1 + x)n ≈ 1 + nx for small x).

Assuming that CP is constant and the gas undergoes the isobaric process so the star produces the
heat and radiates it outside to the space.

(c) Find the heat produced by the isobaric process if the initial temperature and the final temperature
are Ti and Tf , respectively.

(d) For the next parts, assume the star is the Sun.

(e) If the sunlight is monochromatic with frequency 5×1014 Hz, estimate the number of photons radiated
by the Sun per second.

(f) Calculate the heat capacity CP of the Sun assuming its surface temperature varies from 5500 K to
6000 K in one second.

Solution.

(a) Defining ∆T = Tf − T0 and ∆T ≈ 0, we have

P ∆V ∆T
=
Nk ln(1 + ∆T /T0 )

Using ln(1 + ∆T /T0 ) ≈ ∆T /T0 , we then obtain

P ∆V
= T0
Nk

(b) The internal energy of the star is U = M c2 (U (T ) = M (T )c2 for ideal star). Hence, the constant
volume heat capacity of the star has the form:
   
∆Q ∆M
CV = = c2
∆T V ∆T V

for small ∆T . Then, using first law of thermodynamics, the constant pressure heat capacity of the
star is    
∆Q ∆M ∆V ∆V
CP = = c2 + P = CV + P
∆T P ∆T V ∆T ∆T

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for small ∆T . Defining ∆T = T2 − T1 , then

P ∆V T1 − T0 + ∆T T1 − T0
= −
Nk ln((T1 + ∆T )/T0 ) ln(T1 /T0 )
Using the approximation  
T1 ∆T
ln((T1 + ∆T )/T0 ) ≈ ln +
T0 T1
1 1 1 ∆T
≈ − 2
ln((T1 + ∆T )/T0 ) ln(T1 /T0 ) T1 ln(T1 /T0 ) T1
then we have  
P ∆V 1 (T − T0 )/T
≈ Nk 1 −
∆T ln(T /T0 ) ln(T /T0 )
where T1 = T . Finally, we obtain
     
∆Q ∆M ∆V Nk (T − T0 )/T
CP = = 2
c +P = CV + 1−
∆T P ∆T V ∆T ln(T /T0 ) ln(T /T0 )

(c) Since CV is constant, the heat produced by the star is given by

QH = CV (Tf − Ti ) + P ∆V
 
Tf − T0 Ti − T0
QH = CV (Tf − Ti ) + N k −
ln(Tf /T0 ) ln(Ti /T0 )

(d) Energy per second radiated by the Sun Ė = L⊙ = N hν where N is the number of photons. Hence

L⊙ 3.90 × 1026
N= = = 1.195 × 1045 photons
hν 6.626 × 10−34 × 5 × 1014

(e) Energy per second radiated by the Sun is proportional to mass defect of the Sun

∆M c2
L⊙ =
∆t

Hence,
∆M c2 3.96 × 1026 1 3.96 × 1026
CV = = ≈ J/K = 7.92 × 1023 J/K
L⊙ ∆T L⊙
∆t
6000 − 5500

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10 SPECTROSCOPY By Pika and Owen

10 Spectroscopy

10.1 Basic Concepts

• (Spectrum) The diffraction of light produces a spectrum, which can be observed as a series of
bright and dark fringes.

thermal
radiation
−6 −4 −2
10 10 10 1 102 104 106
Ultra-
violet
cosmic Gamma
X-rays infrared radio waves
rays rays

10−5 10−3 10−1 101 103 105

Visible Spectrum

0.38 0.48 0.58 0.68 0.78

blue green yellow red

• (Absorption) Absorption occurs when atoms or molecules in a celestial object absorb photons of
specific energies, raising electrons to higher energy levels.

• (Emission) Emission occurs when excited electrons drop to lower energy levels, releasing photons
of specific energies, forming emission lines.

Ephoton = Eupper − Elower

This leads to absorption lines in the spectrum.

(4) Spectral lines reveal chemical composition, temperature, pressure, and velocity fields (via Doppler
shifts).

(5) (Scattering) Scattering occurs when photons interact with particles, changing direction and some-
times energy:

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– Rayleigh scattering: Elastic scattering by particles much smaller than wavelength.

– Thomson scattering: Elastic scattering by free electrons.

– Compton scattering: Inelastic scattering, photon loses energy. There is a relation derived
by Compton:
h
λ′ − λ = (1 − cos θ)
me c

where

(i) λ is the initial wavelength of the photon,

(ii) λ′ is the wavelength of the scattered photon,

(iii) h is Planck’s constant,

(iv) me is the mass of the electron,

(v) c is the speed of light,

(vi) θ is the scattering angle, which is the angle between the direction of the incident and
scattered photon.

(6) (Splitting) Splitting occurs when a single spectral line divides into multiple components due to
external or internal interactions. The Zeeman effect is the splitting of spectral lines in the presence
of a magnetic field B. For transitions with no spin, a single spectral line splits into three components:

∆E = ml µB B, ml = 0, ±1

where µB is the Bohr magneton, B is the magnetic field strength, and ml is the magnetic quantum
number.
The Stark effect is the splitting of spectral lines due to an external electric field E:

∆E ∝ E

(7) (Broadening) Broadening refers to the widening of spectral lines beyond their natural linewidth.

– Due to the finite lifetime τ of excited states, spectral lines have an intrinsic width governed by
the uncertainty principle.

– Stellar rotation causes line broadening due to different Doppler shifts across the stellar disk.

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10.2 Spectral Radiance

The spectral radiance (power emitted per unit area per unit solid angle per unit wavelength) is given by
Planck’s law:
2hc2 1
Bλ (T ) = 5
λ e hc/(λk BT ) − 1

where λ is the wavelength.

Astronomy has evolved from visible-light observations to encompass the entire electromagnetic (EM)
spectrum. Each wavelength band reveals unique astrophysical phenomena, as expressed by Planck’s law.

Band Wavelength Energy Range Temperature (K) Primary Sources

Range

Radio > 10 cm < 1.24 × 10−5 eV < 0.1 Cold gas, pulsars

Microwave 1 mm – 10 cm 1.24 × 10−5 eV – 0.1 – 10 CMB, molecular

1.24 × 10−3 eV clouds

Infrared 700 nm – 1 mm 1.24 × 10−3 eV – 10 – 104 Dust, planets, cool

1.77 eV stars

Visible 400 nm – 700 nm 1.77 eV – 3.1 eV 104 Stars, galaxies, neb-

ulae

Ultraviolet 10 nm – 400 nm 3.1 eV – 124 eV 104 – 105 Hot stars, quasars

X-ray 0.01 nm – 10 nm 124 eV – 124 keV 105 – 108 Black holes, super-
novae

Gamma-ray < 0.01 nm > 124 keV > 108 GRBs, nuclear pro-
cesses

Figure 8: Electromagnetic spectrum bands in astronomy

Limiting cases:

• Rayleigh-Jeans Law (long wavelengths, hc  λkB T ):

2ckB T
Bλ (T ) ≈
λ4

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• Wien’s Law (short wavelengths, hc  λkB T ):

2hc2 −hc/(λkB T )
Bλ (T ) ≈ e
λ5

The wavelength at which the emission is maximum:

λmax T ≈ 2.898 × 10−3 m K (Wien’s Displacement Law)

10.3 Stefan–Boltzmann law

j ∗ = σT 4

where

• j ∗ is the total radiative flux (power per unit area, (W/m2 )),

• T is the absolute temperature of the blackbody in Kelvin (K),

• σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant:

σ = 5.670374419 × 10−8 Wm−2 K−4

For a real object with emissivity (ϵ) (0 ≤ ϵ ≤ 1), the law generalizes to

j = ϵσT 4

Proof. The total radiated power per unit area is obtained by integrating over all frequencies and solid
angles from Planck’s law:
ˆ ∞ ˆ
∗
j = B(ν, T ) cos θdΩdν
ˆ
0
∞
Ω

=π B(ν, T )dν
0

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hν
Let x = .
kB T
ˆ
∗ 2πh ∞ ν3
j = 2 dν
c ehν/kB T − 1
0
ˆ
2π(kB T )4 ∞ x3
= dx
h 3 c2 0 ex − 1

π4
The integral evaluates to , giving
15
2π 5 kB
4
j ∗ = σT 4 , σ=
15h3 c2

10.4 Doppler’s Effect

The Doppler effect is a fundamental phenomenon in wave physics where the observed frequency of a
wave changes due to relative motion between the source and observer.
For non-relativistic speeds (v  c), where c is the speed of light:

fsrc
fobs = vs (Source Moving, Observer Stationary)
1±
c

where + for receding source, − for approaching source.

 vo 
fobs = fsrc 1 ± (Observer Moving, Source Stationary)
c
In astrophysics, we typically measure the radial velocity vr through the wavelength shift:

∆λ λobs − λ0 vr
= =
λ0 λ0 c

where

• λ0 represents the rest wavelength,

• λobs represents the observed wavelength, and

• vr represents the radial velocity which is the motion of a star along the line of sight.1 (positive for
recession)
q
1 2 2
The total velocity of a star is given by v = vradial + vtangential where vradial is the radial velocity, and vtangential is
the tangential velocity, which can be derived from proper motion and distance. Proper motion refers to the angular
movement of a star across the sky, usually measured in arcseconds per year.

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For astronomical objects moving at significant fractions of light speed, we must use the relativistic formula:
s s
λobs 1+β fobs 1−β
= or =
λ0 1−β f0 1+β

The redshift z is defined as

λobs − λ0 ∆λ
z= =
λ0 λ0
For relativistic speeds, s
1+β
1+z =
1−β

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11 ELECTROMAGNETISM By Pika and Owen

11 Electromagnetism

11.1 Lorentz’s Force

The Lorentz force law describes the force exerted on a charged particle moving through an electromagnetic
field. It is given by
F = q(E + v × B)

• F is the force on the charged particle,

• q is the charge of the particle,

• E is the electric field,

• v is the velocity of the particle, and

• B is the magnetic field.

11.2 Maxwell’s Equation

Definition. 11.1: Del Operator

∂ ∂ ∂
For continuously differentiable vector field F = Fx i + Fy j + Fz k, define ∇ = + + . Then
∂x ∂y ∂z
     
∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx ∂Fz ∂Fy ∂Fx
∇·F= + + and ∇ × F = − i+ − j+ − k
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

which ∇ · F measures the net flow of the field out of an infinitesimally small volume around a point.

Theorem. 11.1: Differential Form of Maxwell’s Equation

For free charge density ρ (S.I. unit: C/m3 ) and free current density J (S.I. unit: A/m2 ),

ρ
∇·E= (Gauss’s Law for Electricity)
ϵ0
∇·B=0 (Gauss’s Law for Magnetism)
∂B
∇×E=− (Faraday’s Law of Induction)
∂t
∂E
∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 ϵ 0 (Ampère-Maxwell Law)
∂t

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Theorem. 11.2: Integral Form of Maxwell’s Equation

For free charge density ρ and free current density J, the Maxwell’s equations in integral form are:
ˆ ˆ
1
E · dA = ρ dV (Gauss’s Law for Electricity)
ϵ0
ˆ S V

B · dA = 0 (Gauss’s Law for Magnetism)

˛S ˆ
d
E · dl = − B · dA (Faraday’s Law of Induction)
dt
˛ C
ˆ S
ˆ
d
B · dl = µ0 J · dA + µ0 ϵ0 E · dA (Ampère-Maxwell Law)
C S dt S

11.3 Poynting Vector

The Poynting vector describes the directional energy flux (the energy transfer per unit area per unit time)
or power flow of an electromagnetic field. It is given by

1
S= E×B
µ0

where

• S is the Poynting vector,

• E is the electric field, and

• B is the magnetic field.

11.4 Optics

11.4.1 Wavefunction

The displacement of a point on a string in simple harmonic motion can be modeled by a sinusoidal function.
The solution to the wave equation for a string under tension is:

ϕ(x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt + δ)

where

• A is the amplitude of the wave,

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2π
• k= is the wave number (with λ being the wavelength),
λ
• ω = 2πf is the angular frequency (with f being the frequency), and

• δ is a phase constant.

11.4.2 Lens

Theorem. 11.3: Refractive Index

The refractive index of a medium is defined as the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the
phase velocity of light in the medium:
c
n≡
v

Without free charge, Ampère’s law states that

∂E
∇ × B = µε
∂t

Take the curl of Faraday’s law:

∂
∇ × (∇ × E) = − (∇ × B)
∂t
Substituting the expression for ∇ × B yields

∂ 2E
∇ × (∇ × E) = −µε
∂t2

Using the vector identity

∇ × (∇ × E) = ∇(∇ · E) − ∇2 E

and Gauss’s law, we obtain

∂ 2E
−∇2 E = −µε
∂t2
∂ 2E
∇2 E = µε
∂t2
The standard wave equation for a field E propagating with speed v is

1 ∂ 2E
∇2 E =
v 2 ∂t2

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Comparing with the equation above, we identify

1
= µε
v2

Therefore, the speed of electromagnetic waves in the medium is

1
v=√
µε

1 √ ϵ
For speed of light, c = √ . Then n = ϵr µr where ϵr = is the relative permittivity (dielectric
ϵ 0 µ0 ϵ0
µ √
constant) of the medium and µr = is the relative permeability of the medium. For µr ≈ 1, n ≈ ϵr .
µ0

Theorem. 11.4: Snell’s Law

Consider an interface between two homogeneous, isotropic media with refractive indices n1 and n2 .
Let θ1 and θ2 denote the angles that the incident and refracted rays make with the normal to the
interface, respectively. Snell’s law states that

n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ2

Theorem. 11.5: Lens Formula

1 1 1
= +
f v u
where

• f is the focal length of the lens, which is the distance from the optical element (lens or mirror)
to the point where light converges to form an image and determines the magnification and
field of view of the telescope,

• u is the object distance (distance from the object to the lens), and

• v is the image distance (distance from the lens to the image).

The most widely used convention is the Cartesian sign convention:

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Parameter Sign Convention

Object distance (u) Negative (for real objects)

Image distance (v) Positive (for real images)

Negative (for virtual images)

Focal length (f ) Positive (for convex/ converging lenses)

Negative (for concave/ diverging lenses)

Height of object (ho ) Positive (upward from principal axis)

Height of image (hi ) Positive (upward from principal axis)

Negative (downward from principal axis)

Table 3: Sign conventions for lens formula

Definition. 11.2: Optical Power

For a lens with focal length f , the power is given by

1
P =
f

Theorem. 11.6: Combination of Thin Lens

X
For two or more thin lenses close together, the effective power is given by P.

Theorem. 11.7: Lens Maker’s Equation

 
1 1 1 (n − 1)d
= (n − 1) − +
f R1 R2 nR1 R2
where

• f is the focal length of the lens,

• n is the refractive index of the lens material,

• R1 is the radius of curvature of the first surface of the lens,

• R2 is the radius of curvature of the second surface of the lens,

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• d is the thickness of the lens.

Proof. We will derive the case of thin lens where d → 0.

Consider a spherical refracting surface with radius of curvature R separating two media with refractive
indices n1 and n2 . Let C be the center of curvature and V be the vertex of the spherical surface. We
use the sign convention:

• Distances measured from V

• R > 0 if C is to the right of V (convex toward object)

• Object distance u = −so (negative if object is left of V )

• Image distance v = si (positive if image is right of V )

Using the paraxial (small-angle) approximation:

sin θ ≈ θ, tan θ ≈ θ

for rays making small angles with the optical axis.

Consider a point object O on the optical axis, sending a ray to point A on the spherical surface at height
h above the axis. From triangle OAC,

Angle of incidence: θ1 = α + ϕ

From triangle IAC,

Angle of refraction: θ2 = ϕ − β

where
h h h
α≈ , β≈ , ϕ≈
−u v R
with u = −so < 0, v > 0, and R as given.
Snell’s law in paraxial form:
n 1 θ1 = n 2 θ2

Substituting:
n1 (α + ϕ) = n2 (ϕ − β)

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h h h h
n1 + = n2 −
−u R R v
   
1 1 1 1
n1 + = n2 −
−u R R v
Rewriting with Cartesian sign convention (u = −so , v = si , R signed):

n2 n1 n2 − n1
− =
v u R

Consider a thin lens of refractive index nl surrounded by medium nm . The lens has:

• First spherical surface: radius R1 (center C1 )

• Second spherical surface: radius R2 (center C2 )

• Thickness negligible compared to object/image distances (thin lens approximation)

Sign convention:

• Light travels left to right

• R > 0 if center of curvature is to the right of surface

• Object distance so > 0 (real object left of lens)

• Image distance si > 0 (real image right of lens)

From medium 1 nm to medium 2 nl ,

nl nm nl − nm
− =
v1 (−so ) R1
Since u1 = −so ,
nl nm nl − nm
+ = (*)
v1 so R1
From medium 1 nl to medium 2 nm , the object for second surface is the image from first surface. For thin
lens, object distance is −v1 .
nm nl nm − nl
− =
si (−v1 ) R2
nm nl nm − nl
+ = (**)
si v1 R2
nl nl − nm nm nl nm − nl nm nl
From (*), = − . From (**), = − . Equating both expressions for and
v1 R1 so v1 R2 si v1
simplifying gives  
nm nm 1 1
− = (nl − nm ) −
so si R2 R1

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For si = f (image at focal point),  

1 nl − nm 1 1
= −
f nm R1 R2
Let nm = 1 and nl = n.
 
1 1 1
= (n − 1) −
f R1 R2

11.5 Diffraction and Interference

11.5.1 Principle of Superposition

The principle of superposition states that when two or more waves overlap in space, the resultant
displacement at any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the individual displacements at that point. Let
two harmonic waves be given by

y1 (x, t) = A1 sin(kx − ωt + ϕ1 )

y2 (x, t) = A2 sin(kx − ωt + ϕ2 )

According to the principle of superposition, the resultant wave is

y(x, t) = y1 (x, t) + y2 (x, t)

= A1 sin(kx − ωt + ϕ1 ) + A2 sin(kx − ωt + ϕ2 )

Using the trigonometric identity

α+β α−β
sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2

we get
   
ϕ2 − ϕ1 ϕ1 + ϕ2
y(x, t) = 2A cos sin kx − ωt +
2 2

where A is the effective amplitude.

• Constructive interference occurs when ϕ2 − ϕ1 = 2nπ.

• Destructive interference occurs when ϕ2 − ϕ1 = (2n + 1)π.

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11.5.2 Complex Number

Recall that a complex number z is written as

z = x + iy

√
where x is the real part, y is the imaginary part, and i = −1.

Theorem. 11.8: Euler’s Formula

eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ

This is extremely useful in wave physics because oscillating quantities like A cos(ωt + ϕ) can be represented
as the real part of a complex exponential:

A cos(ωt + ϕ) = R(Aei(ωt+ϕ) )

11.5.3 Young’s Double-Slit Experiment

Consider two slits separated by distance d illuminated by coherent light of wavelength λ. At a point on
a screen at distance L, the path difference (which is defined as the difference in the distance traveled by
two waves from their respective sources to a common point.) is

δ = d sin θ

where θ is the angle from the central maximum.

The condition for constructive interference (bright fringes) is

d sin θ = mλ, m = 0, ±1, ±2, . . .

For destructive interference (dark fringes),

 
1
d sin θ = m+ λ
2

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x
For small angles, sin θ ≈ tan θ = , where x is the fringe displacement. Then the fringe width is
L

λL
∆x =
d

11.5.4 Single-Slit Diffraction

Diffraction refers to the bending of waves around obstacles and apertures. Consider a slit of width a. The
condition for minima in the diffraction pattern is

a sin θ = mλ, m = ±1, ±2, . . .

The central maximum is twice as wide as the secondary maxima. The intensity at angle θ is given by
 2
sin(β) πa sin θ
I(θ) = I0 , β=
β λ

11.5.5 Rayleigh’s Criteria

Two point sources are said to be just resolved if the central maximum of one diffraction pattern coincides
with the first minimum of the other. The Rayleigh criterion gives the limit at which two point sources can
be resolved:
λ
θR = 1.22
D
Proof. Consider a circular aperture of diameter D. For monochromatic light of wavelength λ, the far-field
(Fraunhofer) diffraction pattern of a point source is the Airy pattern, whose intensity is given by

 2
2J1 (ka sin θ)
I(θ) = I0
ka sin θ

where a = D/2, k = 2π/λ, J1 is called the Bessel function of the first kind of order 12 , and θ is the angular
distance from the optical axis.
The first zero of J1 (x) occurs at x ≈ 3.8317. Let x = ka sin θ. Then

2πa
ka sin θmin = 3.8317 =⇒ sin θmin = 3.8317
λ
d2 y dy X∞
(−1)m  x 2m+1
2
which is the solution to x2 2 + x + (x2 − 1)y = 0 in the form of J1 (x) = where
dx dx m! Γ(m + 2) 2
ˆ ∞ m=0

Γ(z) = xz−1 e−x dx for R(z) > 0

0

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Hence,
3.8317λ 1.22λ
sin θmin ≈ ≈
2π(D/2) D
For small angles (θ in radians),
1.22λ
θmin ≈
D
This θmin is the angular radius of the Airy disk (to the first dark ring).

11.6 Polarization

11.6.1 Introduction

Polarization describes the direction in which the electric field vector of a light wave oscillates. Light can
be

• Unpolarized: The electric field points in random directions (like sunlight).

• Linearly polarized: The electric field oscillates in a single direction.

• Circularly polarized: The electric field rotates in a circle as light travels.

• Elliptically polarized: A general case where the electric field traces an ellipse.
v

unpola
rized
polariz
er
linearly
polariz analyzer
ed
E0 linearly
polariz
ed
E0 cos θ

There are some methods for polarization:

• Polarization by Reflection: When light is reflected at a certain angle (Brewster’s angle, θB ), the
reflected light becomes completely polarized:

n2
tan θB =
n1

where n1 and n2 are refractive indices of the two media.

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• Polarization by Absorption: Polarizing filters only allow electric field components in a particular
direction to pass through. When linearly polarized light passes through a polarizing filter, the
transmitted intensity I is given by

I = I0 cos2 θ (Malus’s Law)

where

– I0 is the initial intensity of the light.

– θ is the angle between the light’s polarization direction and the axis of the polarizer.

11.6.2 Faraday’s Rotation

The Faraday effect, or Faraday rotation, is a magneto-optic phenomenon where the plane of polarization
of linearly polarized light is rotated when the light propagates through a material subjected to a strong,
static magnetic field aligned in the direction of propagation. This effect is one of the first historical pieces
of evidence linking light with electromagnetism.
When linearly polarized light passes through a transparent material of length L that is immersed in a
magnetic field B (parallel to the direction of propagation), the angle of rotation β of the polarization plane
is given by
β = V BL

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12 Quantum Mechanics

12.1 Atomic Structure

12.1.1 Historical Development

• Thomson’s Model (1897): ”Plum pudding” model with electrons embedded in positive charge

• Rutherford’s Model (1911): Nuclear model from alpha scattering experiments

• Bohr’s Model (1913): Quantized electron orbits

• Quantum Mechanical Model: Electron clouds/orbitals

12.1.2 Introduction

The atom consists of

• Nucleus: Protons (p+ ) and neutrons (n)

• Electrons: Negatively charged particles in orbitals

Particle Symbol Charge Mass (u)

Proton p or 11 H +1 1.007276

Neutron n 0 1.008665

Electron e− -1 0.000549

Table 4: Basic atomic particles

For an element X,
A
ZX

where

• A is the mass number (protons + neutrons),

• Z is the atomic number (number of protons), and

• we can define N to be neutron number (N = A − Z)

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12
Example. 6 C6 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
The actual mass of a nucleus is less than the sum of its constituent particles:

∆m = (Zmp + N mn ) − mnucleus

where

• ∆m represents the mass defect,

• mp represents the mass of proton,

• mn represents the mass of neutron, and

• mnucleus represents the measured nuclear mass.

According to Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence

E = mc2

The binding energy is

BE = ∆m · c2

More conveniently, using atomic mass units (u) where 1 u = 931.5 MeV/c2 :

BE (MeV) = ∆m (u) × 931.5

12.1.3 Nuclear Decay

Type Emitted Particle Change in Nucleus Penetration

Alpha (α) 4
2 He nucleus Z → Z − 2, A → A − 4 Low

Beta (β − ) Electron (e− ) n → p + e− + ν̄ Medium

Beta (β + ) Positron (e+ ) p → n + e+ + ν Medium

Gamma (γ) Photon (γ) No change in Z or A High

Table 5: Types of radioactive decay

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Radioactive decay follows first-order kinetics:

N (t) = N0 e−λt

where

• N (t) represents the number of nuclei at time t,

• N0 represents the initial number of nuclei, and

ln 2
• λ= represents the decay constant where t1/2 is half-life (time for half the nuclei to decay).
t1/2

12.1.4 Neutrinos

Introductionn Neutrinos are elementary particles that are part of the lepton family. They are electri-
cally neutral and have an extremely small mass, making them very difficult to detect. Neutrinos interact
only through weak nuclear force and gravity, which is why they pass through matter almost unaffected.
The three types of neutrinos correspond to their associated charged leptons:

• Electron neutrino (νe )

• Muon neutrino (νµ )

• Tau neutrino (ντ )

These particles are produced in various high-energy processes, such as nuclear reactions in the Sun and
other stars, as well as in cosmic ray interactions and supernovae.

Solar Neutrinos The Sun is a primary source of neutrinos, particularly electron neutrinos (νe ). These
solar neutrinos are produced during nuclear fusion processes that take place in the Sun’s core. The
dominant fusion reaction in the Sun is the proton-proton chain, which is responsible for the majority of
the energy production. In this process, four protons fuse to form a helium nucleus, releasing energy in the
form of gamma rays, neutrinos, and positrons.
The overall process can be written as

4 p −→ 4
He + 2 e+ + 2 νe + γ

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12.2 Wave-Particle Duality

Louis de Broglie proposed that all matter has wave-like properties. The de Broglie wavelength is given by

h
λ=
p

where

• λ is the de Broglie wavelength,

• h = 6.626 × 10−34 J s is Planck’s constant, and

• p is the particle’s momentum.

12.3 Planck’s Equation

For electromagnetic waves of frequency ν, the energy of photon is given by

E = hν

12.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom

12.4.1 Bohr Postulates

1. The electron moves in circular orbits around the proton due to Coulomb attraction.

2. Only certain discrete orbits are allowed.

3. The angular momentum of the electron is quantized.

4. Radiation is emitted or absorbed only during transitions between allowed orbits.

12.4.2 Formulas

The electrostatic force between the proton and electron is

1 e2
F =
4πε0 r2

For circular motion, the centripetal force is

mv 2
F =
r
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Equating the two,

mv 2 1 e2
=
r 4πε0 r2
Solving for velocity,
1 e2
v2 =
4πε0 mr
Bohr postulated
L = mvr = nh̄ n = 1, 2, 3, . . .

Solving for velocity,

nh̄
v=
mr
Substitute the expression for v:  2
nh̄ 1 e2
=
mr 4πε0 mr
Solving for r,
4πε0 h̄2 2
rn = n
me2
Define the Bohr radius
4πε0 h̄2
a0 =
me2
Hence,
r n = a0 n 2

The total energy is

1 1 e2
E = K + U = mv 2 −
2 4πε0 r
Note that
1 1 e2
K=
2 4πε0 r
Hence, the total energy becomes
1 1 e2
E=−
2 4πε0 r
Substituting rn ,
me4 1 −13.6 eV
En = − 2 2
=
2(4πε0 )2 h̄ n n2

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12.4.3 Wavefunction

In quantum mechanics, the state of a particle is fully described by a complex-valued function called the
wavefunction, denoted by ψ(x, t). The wavefunction contains all the measurable information about the
system.
The physical interpretation of the wavefunction is given by the Born rule, which states that the probability
density of finding a particle at position x at time t is

P (x, t) = |ψ(x, t)|2

Since the particle must be found somewhere in space, the total probability of finding the particle over all
space must be equal to one. This requirement leads to the normalisation condition:
ˆ ∞
|ψ(x, t)|2 dx = 1
−∞

If a wavefunction does not initially satisfy this condition, it can be normalised by introducing a constant
A such that
Ψ(x, t) = Aψ(x, t)

where the constant A is chosen to ensure the normalisation condition is satisfied.

12.4.4 Time-Independent Schrödinger Equation

The Schrödinger equation is

h̄2 2
− ∇ ψ + V (r)ψ = Eψ
2m
with the Coulomb potential
1 e2
V (r) = −
4πε0 r
Using separation of variables,
ψ(r, θ, ϕ) = R(r)Yℓm (θ, ϕ)

the radial equation becomes

   
d2 R 2 dR 2m e2 ℓ(ℓ + 1)
+ + E+ − R=0
dr2 r dr h̄2 4πε0 r r2

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For large r, the Coulomb term becomes negligible, yielding

d2 R
− κ2 R = 0
dr2

where r
2mE
κ= −
h̄2
The physically acceptable solution is
R(r) ∼ e−κr

For small r, the equation has solution

R(r) ∼ rℓ

Motivated by the asymptotic behavior, write

R(r) = rℓ e−κr F (r)

Define a dimensionless variable

ρ = 2κr

and substitute into the radial equation to obtain

 
d2 F dF me2
ρ 2 + (2ℓ + 2 − ρ) + −ℓ−1 F =0
dρ dρ 2πε0 h̄2 κ

Assume a power series

X
∞
F (ρ) = ak ρ k
k=0

Substitution yields the recursion relation

me2
k+ℓ+1− 2πε0 h̄2 κ
ak+1 = ak
(k + 1)(k + 2ℓ + 2)

For the wavefunction to remain normalizable, the series must terminate. Hence, there exists an integer nr
such that
me2
= nr + ℓ + 1
2πε0 h̄2 κ
Define the principal quantum number
n = nr + ℓ + 1

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Solving for energy,

me4 1
En = − 2
2(4πε0 )2 h̄ n2

12.5 Rydberg Formula

The wavelength λ of the emitted or absorbed light in a hydrogen atom is given by

 
1 1 1
= R∞ 2
− 2
λ n1 n2

where

• λ is the wavelength of the light,

• R∞ is the Rydberg constant for hydrogen, approximately R∞ = 1.097 × 107 m−1 , and

• n1 and n2 are positive integers, with n2 > n1 .

Proof. According to the Bohr model, the energy levels of a hydrogen atom are quantized and given by

13.6 eV
En = −
n2

When an electron transitions from a higher energy level n2 to a lower energy level n1 , the energy difference
∆E is given by
13.6 eV 13.6 eV
∆E = En1 − En2 = − +
n21 n22
The energy of the emitted photon when the electron undergoes a transition is

Ephoton = ∆E = hν

The frequency ν of the emitted photon is related to the wavelength λ by

c
ν=
λ

By combining the expressions for Ephoton and ∆E, we obtain the Rydberg formula
 
1 1 1
= R∞ 2
− 2
λ n1 n2

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12.6 Uncertainty Principle

Werner Heisenberg showed that certain pairs of physical quantities cannot be simultaneously measured
with arbitrary precision. The most famous uncertainty relation is between position and momentum:

h̄
∆x ∆p ≥
2

where

• ∆x is the uncertainty in position

• ∆p is the uncertainty in momentum

h
• h̄ = is the reduced Planck constant
2π
Example. Consider a particle (e.g., an electron) passing through a narrow slit of width a along the
x-direction. Due to the confinement in position, the particle’s wavefunction is localized within the slit,
giving
∆x ∼ a

After passing through the slit, the particle undergoes diffraction, resulting in a spread in its momentum
in the x-direction. The diffraction pattern for a slit is given by the first minimum condition:

a sin θ ∼ λ

where θ is the diffraction angle and λ is the wavelength of the particle. For a particle with momentum p,
its wavelength is related to the momentum by de Broglie’s relation:

h
λ=
p

where h is Planck’s constant. The transverse momentum uncertainty is approximately

h
∆px ∼ p sin θ ∼
a

Multiplying the uncertainties in position and momentum:

h
∆x ∆px ∼ a · ∼ h ∼ h̄
a

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which reproduces the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle approximately.

Another important uncertainty relation is between energy and time:

h̄
∆E ∆t ≥
2

The uncertainty principle isn’t about measurement limitations, but about fundamental properties of quan-
tum systems. Particles don’t have precisely defined positions and momenta simultaneously.

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13 Stellar Astrophysics

13.1 Stellar Classifications

Stars can be classified by their internal structure:

• Main Sequence Stars: Hydrogen-burning core, radiative or convective energy transport. Governed
by mass-luminosity relation:
 4.0

 M

 for M > 10M⊙

 M

 ⊙ 3.5
L M
≈ for 0.5 < M < 10M⊙
L⊙ 

  M⊙ 2.3

 M

 for M < 0.5M⊙
M⊙

• Giant Stars: Expanded envelope, hydrogen shell burning around inert helium core.

• Supergiants: Massive stars with complex layered burning (H, He, C, O, Si shells).

• White Dwarfs: Electron-degenerate cores, supported by electron degeneracy pressure.

• Neutron Stars: Neutron-degenerate matter, extreme density (∼ 1017 kg/m3 ).

• Black Holes: Gravitational collapse beyond neutron degeneracy pressure support.

Stars can also be classified by their composition:

Population Metallicity [Fe/H] Characteristics

Population I ≥ −0.5 Metal-rich, disk stars, young

Population II −1.0 to −0.5 Metal-poor, halo stars, old

Population III  −1.0 Zero metals, first generation

Table 6: Stellar Populations

Metallicity affects stellar evolution:

• Opacity changes with metal content

• Lower metallicity stars are hotter and bluer at given mass

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• Metallicity influences mass loss rates

Stars can also be classified by their activity:

• Flare Stars (UV Ceti type): M-dwarfs with magnetic reconnection events: Magnetic reconnection
is a fundamental plasma physics process where the topology of magnetic field lines is rearranged,
converting magnetic energy into kinetic energy, thermal energy, and particle acceleration.

• Rotational Classes:

– Slow rotators: υeq < 10 km/s (Sun: 2 km/s)

– Fast rotators: υeq > 50 km/s (young stars)

• Magnetic Activity:
′ LHK
RHK =
Lbol
where LHK is the luminosity in the Calcium II H & K lines and Lbol is the bolometric luminosity:
Total power output across all wavelengths (from radio to X-rays). This ratio tells what fraction of
the star’s total energy output is being emitted specifically from its magnetically heated chromosphere
via these Calcium lines as Calcium II is singly-ionized calcium.

13.2 HR Diagram

13.2.1 Introduction

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) is one of the most important tools in astrophysics, inde-
pendently developed by Ejnar Hertzsprung (1905-1911) and Henry Norris Russell (1913). It revolutionized
our understanding of stellar evolution by revealing patterns in stellar properties.

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106 —

105 — Supergiants

104 — Main Sequence

103 —
Luminosity [L⊙ ]

102 —

101 —
White Dwarfs Giants
1 — Sun

10−1—
Instability Strip
10−2—

10−3—

10−4—

|
10−5— | | | | | |
O B A F G K M
47000 10000 6000 3000

Spectral class and temperature [K]

13.2.2 Spectral Types and Temperature

Each spectral type corresponds to a particular range of temperatures and characteristics. The order from
hottest to coolest stars is as follows:

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Spectral Type Temp (K) Color Mass (M⊙ ) Examples

O 30,000-50,000 Blue 15-90 ζ Puppis

B 10,000-30,000 Blue-white 2-15 Rigel, Spica

A 7,500-10,000 White 1.4-2 Sirius, Vega

F 6,000-7,500 Yellow-white 1.04-1.4 Procyon

G 5,200-6,000 Yellow 0.8-1.04 Sun, α Cen A

K 3,700-5,200 Orange 0.45-0.8 Arcturus, Aldebaran

M 2,400-3,700 Red 0.08-0.45 Betelgeuse, Proxima Cen

Table 7: MK Spectral Classification System

The sequence ”O, B, A, F, G, K, M” can be difficult to remember due to the variety of letters. To aid
in memorization, astronomers and students often use mnemonics. A common mnemonic for remembering
the spectral types in order is

“Oh Be A Fine Girl/Guy, Kiss Me!”

This mnemonic associates each letter with a word:

• O - Oh

• B - Be

• A-A

• F - Fine

• G - Girl/Guy

• K - Kiss

• M - Me

In addition to spectral types, stars are also classified based on their luminosity, which is related to their
size and brightness. This is done using Roman numerals from I to V:

• I: Supergiants (e.g., Betelgeuse)

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• II: Bright giants

• III: Giants (e.g., Alpha Centauri)

• IV: Subgiants

• V: Main sequence stars (e.g., the Sun)

The full classification of a star would be a combination of both spectral type and luminosity class. For
example, our Sun is classified as a G2V star, meaning it is a G-type main sequence star. 2 is a subclass
number that further refines the classification. The scale goes from 0 to 9, with 0 being the hottest and 9
being the coolest in each spectral type. The number 2 indicates that the star is towards the middle of the
G-type range. In this case, a G2 star has a temperature closer to 5, 800 K.

13.2.3 Turn-Off Point

The turn-off point is an important feature in the HR diagram that helps astronomers determine the age
of a star cluster. It represents the point where stars, after exhausting the hydrogen in their cores, begin
to leave the main sequence and evolve into red giants. The position of the turn-off point on the diagram
depends on the mass of the stars in the cluster.
Note that
M M 1
Age of Cluster = ∝ 3.5 = 2.5
L M M
where we use the mass of the star at the turn-off point M .

13.3 Stellar Evolution

13.3.1 Stellar Formation

Stars form from giant clouds of gas and dust called molecular clouds or nebulae. The process includes:

• Gravitational Collapse: Regions with higher density collapse under gravity.

• Protostar Formation: As the cloud collapses, a dense core forms and heats up due to gravitational
energy.

• Accretion: Surrounding material falls onto the protostar, increasing its mass and temperature.

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13.3.2 Pre-Main Sequence Stars

Before reaching the main sequence, stars go through the pre-main sequence (PMS) phase:

• The protostar contracts and heats up.

• Energy is produced mainly by gravitational contraction, not nuclear fusion.

• PMS stars follow Hayashi tracks (for lower-mass stars) or Henyey tracks (for higher-mass stars)
on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram.

13.3.3 Main Sequence Stars

A star enters the main sequence when hydrogen fusion begins in its core.

• Core hydrogen fusion converts hydrogen into helium via the proton-proton chain (low-mass stars)
or CNO cycle (high-mass stars).

– Proton-Proton Chain:

4 1 H −→ 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 26.7 MeV

– CNO Cycle:
12
C −→ 1 H −→ 4 He + energy

• The star achieves hydrostatic equilibrium: gravity balanced by radiation pressure from fusion.

• The main sequence lifetime depends on stellar mass; higher-mass stars burn faster and live shorter
lives.

13.3.4 Post-Main Sequence Stars

After hydrogen in the core is exhausted, stars evolve differently depending on their mass.

Low to Intermediate-Mass Stars (< 8M⊙ )

• Expand into Red Giants.

• Helium fusion begins in the core (triple-alpha process):

3 4 He −→ 12
C+γ

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• May go through asymptotic giant branch (AGB) phase before shedding outer layers.

High-Mass Stars (> 8M⊙ )

• Expand into supergiants.

• Fuse heavier elements in successive shells (C, O, Si, etc.).

• Form an iron core, which cannot undergo fusion to produce energy.

13.3.5 Supernovae

• Massive stars end their lives in a core-collapse supernova (Type II).

• The core collapses, and outer layers are expelled violently.

• Supernovae enrich the interstellar medium with heavy elements.

13.3.6 Planetary Nebulae

• Formed by low to intermediate-mass stars shedding their outer layers.

• The exposed core emits ultraviolet radiation, ionizing the ejected gas.

• Eventually fades to leave a white dwarf.

13.3.7 End States of Stars

• White Dwarfs: Remnants of low/intermediate-mass stars. Supported by electron degeneracy

pressure.

• Neutron Stars: Remnants of core-collapse supernovae of stars with 8 − 20M⊙ . Supported by

neutron degeneracy pressure.

• Black Holes: Remnants of very massive stars (> 20M⊙ ). Gravity overwhelms all forms of degen-
eracy pressure.

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13.4 Magnitude System

Definition. 13.1: Luminosity

Luminosity is the total amount of energy emitted by a source per unit time.

Definition. 13.2: Luminance

Luminance is the amount of visible light emitted or reflected in a given direction per unit
area per unit solid angle. It describes how bright a surface appears to the human eye.

Property Luminosity Luminance

Physical meaning Total power emitted Brightness per area per direction

Depends on distance No No (but depends on direction)

Depends on area Indirectly Directly

SI unit Watt (W) cd/m2

Usually used in Astrophysics Optics

Definition. 13.3: Flux

The flux (F or Φ) is the total energy received from an astronomical object per unit time per unit
area. It represents the power (energy per unit time) crossing a unit area oriented perpendicular to
the direction of propagation.
For a source emitting total luminosity L isotropically, the flux measured at distance r is

L
F =
4πr2

Definition. 13.4: Solid Angle

The solid angle measures the three-dimensional angular size of an object as seen from a point. It
is defined as
dA
dΩ =
r2
where

• dA is an area element on a sphere of radius r,

• dΩ is the corresponding solid angle.

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Definition. 13.5: Intensity

The flux per unit solid angle is called intensity:

dF
I=
dΩ

Definition. 13.6: Spectral Flux Density

The spectral flux density (Fλ or Fν ) is the flux per unit wavelength or frequency interval. It
describes how the flux is distributed across the electromagnetic spectrum.
The solar constant is the flux received from the Sun at Earth’s distance:

F⊙ = 1361 W m−2 = 1.361 × 106 erg s−1 cm−2

This represents the total solar power (all wavelengths) incident on 1 m2 at 1 AU.

Definition. 13.7: Apparent Magnitude

It refers to the brightness of an object as observed from Earth, given by
 
F
m = −2.5 log10
F0

where F0 is the reference flux for zero magnitude. The zero-point F0 is calibrated using standard
stars. Originally, Vega (α Lyrae) was defined to have magnitude 0.0 in all filters. Modern systems
use more precisely defined spectrophotometric standards.

Ancient astronomers (especially Hipparchus, 150 BCE) ranked stars by eye:

1. 1st magnitude means the brightest (e.g. Sirius and Vega)

2. 6th magnitude means faintest visible to the naked eye

Much later (1856), Norman Pogson put this on a mathematical footing. He defined the scale so that a
difference of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a brightness ratio of 100.

F1
= 100 when m2 − m1 = 5
F2

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Assume magnitude difference is proportional to the logarithm of the flux ratio:

 
F1
m2 − m1 = k log10
F2

By Pogson’s condition,
 5 = 2k =⇒ k = 2.5. Take star 1 as the reference star: m1 = 0, F1 = F0
F
gives m = −2.5 log10 . Later, the logarithmic scale was found to match the Weber-Fechner law in
F0
psychophysics, which states that perceived sensation is proportional to the logarithm of stimulus intensity.

Definition. 13.8: Absolute Magnitude

The brightness an object would have if placed at a standard distance of 10 parsecs (32.6 light-years):
 
d
M = m − 5 log10
10 pc

where d is the distance to the object in parsecs.

Definition. 13.9: Distance Modulus

The difference between apparent and absolute magnitude relates directly to distance:

µ = m − M = 5 log10 d − 5

Definition. 13.10: Limiting Magnitude

The limiting magnitude is the faintest apparent magnitude of a celestial object that can be detected
with a given instrument under specific observing conditions. It represents the threshold between
what is observable and what is not. It is given by
   
D Transmission
mlim = meye + 5 log + 2.5 log10
deye 0.95

where

1. meye is the naked-eye limiting magnitude (typically 6.0 under ideal conditions),

2. D is the telescope aperture,

3. deye is the dark-adapted pupil diameter (typically 7 mm), and

4. Transmission is the optical transmission coefficient.

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Definition. 13.11: Bolometric Magnitude

The bolometric magnitude (mbol or Mbol ) is a measure of an astronomical object’s total electro-
magnetic luminosity across all wavelengths, from gamma rays to radio waves. Unlike filter-specific
magnitudes, it accounts for all emitted radiation.
The bolometric magnitude is defined through the bolometric flux Fbol , which is the integral of the
spectral flux density over all wavelengths:
ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
Fbol = Fλ dλ = Fν dν
0 0

The apparent bolometric magnitude is then

 
Fbol
mbol = −2.5 log10
Fbol,0

where Fbol,0 is the reference bolometric flux for zero magnitude.

Definition. 13.12: Bolometric Correction

It refers to the difference between bolometric and visual magnitudes:

BC = Mbol − MV

or for apparent magnitudes:

BC = mbol − mV

The Sun’s magnitude is assumed to be bolometric by convention. Therefore, it is common to use

 
L
Mbol − M⊙ = −2.5 log10 .
L⊙

Example. (2013 IOAA) A star has visual apparent magnitude mV = 12.2 mag, parallax π = 0.001′′
and effective temperature Teff = 4000 K. Its bolometric correction is B.C. = −0.6 mag.

(a) Find its luminosity as a function of the solar luminosity.

(b) What type of star is it?

(i) a red giant

(ii) a blue giant

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(iii) a red dwarf

Please write (i), (ii) or (iii) in your answer sheet.

(a) First, the absolute visual magnitude is obtained from

MV − mV = 5 − 5 log r

or equivalently,
MV − mV = 5 + 5 log π

Thus,
MV = 12.2 + 5 + 5 log(0.001) = 12.2 + 5 − 15 = 2.2 mag

The bolometric correction is defined as

B.C. = Mbol − MV

so
Mbol = B.C. + MV = −0.6 + 2.2 = 1.6 mag

The luminosity is calculated using

 
L
M⊙ − Mbol = 2.5 log
L⊙

where M⊙ = 4.72 mag. Hence,  

L
4.72 − 1.6 = 2.5 log
L⊙
 
L
log = 1.25
L⊙
and therefore
L = 17.7 L⊙

(b) A star with Mbol = 1.6 mag, luminosity L = 17.7 L⊙ , and effective temperature Teff = 4000 K is
much brighter and cooler than the Sun. Therefore, it is (i) a red giant star.

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13.5 Albedo

Albedo is a dimensionless physical quantity that measures the reflectivity of a surface. It is defined as
the fraction of incident electromagnetic radiation (usually sunlight) that is reflected by a surface.
If a surface receives an incident radiant power Pin and reflects a power Pref , its albedo α is defined as

Pref
α= , 0≤α≤1
Pin

Assuming the planet radiates as a black body and is in thermal equilibrium, the absorbed power equals
emitted power:
(1 − α)πR2 S = 4πR2 σT 4

where σ is the Stefan–Boltzmann constant.

Solving for the equilibrium temperature T :

 1/4
(1 − α)S
T =
4σ

13.6 Geometric Albedo

The geometric albedo is a dimensionless quantity that measures how bright an astronomical body
appears when observed at full phase (i.e. zero phase angle), compared to an idealized reference surface.
Let

• α be the phase angle, defined as the angle between the incident radiation from the source (e.g. the
Sun) and the direction to the observer, as seen from the object,

• α = 0 correspond to full illumination (observer directly behind the light source).

We introduce a reference surface:

A perfectly diffusing (Lambertian) flat disk with the same cross-sectional area as the object,
illuminated and observed at normal incidence.

A Lambertian surface reflects radiation isotropically, obeying Lambert’s cosine law:

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Theorem. 13.1: Lambert’s Cosine law

A surface obeys Lambert’s cosine law if its radiance is independent of direction:

I(θ, ϕ) = I0 = constant

For a Lambertian surface, the power emitted into solid angle dΩ is

dP = I0 cos θ dA dΩ

If the incident solar flux is Finc , a perfectly reflecting disk intercepts power P = Finc A. Integrating the
Lambertian emission over a hemisphere:
ˆ 2π ˆ π/2
Pref lected = Iref cos θ sin θA dθ dϕ = πAIref
0 0

Equating incident and reflected power (Pref lected = Finc A), we find:

Finc
Iref =
π

The geometric albedo p is defined as

Iobject (α = 0) πIobject (α = 0)
p= =
Iref Finc

The total energy reflected in all directions is characterized by the Bond Albedo (AB ), related to p by
the phase integral q: ˆ π
AB = p · q, q=2 Φ(α) sin α dα
0

where Φ(α) is the phase function, which is the relative brightness of the object as a function of the phase
angle, normalized such that Φ(0) = 1.

13.7 Color Indices

Color indices quantify the color of astronomical objects by measuring the difference in magnitude between
two different wavelength bands:
C = mλ1 − mλ2

where mλ1 and mλ2 are apparent magnitudes measured through different filters.

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Filter Center (λc , nm) FWHM (nm) Typical Use

U 365 66 Ultraviolet continuum

B 445 94 Blue light, Balmer break

V 551 88 Visual (photopic)

R 658 138 Red continuum

I 806 149 Near-infrared

Table 8: Johnson-Cousins photometric system filters

The followings are the common color indices to use:

U − B = mU − mB

B − V = mB − mV

V − R = mV − mR

V − I = mV − mI

The observed color index is affected by interstellar extinction:

(B − V )obs = (B − V )0 + E(B − V )

where E(B − V ) is the color excess:

E(B − V ) = AB − AV

where AB is the extinction in B-band in mag and AV is the extinction in V -band in mag.

13.8 Atmospheric Extinction

Atmospheric extinction reduces the observed flux:

mλ,obs = mλ,true + kλ′ · X

where

• kλ′ is the extinction coefficient (mag/airmass) and

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• X is the airmass (dimensionless) which quantifies the atmosphere’s thickness along a light’s path.

For a plane-parallel atmosphere,

X = sec z

where z is the zenith distance (z = 90◦ − altitude).

13.9 Optical Depth

Optical depth τν describes attenuation by comparing the initial intensity Iν (0) and the transmitted inten-
sity Iν (s):  
Iν (s)
τν (s) ≡ − ln
Iν (0)
Extinction in magnitudes Aλ is related to optical depth by

Aλ = 2.5 log10 (eτλ ) = 1.086 τλ

as
I
= e−τλ = 10−0.4Aλ
I0

13.10 Binary Star

Binary star systems consist of two stars orbiting around their common center of mass.

13.10.1 Different Types of Binary Stars

Visual Binaries They refer to the stars that can be resolved individually through telescopes. Their
orbits can be directly observed over time.

Spectroscopic Binaries They refer to the stars that can be detected through periodic Doppler shifts
in their spectral lines. They can be further identified as

• Single-lined spectroscopic binaries (SB1): Only one set of spectral lines is visible

• Double-lined spectroscopic binaries (SB2): Both sets of spectral lines are visible

Eclipsing Binaries They are the systems where the orbital plane is nearly edge-on to our line of sight,
causing periodic eclipses. These provide the most complete information about stellar parameters.

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Astrometric Binaries They can be detected through the wobble of one star’s proper motion due to an
unseen companion.

Interacting Binaries

• Mass transfer occurs when one star fills its Roche lobe.

• Examples: Cataclysmic variables, X-ray binaries.

Peculiar Binary Systems

• Systems with unusual properties such as extremely short orbital periods or highly eccentric orbits.

• Examples: Contact binaries, Algol-type binaries.

13.10.2 Modified Kepler’s Third Law

For a binary system, Kepler’s third law relates the orbital period P , semi-major axis a, and total mass M :

4π 2 a3
P2 = (28)
G(M1 + M2 )

where

• P is the orbital period,

• a is the semi-major axis of the relative orbit, and

• M1 , M2 are the masses of the two stars

13.10.3 Mass Function

For spectroscopic binaries, we measure the mass function. For single-lined spectroscopic binaries,

M23 sin3 i P 3
f (M ) = = v
(M1 + M2 ) 2 2πG 1,r

For double-lined spectroscopic binaries, we can determine the mass ratio:

M1 v2,r
=
M2 v1,r

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Proof. We begin with Kepler’s third law for two bodies orbiting their common center of mass:

4π 2 a3
P2 =
G(M1 + M2 )

where a = a1 + a2 is the total separation between the stars, and a1 , a2 are their distances from the center
of mass.
The center of mass condition gives
a1 M 1 = a2 M 2

From this, we can write the mass ratio:

a1 M2
= (29)
a2 M1
Also, the total separation can be expressed in terms of a1 :

a = a1 + a2 (30)
M1
= a1 + a1 (from Equation 29) (31)
M2
 
M1 + M2
= a1 (32)
M2

For the visible star (star 1), we measure its radial velocity amplitude v1,r . The true orbital speed v1 is
related to the observed radial velocity by the inclination:

v1,r = v1 sin i (33)

For a circular orbit (e = 0), the orbital speed is constant and given by

2πa1
v1 = (34)
P

Combining Equations 33 and 34:

2πa1 sin i
v1,r = (35)
P
From Equation 35, we can solve for a1 :
P v1,r
a1 =
2π sin i

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Now substitute Equation 32 into Kepler’s law (Equation 13.10.3):

  3
2 4π 2 M1 + M2
P = a1 (36)
G(M1 + M2 ) M2
2 3
4π a1 (M1 + M2 )3
= · (37)
G(M1 + M2 ) M23
4π 2 a31 (M1 + M2 )2
= · (38)
G M23

Now substitute a1 from Equation 13.10.3 into Equation 38:

 3
4π 2 (M1 + M2 )2 P v1,r
P = 2
· ·
G M23 2π sin i
2
4π (M1 + M2 ) 2 P 3 v1,r
3
= · ·
G M23 8π 3 sin3 i
P 3 v1,r
3
(M1 + M2 )2
= ·
2πG sin3 i M23

Cancel P 2 from both sides (multiply both sides by 1/P 2 ):

3
P v1,r (M1 + M2 )2
1= ·
2πG sin3 i M23

Now rearrange to isolate the mass terms on the left:

M23 sin3 i P 3
= v
(M1 + M2 ) 2 2πG 1,r

13.10.4 Light Curves

Eclipsing binaries exhibit characteristic light curves with periodic dips in brightness:
Normalized Brightness

0.9

0.8
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
Time (days)

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1. Let F1 and F2 be the flux of the two stars. The total observed flux when both stars are visible is

Ftotal = F1 + F2

2. The primary eclipse occurs when the brighter star is partially or fully blocked by the dimmer star,
causing a significant dip. Let the obscured fraction of the primary star be f1 (t), then the observed
flux is
Fprimary (t) = F1 [1 − f1 (t)] + F2

3. The secondary eclipse occurs when the dimmer star is blocked, causing a smaller dip. The fainter
star is obscured by the brighter star. Let f2 (t) be the obscured fraction of the secondary star, then:

Fsecondary (t) = F1 + F2 [1 − f2 (t)]

4. If the eclipse is total, the flux reduces exactly by the luminosity of the obscured star.

In this plot,

• The first deep dip at t = 1 day corresponds to the primary eclipse.

• The smaller dip at t = 3 days corresponds to the secondary eclipse.

13.10.5 Radial Velocity Curves

A binary star system consists of two stars orbiting their common center of mass. If the orbital plane is
inclined relative to the line of sight, the stars will alternately move toward and away from the observer.
This motion causes a periodic Doppler shift in the spectral lines:

• Motion toward the observer will result in blueshift

• Motion away from the observer will result in redshift

The line-of-sight component of the orbital velocity is called the radial velocity. A radial velocity curve
is a plot of radial velocity vr versus time t (or orbital phase). It provides direct information about the
orbital properties of the binary system.
For a binary star in a circular orbit, the radial velocity varies sinusoidally:
 
2πt
vr (t) = K sin +ϕ
P

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where

• K is the radial velocity amplitude

• P is the orbital period

• ϕ is the phase constant

vr

+K1
Star 1

Time / Orbital Phase

Star 2
−K1

• The curves are sinusoidal for circular orbits.

• The two stars have opposite phases due to conservation of momentum.

• The more massive star has a smaller velocity amplitude.

• The period of the curve equals the orbital period.

For a binary star in an elliptical orbit, the radial velocity of one component is given by:

vr (t) = γ + K [cos(θ(t) + ω) + e cos ω]

where

• γ is the systemic (center-of-mass) velocity

• K is the radial velocity semi-amplitude

• e is the orbital eccentricity

• ω is the argument of periastron

• θ(t) is the true anomaly

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The semi-amplitude K is
2πa sin i
K= √
P 1 − e2
where

• a is the semi-major axis of the star’s orbit about the barycenter

• i is the inclination angle

• P is the orbital period

The following shows an example of the radial velocity curve:

vr (arb. units)
vmax e = 0.75, ω = 90◦

ϕ=1
Orbital Phase
Periastron Apastron

vmin

13.10.6 Roche Lobe

In a close binary star system, the gravitational field experienced by a test particle is determined by the
combined gravity of both stars and the centrifugal effect in the rotating frame. The Roche lobe of a star
is defined as the region around that star within which material is gravitationally bound to it. If a star
fills or overflows its Roche lobe, mass transfer to its companion can occur, a key mechanism in interacting
binaries such as X-ray binaries, cataclysmic variables, and some exoplanetary systems.

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Figure 9: Source: [Link]

13.11 Exoplanet

13.11.1 Introduction

An exoplanet (or extrasolar planet) is a planet that orbits a star outside our Solar System. The term
comes from the Greek ”exo” (outside) and ”planētēs” (wanderer).

13.11.2 Classes of Exoplanets

• Hot Jupiters: Gas giants very close to their stars.

• Super-Earths: Planets with masses larger than Earth but smaller than Neptune.

• Terrestrial planets: Rocky planets similar to Earth or Mars.

• Ice giants: Analogous to Uranus and Neptune.

13.11.3 Spectral Signatures of Possible Life

• Detection of biosignature gases like O2 , O3 , CH4 , and water vapor in exoplanet atmospheres.

• Observed via transmission spectroscopy during planetary transits.

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13.11.4 Radial Velocity Method

It is also known as the Doppler method. This technique measures the star’s wobble caused by an orbiting
planet’s gravitational pull.
 1/3
P mp sin i 1
∆v = K √
2πG ms
2/3
1 − e2
where

• ∆v represents the velocity semi-amplitude,

• K is a constant,

• P represents the orbital period,

• mp represents the planet mass,

• ms represents the star mass,

• i represents the orbital inclination, and

• e represents the orbital eccentricity.

13.11.5 Transit Method

It measures the periodic dimming of a star as a planet passes in front of it.

 2
Rp
∆F =
Rs

where ∆F is the fractional flux decrease, Rp is planet radius, and Rs is star radius.

13.11.6 Habitable Zone

A habitable zone refers to the region around a star where liquid water could exist on a planet’s surface.

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14 Cosmology

14.1 Structure of the Universe

14.1.1 Star Clusters

Introduction Star clusters are groups of stars that are gravitationally bound and formed from the
same molecular cloud. They provide important insights into stellar evolution and galactic structure. Star
clusters are broadly classified into two types:

• Open Clusters (Galactic Clusters): These contain a few tens to a few thousand stars. They are
loosely bound and typically found in the Galactic disk. Open clusters are relatively young (a few
million to a few hundred million years) and often contain hot, massive stars.

• Globular Clusters: These are densely packed spherical collections of tens of thousands to millions
of stars. They orbit the Galactic halo and are typically very old (10–13 billion years). Globular
clusters are rich in low-mass stars and show little gas or dust.

Structurally, a star cluster has a core (densest region), a halo (more diffuse stars), and in some cases a
tidal radius where stars may escape due to Galactic gravitational forces.

Luminosity The luminosity L of a star cluster can be calculated by summing the luminosities of all the
stars in the cluster:
X
Lcluster = Lstars

Where Lstars is the luminosity of each star in the cluster.

14.1.2 Galaxies

Introduction Galaxies are vast systems of stars, gas, dust, and dark matter, bound together by gravity.
They are the fundamental building blocks of the Universe. Galaxies can be classified based on their
structure, composition, and activity:

• Elliptical galaxies: Smooth, featureless light distribution, dominated by older stars, little gas or
dust.

• Spiral galaxies: Flat, rotating disks with spiral arms, containing gas, dust, and young stars.

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• Barred spiral galaxies: Spiral galaxies with a central bar-shaped structure of stars.

• Irregular galaxies: No definite shape, often rich in gas and dust.

• Active galaxies: Galaxies with energetic cores (AGN), often emitting strong radiation due to
accretion onto supermassive black holes.

Our galaxy is a barred spiral galaxy with several distinct components:

• Bulge: Central region, high star density, mostly old stars.

• Disk: Contains spiral arms, gas, dust, and young stars.

• Halo: Spherical region with globular clusters and dark matter.

Figure 10: From [Link]

Milky Way The Milky Way is a barred spiral galaxy containing several hundred billion stars, along with
interstellar gas, dust, and a dominant dark matter halo. Its stellar disk has a diameter of approximately
30 kpc, while the dark matter halo is believed to extend to radii of order 200 kpc or more. The Milky Way
is structured into several main components:

• a thin and thick stellar disk,

• a central bulge and bar,

• a stellar halo,

• an extended dark matter halo.

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The Galaxy is not an isolated system. It is surrounded by a population of smaller galaxies gravitationally
bound to it, known as satellite galaxies, like the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, and several ultra-
faint dwarf galaxies.
Satellite galaxies are typically low-mass systems orbiting the Milky Way within its dark matter halo. They
are remnants of the hierarchical assembly process predicted by the ΛCDM cosmological model, in which
large galaxies grow through the accretion and merger of smaller ones. Dozens of Milky Way satellites are
currently known, and ongoing deep surveys continue to discover new, extremely faint systems.

Galactic Geometry and Coordinates We model the Milky Way as a rotating disk with the Galactic
Center (GC) at the origin. Let R be the Galactocentric distance of an object, R0 be the Galactocentric
distance of the Sun, Θ(R) be the circular rotation speed at radius R, Θ0 = Θ(R0 ) be the circular speed of
the Sun, l be the Galactic longitude of the object, and b be the Galactic latitude.
Throughout this section we assume b = 0 (objects in the Galactic plane), so cos b = 1. The extension to
nonzero b is obtained by multiplying the final radial velocity by cos b.
Assume both the Sun and the object move on circular orbits around the Galactic Center. From Galactic
geometry, the radial velocity of an object at longitude l is
 
R0
vr = Θ(R) − Θ0 sin l
R

For an object at heliocentric distance d, the Galactocentric radius R is

R2 = R02 + d2 − 2R0 d cos l

For longitudes 0◦ < l < 90◦ or 270◦ < l < 360◦ , the line of sight intersects regions with R < R0 . In this
case:

• The radial velocity varies monotonically along the line of sight.

• A maximum (or minimum) radial velocity occurs at the tangent point.

At the tangent point,

R = R0 sin l

and the radial velocity becomes

vr,max = [Θ(R0 sin l) − Θ0 sin l]

For longitudes 90◦ < l < 270◦ , all points along the line of sight satisfy R > R0 . In this region,

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• There is no tangent point.

• Radial velocity depends on both distance d and the rotation curve.

The general formula  

R0
vr = Θ(R) − Θ0 sin l
R
still applies, but vr alone is insufficient to uniquely determine R.

14.2 Large-scale Structure

The large-scale structure (LSS) of the Universe refers to the distribution of matter on scales larger than
individual galaxies (typically ≳ 1 Mpc). On these scales, matter is not distributed uniformly, but forms a
complex network known as the cosmic web:

• Galaxy clusters: Dense, gravitationally bound systems of hundreds to thousands of galaxies.

• Galaxy groups: Smaller associations of galaxies, often containing a few to tens of members.

• Filaments: Elongated structures connecting clusters and groups, containing galaxies and dark
matter.

• Voids: Large, underdense regions with very few galaxies.

• Walls / Sheets: Flattened structures of galaxies separating voids.

Large-scale structure formed from tiny density fluctuations in the early Universe:

• Quantum fluctuations were stretched during cosmic inflation.

• Overdensities grew via gravitational instability.

• Dark matter collapsed first, forming gravitational potential wells.

• Baryonic matter later fell into these wells, forming galaxies.

On sufficiently large scales (≳ 100 Mpc), the Universe is approximately homogeneous and isotropic, con-
sistent with the cosmological principle.

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14.3 Cosmological Principle

The cosmological principle states that on sufficiently large scales (≳ 100 Mpc), the universe is

• Homogeneous: Matter and energy are uniformly distributed

• Isotropic: No preferred direction in space

14.4 Rotational Curve

In a galaxy, the stars or gas clouds orbit the galactic center due to the gravitational pull of the mass
contained within the galaxy. According to Newtonian mechanics, the orbital velocity of an object at a
given distance r from the center of a galaxy should behave as
r
GMenc (r)
v(r) =
r

where

• v(r) is the orbital velocity at a distance r from the center and

• Menc (r) is the enclosed mass within radius r.

The mass enclosed Menc (r) depends on the distribution of both visible matter (such as stars and gas) and
dark matter within the galaxy.
For a galaxy dominated by visible matter (stars, gas, etc.), the enclosed mass increases with radius, but
at larger distances from the center, the mass distribution becomes less dense. Then

1
v(r) ∝ √
r

This is called the Keplerian decline and is observed in the motion of planets in our solar system.
However, observations of galaxies reveal that the rotation curves do not behave this way.
In the 1970s, astronomers like Vera Rubin and Kent Ford observed that the rotation curves of spiral
galaxies remain nearly flat at large distances from the center, far beyond the region where visible matter
is present. This observation was unexpected, as the rotation velocity should have decreased if the mass
distribution followed the visible matter alone. The flatness of the rotation curve suggests that there is
additional mass present that is not visible. This mass is what we refer to as dark matter.

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The flat rotation curves observed at large radii imply that the mass within the galaxy continues to increase
even in the outer regions. The orbital velocity v(r) remains constant:

v(r) = vflat for large r

This indicates that the gravitational influence of dark matter is significant at large distances from the
galactic center, where visible matter is sparse.

14.5 Hubble’s Law

v = H0 d

where v is the recession velocity, d is the proper distance to the galaxy, and H0 is the present-day Hubble
1
constant. One can notice that tH = is the age of the universe.
H0
Cosmic expansion is described by the scale factor a(t), which measures how distances in the Universe
change over time. The Hubble parameter is defined using the scale factor:

ȧ(t)
H(t) =
a(t)

Light traveling through an expanding Universe also stretches with the expansion. If a photon is emitted at
time tem with wavelength λem and observed today at t0 with wavelength λobs , the cosmological redshift
is defined as
λobs
1+z =
λem
The redshift is directly related to the scale factor:

a(t0 )
1+z =
a(tem )

14.6 Cosmological Distance Measures

14.6.1 Proper Distance

The proper distance is related to the scale factor a(t) of the universe, which describes how distances
between objects in the universe change with time due to the expansion. For an object at redshift z, the

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proper distance Dp at a given time is related to the comoving distance Dc by

Dp (t) = a(t)Dc

where

• Dp is the proper distance,

• Dc is the comoving distance,

• a(t) is the scale factor at the time of observation.

14.6.2 Comoving Distance

The comoving distance is the distance between two objects as measured in a coordinate system that
accounts for the expansion of the universe. Unlike the proper distance, the comoving distance remains
constant over time for two objects that are at rest relative to each other in the expanding universe.
The comoving distance Dc at redshift z is related to the scale factor a(t) by
ˆ z
c dz ′
Dc =
0 H(z ′ )

where

• c is the speed of light,

• H(z ′ ) is the Hubble parameter as a function of redshift z ′ , and

• z is the redshift at which the object is located.

14.6.3 Luminosity Distance

The luminosity distance is the distance to an object based on its observed brightness and its intrinsic
luminosity. It is often used for objects like supernovae, which have a known intrinsic luminosity.
The luminosity distance DL is related to the observed flux fobs and the intrinsic luminosity L of an object
by the inverse square law:
L
fobs =
4πDL2

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From this relation, we can solve for the luminosity distance:

s
L
DL =
4πfobs

In a flat universe, the luminosity distance is related to the comoving distance by

DL (z) = (1 + z)Dc (z)

14.6.4 Angular Diameter Distance

The angular diameter distance is related to the physical size r of an object and its angular size θ (in
radians) by the relation
r
θ=
DA

14.7 Friedmann Equation

Theorem. 14.1: First Friedmann Equation

 2
ȧ(t) 8πG kc2 Λc2
= ρ− +
a(t) 3 a(t)2 3
where

• cosmological constant Λ represents homogeneous energy density inherent to empty space (dark
energy): Λ = 0 for flat and static universe (Minkowski universe), Λ > 0 for expanding universe
and Λ < 0 for contracting universe and

• curvature parameter k = +1 for positive curvature, k = −1 for negative curvature, k = 0 for

zero curvature.

Theorem. 14.2: Second Friedmann Equation

 
ä(t) 4πG 3p Λc2
=− ρ− 2 +
a(t) 3 c 3

3H 2
• When Λ = 0 and k = 0, ρ = which is called the important density. We may denote ρc .
8πG
ρi
• Density parameter Ωi := . Note that Ωm + Ωr + ΩΛ + Ωk = 1. Also, by second Friedmann’s
ρc

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equation and definition,

8πGρm kc2 Λc2

Ωm = , Ωk = − , ΩΛ =
3H 2 a2 H 2 8πG

• From first and second Friedmann equation,

 p
ρ̇ + 3H ρ + 2 = 0 (Fluid Equation)
c

• The ΛCDM model, also known as the Lambda Cold Dark Matter model, is the current standard
model of cosmology. It describes the evolution of the Universe from the early hot and dense state to
its current large-scale structure. The model is based on the following components:

– Cosmological Constant (Λ): It is responsible for the accelerated expansion of the Universe.
Dark energy has an opposing effect to gravity: instead of attracting matter (like gravity does),
dark energy exerts a repulsive force. This repulsive force is responsible for causing the acceler-
ated expansion of the Universe, pushing galaxies apart at an ever-increasing rate.

– Cold Dark Matter (CDM): It is also referred to as ”cold” because it moves slowly compared
to the speed of light. This is in contrast to ”hot” dark matter, which would consist of fast-
moving particles.
Cold dark matter is preferred in cosmological models because it allows for the formation of
small structures (such as galaxies) early in the Universe’s history, which is consistent with
observational data.

Definition. 14.1: Hubble parameter

The Hubble parameter H(t) is defined as the rate of change of the scale factor a(t) and is given by

ȧ(t)
H(t) =
a(t)

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14.8 Equation of State

For different cosmic components,

Non-relativistic matter (dust): p=0 =⇒ ρm ∝ a−3

Radiation: p = ρc2 /3 =⇒ ρr ∝ a−4

Cosmological constant: p = −ρc2 =⇒ ρΛ = constant

Proof. Rewriting the fluid equation,

dρ ȧ  p
+3 ρ+ 2 =0
dt a c

dρ
By chain rule ρ̇ = ȧ,
da
dρ ȧ  p
ȧ +3 ρ+ 2 =0
da a c
Assuming ȧ 6= 0:
dρ 3  p
+ ρ+ 2 =0
da a c
By equation of states,
p = wρc2

where w is a constant for each cosmological component.

dρ 3
+ (1 + w)ρ = 0
da a

dρ da
= −3(1 + w)
ρ a
ˆ ρ ′ ˆ a ′
dρ da
′
= −3(1 + w) ′
ρi ρ ai a
   
ρ a
ln = −3(1 + w) ln
ρi ai
 −3(1+w)
ρ a
=
ρi ai
Choosing ai = 1 for present epoch (ρi = ρ0 ):

ρ(a) = ρ0 a−3(1+w)

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14.9 Big Bang

14.9.1 Singularity

At the very beginning of the universe, all matter and energy were concentrated in a singularity, a point
of infinite density and temperature. This singularity is thought to have contained all the space, time, and
energy that would later expand to form the universe as we know it.

14.9.2 Cosmic Inflation

Cosmic inflation is a theory that explains the rapid expansion of the universe during the first fractions of
a second after the Big Bang. During inflation, the universe expanded exponentially, increasing in size by
a factor of at least 1026 in a fraction of a second. This theory helps explain several observed features of
the universe, such as its large-scale homogeneity and isotropy, and the distribution of galaxies.

14.9.3 Expansion of Space

The Big Bang theory proposes that space itself is expanding. This expansion is not into pre-existing
space; rather, it is the stretching of space itself. As space expands, the distances between distant galaxies
increase, leading to the observed redshift of light from those galaxies. This expansion of the universe is
described mathematically by the Friedmann equations.

14.9.4 Phases of the Big Bang

Planck Era (0 to 10−43 seconds) The Planck era represents the earliest period of the universe, from
time t = 0 up to approximately 10−43 seconds after the Big Bang. During this time, the universe was
incredibly hot and dense, and the fundamental forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak nuclear force,
and the strong nuclear force) were likely unified in a single force. The exact nature of the physics during
this period is unknown, as quantum gravity has yet to be fully understood.

Grand Unification Era (from 10−43 to 10−36 seconds) During the Grand Unification era, the fun-
damental forces separated. At the highest energies, the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces were
unified into a single force. As the universe cooled, these forces separated and the strong force, responsible
for holding atomic nuclei together, emerged.

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Inflationary Era (from 10−36 to 10−32 seconds) The universe underwent a brief period of exponential
expansion during the inflationary era. During this time, the universe expanded by a factor of at least 1026
in a fraction of a second. This rapid inflation smoothed out the universe and led to the large-scale
homogeneity and isotropy observed today. It also helped set the initial conditions for the formation of the
first particles.

Quark Era (from 10−12 to 10−6 seconds) As the universe continued to cool, quarks, electrons, and
other fundamental particles began to form. During the quark era, quarks combined to form protons and
neutrons. The temperature and energy were still high enough for these particles to interact and decay
frequently.

Hadron Era (from 10−6 seconds to 1 second) At around 10−6 seconds after the Big Bang, the
temperature dropped enough for quarks to combine into hadrons, such as protons and neutrons. This era
marked the formation of the first stable atomic nuclei.

Lepton Era (from 1 second to 10 seconds) During the lepton era, the universe was dominated by
leptons (such as electrons and neutrinos). These particles were created and annihilated in large quantities.
Neutrinos, which were created in abundance, decoupled from the rest of matter at around 10 seconds.

Photon Era (from 10 seconds to 380,000 years) As the universe continued to cool, photons dom-
inated the universe. At this time, matter and radiation were tightly coupled. The universe was opaque
because free electrons scattered photons, preventing light from traveling freely. However, the universe con-
tinued to expand and cool, and at about 380,000 years after the Big Bang, the universe had cooled enough
for atoms to form and photons to travel freely, leading to the decoupling of matter and radiation. This
event is known as the recombination epoch and is associated with the cosmic microwave background
(CMB) radiation, which we observe today.

Recombination and the Formation of Atoms (380,000 years) During recombination, the universe
cooled enough for protons and electrons to combine and form neutral hydrogen atoms. This allowed
photons to travel freely through space, marking the beginning of the era of decoupling. The release of
these photons is known as the CMB radiation.

Dark Ages (380,000 years to 1 billion years) After the formation of atoms, the universe entered the
”dark ages,” a period in which there were no stars or galaxies. During this time, the universe continued

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to cool and matter began to clump together due to gravitational attraction. However, it was not until the
formation of the first stars and galaxies that the universe became more active.

Reionization (1 billion years to 2 billion years) Reionization occurred when the first stars and
galaxies formed and emitted ultraviolet light that reionized the hydrogen gas. This process ended the dark
ages and allowed the universe to become transparent to ultraviolet light.

The Modern Universe (Present Day) Since the era of reionization, the universe has continued to
expand and evolve. Galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structures have formed over billions of
years. The observable universe is currently about 93 billion light-years in diameter.

14.10 Cosmic Microwave Background

The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB) is the oldest light in the universe, originating approximately
380,000 years after the Big Bang. It provides a snapshot of the infant universe when it transitioned from
an opaque plasma to a transparent gas.
The CMB originates from the recombination epoch when the universe cooled sufficiently for electrons and
protons to combine into neutral hydrogen atoms:

p+ + e− −→ H + γ

The cosmic microwave background is a faint radiation that fills the universe and is a remnant of the
early hot, dense phase of the universe. It was first detected by Penzias and Wilson in 1965 and is often
considered the strongest evidence for the Big Bang.

14.11 Gravitational Lensing

14.11.1 Introduction

Gravitational lensing is the bending of light by mass according to general relativity. A mass distribution
between a distant source and an observer deflects light rays, producing phenomena such as multiple images,
magnification, and distortion of the source.
For a point mass M (in Schwarzschild metric), a light ray with impact parameter b is deflected by an angle

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in weak-field. Then, the deflection angle is

4GM
α̂(b) =
bc2

where G is the gravitational constant and c the speed of light.

We use the thin-lens approximation: the deflection happens effectively at a single lens plane located at
angular diameter distance DL from the observer. Similarly, the source is at distance DS and the distance
between lens and source is DLS . Let β be the true angular position of the source on the sky (unlensed),
and θ the observed angular position of the image. Then

β = θ − α(θ)

where the scaled deflection angle is

DLS
α(θ) = α̂(DL θ)
DS
For a point mass M located on the optical axis, the scalar form of the lens equation (assuming alignment
along a single axis) becomes
DLS 4GM
β =θ−
DS c2 DL θ
When the source, lens and observer are perfectly aligned (β = 0) the image forms a ring (Einstein ring)
with angular radius θE solving: r
4GM DLS
θE =
c2 DL DS

14.11.2 Derivation using Newtonian Mechanics

In Newtonian gravity, the force on a particle of mass m at distance r from M is

GM m
F =
r2

Only the component perpendicular to the initial direction of motion contributes to the deflection. If the
photon moves along the x-axis and passes the mass at distance b, then

√ b
r= x 2 + b2 , sin θ =
r

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The transverse force is therefore

GM m b GM mb
F⊥ = F sin θ = 2
= 2
r r (x + b2 )3/2

The transverse acceleration is

F⊥ GM b
a⊥ = = 2
m (x + b2 )3/2
The photon moves approximately at constant speed c, so

dx
x = ct, dt =
c

The total change in transverse velocity is

ˆ ∞ ˆ ∞
1 GM b
∆v⊥ = a⊥ dt = dx
−∞ c −∞ (x2 + b2 )3/2

Using the standard integral ˆ ∞

b dx 2
=
−∞ (x2 2
+b ) 3/2 b
we obtain
2GM
∆v⊥ =
bc
For small deflections, the bending angle α is approximately the ratio of the transverse velocity change to
the speed of light:
∆v⊥
α≈
c
Hence,
2GM
αNewton =
bc2
General Relativity predicts a deflection angle

4GM
αGR =
bc2

which is exactly twice the Newtonian result. The additional factor arises from the curvature of space,
which is absent in Newtonian gravity.

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14.11.3 Derivation using General Relativity

Definition. 14.2: Lagrangian

The Lagrangian L is defined as
L(q, q̇, t) = T (q̇) − V (q)

where T is the kinetic energy and V is the potential energy.

Theorem. 14.3: Euler-Lagrange Equation

 
d ∂L ∂L
=
dt ∂ q̇ ∂q

Theorem. 14.4: Fermat’s Principle

For light propagating in a medium with refractive index n(r), the time taken to travel along a path
C from point A to point B is
ˆ B ˆ B ˆ B
ds 1
T = dt = = n(r) ds
A A v c A

where

• v = c/n is the speed of light in the medium

p
• ds = dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 is the infinitesimal path length

• c is the speed of light in vacuum

Fermat’s principle states that the actual path C minimizes (or more generally, makes stationary) the
optical path length:
ˆ B
S= n(r) ds
A

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Figure 11: Source: [Link]

In weak-field approximation of the spacetime metric (which is a situation in which the gravitational
field is relatively weak and the spacetime curvature is small),
     
2Φ 2Φ Φ2
ds = − 1 + 2
2
c dt + 1 − 2
2 2
δij dx dx + O
i j
c c c4

where Φ = −GM /r and |Φ|  c2 . Set c = 1.

ds2 = −(1 + 2Φ)dt2 + (1 − 2Φ)(dx2 + dy 2 + dz 2 ) = 0 =⇒ v ≈ 1 + 2Φ

Consider a nearly straight path in the x-y plane with small deflection. Let y = y(x), z = 0, with |y ′ |  1.
Then  
p 1 ′ 2
dl = 1 + (y ) dx ≈ 1 + (y ) dx
′ 2
2
The optical path length is
ˆ ˆ  
1 ′ 2
S = n dl ≈ [1 − 2Φ(x, y)] 1 + (y ) dx
2
ˆ  
1
≈ 1 − 2Φ + (y ′ )2 dx
2

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Consider
1
L = (y ′ )2 − 2Φ(x, y)
2
 
d ∂L ∂L d ′ ∂Φ d2 y ∂Φ
= =⇒ (y ) = −2 =⇒ = −2
dx ∂y ′ ∂y dx ∂y dx2 ∂y
Let y(x) = b + ε(x) with ε small:
∂Φ
ε′′ (x) = −2 (x, b)
∂y
The total deflection angle is:
ˆ ∞
′ ′ ′
α = ∆y = ε (+∞) − ε (−∞) = ε′′ (x)dx
−∞

p
For a point mass Φ = −GM /r with r = x2 + y 2 :

∂Φ y
= GM 2
∂y (x + y 2 )3/2

At y = b: ˆ ∞
dx
α = −2GM b
−∞ (x2 + b2 )3/2
Note that ˆ ∞
dx 2
= 2
−∞ (x2 2
+b ) 3/2 b
Therefore,
2 4GM
α = −2GM b · 2
=−
b b
The magnitude of the deflection (toward the mass) is

4GM
|α| =
b

In the metric, Φ → Φ/c2 . Then

4GM
α=
bc2

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14.12 Gravitational Wave

14.12.1 Introduction

Gravitational waves are disturbances in the curvature of spacetime caused by accelerated masses. They
were first predicted by Albert Einstein in 1916 as a consequence of his General Relativity theory. Unlike
electromagnetic waves, gravitational waves interact weakly with matter, making them challenging to detect
but allowing them to carry information about cataclysmic cosmic events.

14.12.2 Chirp Mass

For a binary system with component masses m1 and m2 , the chirp mass is

 3/5
(m1 m2 )3/5 c3 5 −8/3 −11/3 ˙
M= = π f f
(m1 + m2 )1/5 G 96

where f is the orbital frequency.

14.12.3 Binary System

For a binary system with masses m1 and m2 , and orbital frequency forb , the gravitational wave luminosity
is
32
LGW = (2πGMforb )10/3
5Gc5
where r is the orbital separation.

14.13 Accretion Processes

14.13.1 Introduction

Accretion is the process by which matter falls onto a central object, such as a star, black hole, or neutron
star, under the influence of gravity.

• Spherical accretion occurs when matter falls radially inward toward a central object in a spherically
symmetric manner.

• Disc accretion occurs when matter, due to its angular momentum, forms a rotating disc as it falls
toward a central object.

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Figure 12: Source: [Link]

14.13.2 Eddington Luminosity

Consider a spherical surface with radius r centered around a light source, where the total luminosity of
the source is L. The energy flux (the energy per unit time passing through a unit area) at a distance r
from the source is given by the total luminosity divided by the surface area of a sphere with radius r. The
surface area of a sphere is
A = 4πr2

Hence, the energy flux at distance r is:

L
F =
4πr2
Now, consider the nature of radiation pressure. Photons carry momentum, and when they strike a surface,
they transfer momentum to it. The radiation pressure is related to the energy flux by the relationship:

1 dp F
E = pc =⇒ Prad = =
A dt c

where c is the speed of light, and this formula assumes that the radiation is isotropic and that the photon
momentum transfer is fully efficient in transferring momentum to the surface. Then

1 L L
Prad = · 2
=
c 4πr 4πr2 c

The Eddington luminosity, LEdd , is the maximum luminosity an astronomical object can have when
there is a balance between the radiation pressure outward and the gravitational force inward.

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The radiation pressure on an object is given by

L
Prad =
4πr2 c

where L is the luminosity, r is the radius of the object, and c is the speed of light. The gravitational force
is given by
GM m
Fgrav =
r2
where M is the mass of the central object, m is the mass of the accreting material, and G is the gravitational
constant. When balanced,
L GM m
2
=
4πr c r2
Simplifying this equation:
4πGM mc
L=
r2
For the Eddington luminosity, we consider the maximum luminosity for the material to remain bound
to the central object without being blown away by radiation pressure. Using the fact that the material
consists of hydrogen, for which the mass of an electron is me and the Thomson scattering cross-section is
σT , we can calculate the Eddington luminosity as follows:

4πGM me c
LEdd =
σT

where σT ≈ 6.65 × 10−25 m2 is the effective area that quantifies the likelihood of an electron scattering a
photon through Thomson scattering.

14.14 Cosmic Distance Ladder

14.14.1 Introduction

The cosmic distance ladder is a succession of methods by which astronomers determine the distances to
celestial objects. Each rung of the ladder provides information that allows calibration of the next method,
enabling measurements from the Solar System to the edge of the observable universe.

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The Cosmic Distance Ladder

RADAR & Parallax
0.001–1000 parsecs
Direct geometric methods
Calibrates

Standard Candles: Cepheids & RR Lyrae

1–30 Mpc
Pulsating variable stars with period-luminosity relationship
Calibrates

Tully-Fisher & Faber-Jackson Relations

10–200 Mpc
Galaxy luminosity correlated with rotation speed/velocity dispersion
Calibrates

Type Ia Supernovae
100–1000 Mpc
”Standardizable” candles from white dwarf explosions
Calibrates

Hubble’s Law
>100 Mpc
Cosmological redshift-distance relation

Figure 13: The hierarchy of distance measurement techniques in astronomy. Each rung calibrates the
next.

14.14.2 Radar Ranging

For objects within our Solar System, we can use radar to measure distances directly:

• Transmit radio waves toward a planet or asteroid

• Measure time delay for echo to return: ∆t

c · ∆t
• Distance: d = where c is the speed of light
2
• Limited to ∼10 AU (within Solar System)

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14.14.3 Stellar Parallax

Parallax uses Earth’s orbit as a baseline to measure distances to nearby stars:

1
d(parsecs) =
θ(arcseconds)

where

• d = distance in parsecs (1 pc ≈ 3.26 light-years)

• θ = parallax angle in arcseconds

• Baseline = 1 AU (astronomical unit)

14.14.4 Standard Candles: Cepheid Variables

Stellar Variability Stellar variability is classified into two broad categories:

1. Regular Variability:

• Pulsating Stars: These stars, such as Cepheid variables, exhibit periodic changes in brightness
due to expansions and contractions of their outer layers.

• Eclipsing Binaries: These systems consist of two stars orbiting each other, and their light
curves vary periodically due to one star eclipsing the other.

2. Irregular Variability:

• Flare Stars: These stars exhibit sudden, unpredictable increases in brightness due to magnetic
activity.

• Cataclysmic Variables: These stars experience large variations in brightness due to mass
transfer in binary systems.

Cepheid Variables Cepheid variables are pulsating stars whose period correlates with luminosity:

M = a · log10 (P ) + b

where

• M is the absolute magnitude (intrinsic brightness),

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14 COSMOLOGY By Pika and Owen

• P is the pulsation period in days, and

• a, b are the calibration constants.

Once the absolute magnitude M is known from the period, the distance modulus formula gives the distance.

14.14.5 Faber-Jackson Relations

For elliptical galaxies, the velocity dispersion correlates with luminosity:

L ∝ σβ

where

• σ is the stellar velocity dispersion

• β ≈ 4 empirically

log(L)Tully-Fisher Relation log(L) FJ Relation

log(vrot ) log(σ)
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4

Figure 14: The Tully-Fisher and Faber-Jackson relations allow estimation of galaxy distances from mea-
surable kinematic properties.

14.14.6 Type Ia Supernovae

Type Ia supernovae are extremely luminous and serve as excellent ”standardizable candles”:

• Result from thermonuclear explosion of white dwarf reaching Chandrasekhar limit (∼1.4 M⊙ )

• Peak luminosity: ∼1010 L⊙ (as bright as entire galaxy)

• Can be observed at cosmological distances

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14 COSMOLOGY By Pika and Owen

• Light curve shape correlates with peak luminosity (Phillips relationship)

The distance is calculated from

µ = mB − MB + α(s − 1) − βc

where

• µ is the distance modulus

• mB is the apparent magnitude in B-band

• MB is the absolute magnitude (calibrated)

• s is the light curve shape parameter

• c is the color correction

• α, β are the calibration coefficients

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15 INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM By Pika and Owen

15 Interstellar Medium

15.1 Introduction

The interstellar medium refers to the matter that exists in the space between stars within a galaxy. It
is composed of gas, dust, and cosmic rays.
It can be categorized into several distinct phases based on the temperature and density of the material:

• Neutral Gas: Consists of neutral hydrogen (H) and molecular hydrogen (H2 ), often found in
molecular clouds.

• Ionized Gas: Composed of ionized hydrogen (H + ) and other ionized elements, typically found in
regions such as HII regions.

• Dust: Microscopic solid particles that can range in size from nanometers to microns, contributing
to the absorption and scattering of light.

• Cosmic Rays: High-energy particles, primarily protons and atomic nuclei, that travel through the
ISM.

Some important regions within the interstellar medium include:

• HII Regions: These are regions of ionized hydrogen, created by the ultraviolet radiation from
young, hot stars. They are often observed in emission lines such as Hα.

• Molecular Clouds: These are cold, dense regions of the interstellar medium where molecules such
as H2 are found. They are often the birthplaces of stars.

• Warm Ionized Medium: A diffuse component of the interstellar medium, where the gas is partially
ionized and has a temperature around 104 K.

15.2 Fluid Dynamics

15.2.1 Stress Tensor

In continuum mechanics, the stress tensor σ is a fundamental concept that describes the internal forces
acting within a material or fluid.

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For a general three-dimensional space, the stress tensor σ is a 3 × 3 matrix, with components σij where i
and j refer to the directions (or axes) in space:
 
σxx σxy σxz 
 
 
σ=
σyx σyy σyz 

 
 
σzx σzy σzz

where

• σxx , σyy , σzz are the normal stress components in the x, y, and z directions.

• σxy , σxz , σyz are the shear stress components.

• The matrix is symmetric: σij = σji .

15.2.2 Tensor Product

Definition. 15.1: Tensor Product

Let V and W be vector spaces over a field F. The tensor product V ⊗W is a vector space equipped
with a bilinear map
⊗ : V × W −→ V ⊗ W

satisfying the following universal property: For every bilinear map ϕ : V × W −→ U to any vector
space U , there exists a unique linear map ϕ̃ : V ⊗ W −→ U such that the following diagram
commutes:
⊗
V ×W V ⊗W
ϕ̃
ϕ
U
Tensor product of two vectors A and B is given by

(A ⊗ B)ij = Ai Bj

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15.2.3 Divergence Theorem

Theorem. 15.1: Divergence Theorem

ˆ ˆ
F · n dS = ∇ · F dV
∂V V

where

• F is a vector field,

• V is the volume enclosed by the surface ∂V ,

• n is the outward-pointing unit normal vector on the surface ∂V , and

• dS is the surface area element on ∂V

15.2.4 Continuity Equation and Momentum Equation

Let ρ(x, t) denote the mass density and v(x, t) the velocity field of a fluid. The total mass within a fixed
control volume V with boundary ∂V and outward unit normal n is
ˆ
MV (t) = ρ dV
V

The principle of mass conservation states that the rate of change of mass within V equals the negative of
the net mass flux through the boundary:
ˆ ˆ
d
ρ dV = − ρ v · n dS
dt V ∂V

As V is fixed in space, ˆ ˆ
∂ρ
dV = − ρ v · n dS
V ∂t ∂V

By the divergence theorem, ˆ ˆ

∂ρ
dV = − ∇ · (ρv) dV
V ∂t V

Hence, ˆ  
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) dV = 0
V ∂t

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As V is arbitrary, the integrand must vanish everywhere and

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

which is the local form of continuity equation.

By the material derivative D/Dt = ∂/∂t + v · ∇,

Dρ
+ ρ∇ · v = 0
Dt

Consider the momentum of fluid within a fixed control volume V :

ˆ
ρv dV
V

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
d
ρv dV = − ρv(v · n) dS + σ · n dS + ρf dV
dt V ∂V ∂V V

where

• σ is the stress tensor,

• f is the body force per unit mass (e.g. gravity).

Using the divergence theorem,

ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
ρv(v · n) dS = ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) dV, σ · n dS = ∇ · σ dV
∂V V ∂V V

Therefore, ˆ  
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) − ∇ · σ − ρf dV = 0
V ∂t
As V is arbitrary,
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = ∇ · σ + ρf
∂t
which is the Cauchy momentum equation in conservation form. Using the continuity equation, it
can be rewritten in material-derivative form:

Dv
ρ = ∇ · σ + ρf
Dt

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15.2.5 Euler’s Equation (Special Case of Navier-Stokes Equation)

From
∂
(ρv) + ∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = ∇ · σ + ρf
∂t
where ρ is the density of the fluid, v is the velocity of the fluid, σ is the stress tensor, and f represents
external body forces per unit mass.
∂ ∂v ∂ρ
(ρv) = ρ +v
∂t ∂t ∂t
∇ · (ρv ⊗ v) = v · ∇(ρv) = v · ∇(ρ)v + ρv · ∇v

For an inviscid fluid (no viscosity), the stress tensor only contains the pressure term:

σ = −pI

where p is the pressure and I is the identity matrix. The divergence of the stress tensor is

∇ · σ = −∇p

∂v ∂ρ
ρ + v + v · ∇ρv + ρv · ∇v = −∇p + ρf
∂t ∂t
For an incompressible flow (constant ρ):

∂ρ
=0 and ∇ρ = 0
∂t

∂ρ
This implies that the terms v and v · ∇ρv vanish. Hence,
∂t

∂v
ρ + ρv · ∇v = −∇p + ρf
∂t

∂v 1
+ v · ∇v = − ∇p + f
∂t ρ

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15.3 Case Study

15.3.1 Background

The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust at various densities and temperatures, organized into
molecular clouds, atomic gas, and ionized phases. Gravitational collapse occurs when self-gravity over-
comes pressure support, leading to star formation. The interstellar medium exhibits a wide range of
densities:

Phase Density, ρ (g cm−3 ) Collapse Timescale, tff

Molecular Cloud (diffuse) 4.2 × 10−22 ∼ 107 yr

Molecular Cloud (dense core) 4.2 × 10−20 ∼ 106 yr

Atomic HI Cloud 4.2 × 10−24 ∼ 108 yr

HII Region 4.2 × 10−25 ∼ 109 yr

15.3.2 Derivation

• Continuity equation (mass conservation):

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

• Euler equation (momentum conservation):

∂v 1
+ (v · ∇)v = − ∇p − ∇Φ
∂t ρ

• Poisson equation for the gravitational potential where ∇2 f = ∇ · (∇f ) and ∇2 Φ = f :

∇2 Φ = 4πGρ

Consider an uniform background:

ρ = ρ0 + δρ, v = δv, p = p0 + δp, Φ = Φ0 + δΦ

To isolate pure gravitational collapse, we consider the pressure-less limit:

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15 INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM By Pika and Owen

• Linearized continuity equation:

∂δρ
+ ρ0 ∇ · δv = 0
∂t

• Linearized Euler equation (no pressure):

∂δv
= −∇δΦ
∂t

• Linearized Poisson equation:

∇2 δΦ = 4πG δρ

Therefore,
∂
(∇ · δv) = −∇2 δΦ
∂t
and then
∂
(∇ · δv) = −4πG δρ
∂t
Also,
∂ 2 δρ ∂
2
+ ρ0 (∇ · δv) = 0
∂t ∂t
Finally,
∂ 2 δρ
+ ρ0 [−4πG δρ] = 0
∂t2
Hence,
∂ 2 δρ
= 4πGρ0 δρ
∂t2
¨ = ω 2 δρ with
which is in the form of δρ
ω 2 ≡ 4πGρ0 > 0

The eωt mode represents exponential growth of density perturbations which represent gravitational collapse.
The e−ωt mode decays and is typically not physically relevant for collapse initial conditions. The e-folding
time (characteristic growth/collapse timescale) is

1 1 1
τ≡ =√ ∼√
ω 4πGρ0 Gρ0

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16 STUDY OF THE EARTH By Pika and Owen

16 Study of the Earth

16.1 Tides

Tides are the periodic rise and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational forces exerted by the Moon
and the Sun on Earth.

Figure 15: Source: [Link]

16.2 Seasons

Seasons are caused by the tilt of Earth’s axis (23.5◦ ) relative to its orbit around the Sun.

• Summer occurs in the hemisphere tilted toward the Sun.

• Winter occurs in the hemisphere tilted away from the Sun.

• Spring and Autumn occur when neither hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun.
March 21
D

June 21 December 21
A C

B
September 22

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16 STUDY OF THE EARTH By Pika and Owen

16.3 Factors Influencing Climate

Climate depends on several natural factors:

• Latitude: Distance from the equator affects temperature.

• Altitude: Higher altitudes are cooler.

• Ocean Currents: Warm or cold currents can affect coastal climates.

• Topography: Mountains can block winds and affect rainfall.

• Human Activities: Urbanization and greenhouse gases influence climate.

16.4 Eclipses

16.4.1 Solar Eclipse

It occurs when the Moon comes between the Earth and Sun, blocking sunlight.

16.4.2 Lunar Eclipse

It occurs when the Earth comes between the Sun and Moon, casting a shadow on the Moon.

16.5 Space Weather

16.5.1 Introduction

Space weather refers to the dynamic conditions in Earth’s space environment, primarily influenced by the
Sun.

16.5.2 Solar Wind

The solar wind is a stream of charged particles released from the upper atmosphere of the Sun, called the
corona. It affects the Earth’s magnetosphere and can disrupt satellite communications.

16.5.3 Solar Flares

Solar flares are sudden bursts of radiation from the Sun. They release energy across the electromagnetic
spectrum, which can impact radio communications and GPS systems on Earth.

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16.5.4 Coronal Mass Ejections (CMEs)

CMEs are massive bursts of solar wind and magnetic fields rising above the solar corona. They can trigger
geomagnetic storms that affect satellites, power grids, and auroras.

16.5.5 Aurorae

Aurorae (Northern and Southern Lights) are caused by charged particles from the Sun interacting with
Earth’s magnetic field and atmosphere.

16.6 Meteor Showers

Meteor showers occur when Earth passes through the debris left by a comet.

16.7 Equinoxes

An equinox occurs twice a year, when the Sun crosses the celestial equator. On these dates, day and
night are approximately equal in length at all latitudes. The two equinoxes are:

• Vernal Equinox: Occurs around March 20th or 21st, marking the start of spring in the northern
hemisphere.

• Autumnal Equinox: Occurs around September 22nd or 23rd, marking the start of autumn in the
northern hemisphere.

At the equinoxes, the Sun rises directly in the east and sets directly in the west.

16.8 Solstices

A solstice occurs twice a year when the Sun reaches its highest or lowest point in the sky at noon, relative
to the celestial equator. This results in the longest and shortest days of the year.

• Summer Solstice: Occurs around June 21st or 22nd. The Sun is at its northernmost point,
resulting in the longest day of the year in the northern hemisphere and the shortest day in the
southern hemisphere.

• Winter Solstice: Occurs around December 21st or 22nd. The Sun is at its southernmost point,
resulting in the shortest day of the year in the northern hemisphere and the longest day in the
southern hemisphere.

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17 STUDY OF THE MOON By Pika and Owen

16.9 Solar Declination

Solar declination is the angle between the rays of the Sun and the plane of the Earth’s equator. It varies
throughout the year, reaching +23.5◦ during the summer solstice and −23.5◦ during the winter solstice.
At the equinoxes, the solar declination is 0◦ , meaning the Sun is directly above the equator.

17 Study of the Moon

17.1 Precession

Precession is the slow, conical motion of the Earth’s rotation axis caused primarily by the gravitational
torque of the Sun and Moon on Earth’s equatorial bulge.

Rate of precession ≈ 50.3′′ per year

Proof. Consider the Earth as an oblate spheroid with equatorial radius Re and polar radius Rp . The
Earth’s equatorial bulge experiences a gravitational torque due to the Sun (or Moon):

τ =r×F

The magnitude of the torque is proportional to the Earth’s moment of inertia difference and the gravita-
tional force:
3GMs
τ≈ (C − A) sin 2θ
2r3
where

• G is the gravitational constant,

• Ms is the mass of the Sun,

• r is the Earth-Sun distance,

• C and A are the Earth’s principal moments of inertia about polar and equatorial axes respectively,
and

• θ is the obliquity of the ecliptic (≈ 23.5◦ ).

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The precessional angular velocity Ωp is given by the ratio of the torque to the Earth’s spin angular
momentum L = Cω:
τ 3GMs C − A
Ωp = = cos θ
Cω 2r3 Cω
Here, ω is the Earth’s spin angular velocity. The cos θ factor appears due to the component of torque
perpendicular to the spin axis. For an oblate Earth,

2
C − A = Me Re2 J2
5

where

• Me is the Earth’s mass,

• J2 ≈ 1.0826 × 10−3 is the dynamical flattening coefficient.

The precessional angular velocity becomes

3GMs 25 Me Re2 J2
Ωp = · cos θ
2r3 Cω

2
Using C ≈ Me Re2 , we simplify:
5
3GMs
Ωp ≈ J2 cos θ
2r3 ω
Substitute the values

G = 6.674 × 10−11 m3 kg−1 s−2

Ms = 1.989 × 1030 kg

r = 1.496 × 1011 m

ω = 7.292 × 10−5 rad/s

J2 = 1.0826 × 10−3

θ = 23.5◦

Rate of precession = Ωp × 206264.8′′ × 3.156 × 107 s/year ≈ 50.3′′ /year

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17.2 Nutation

Nutation refers to small periodic oscillations superimposed on the precessional motion. These are caused
by the varying positions of the Moon and Sun relative to Earth, leading to deviations in the tilt of Earth’s
axis.

17.3 Libration

Libration is the apparent oscillation of the Moon that allows observers on Earth to see slightly more than
half of its surface over time. There are three main types:

• Longitudinal libration: Due to the eccentricity of the Moon’s orbit.

• Latitudinal libration: Due to the tilt of the Moon’s axis relative to its orbital plane.

• Diurnal libration: Due to the rotation of the Earth and the observer’s changing viewpoint.

18 Study of the Solar System

18.1 Formation

The Solar System formed about 4.6 billion years ago from a giant molecular cloud composed of gas and
dust. The process can be divided into several stages.

18.1.1 Nebular Hypothesis

The nebular hypothesis explains that the Solar System formed from a rotating disk of gas and dust. This
cloud, known as the solar nebula, collapsed under its own gravity, leading to the formation of the Sun
at its center and the planets from the remaining material. The key stages in the formation of the Solar
System are as follows:P

1. Collapse of the Solar Nebula: The gas and dust cloud began to contract due to gravity. As it
contracted, it started to rotate faster, forming a flat, rotating disk.

2. Formation of the Sun: At the center of the disk, the temperature and pressure increased, leading
to nuclear fusion, which ignited the Sun.

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3. Accretion of Planets: In the outer regions of the disk, dust and gas began to clump together
to form planetesimals, which further collided and merged to form planets, moons, and other small
bodies.

4. Clearing the Nebula: The young Sun’s solar wind cleared away the remaining gas and dust,
leaving behind the current structure of the Solar System.

18.1.2 Differentiation and Evolution

After the initial formation, the Solar System underwent several evolutionary processes:

• Differentiation: The early planets were molten, and heavier materials sank toward their cores
while lighter materials rose to the surface.

• Late Heavy Bombardment: During the early stages, the planets were frequently bombarded by
leftover planetesimals, causing cratering on their surfaces.

• Orbital Evolution: Gravitational interactions between planets and other bodies in the Solar System
led to changes in their orbits over time.

18.2 Structure and Components of the Solar System

The Solar System is composed of the Sun and all the objects that are bound by its gravitational field,
including planets, moons, asteroids, comets, and other small bodies.

18.2.1 The Sun

The Sun is the central star of the Solar System, providing the gravitational force that holds the system
together. It is composed primarily of hydrogen and helium and accounts for approximately 99.86% of the
total mass of the Solar System. The Sun’s core is where nuclear fusion occurs, generating the energy that
powers the Sun and supports life on Earth.

18.2.2 Planets

The modern scientific definition of a planet was formally established by the International Astronomical
Union (IAU) in 2006. According to the IAU, a celestial body is classified as a planet if it satisfies all of
the following three criteria:

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• It orbits the Sun. The object must revolve around the Sun, distinguishing planets of the Solar
System from moons, which orbit planets, and from extrasolar (exoplanetary) systems.

• It has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces, so that it assumes
hydrostatic equilibrium (a nearly round shape). This condition ensures that the object is
massive enough for gravity to shape it into a roughly spherical form.

• It has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. The object must be gravitationally
dominant in its orbital region, meaning it has either accreted or scattered most other bodies of
comparable size near its orbit.

An object that meets the first two criteria but has not cleared its orbital neighbourhood is classified as a
dwarf planet (e.g. Pluto, Ceres, and Eris). There are eight planets in the Solar System, divided into two
main categories:

Terrestrial Planets The terrestrial planets are rocky bodies with solid surfaces and relatively high
densities. They are located in the inner Solar System:

• Mercury

• Venus

• Earth

• Mars

These planets are characterized by thin or moderate atmospheres, slow rotation rates compared to gas
giants, and a composition dominated by silicate rocks and metals.

Gas Giants and Ice Giants The giant planets are large, massive planets with thick atmospheres and
no well-defined solid surfaces. They are further divided into gas giants and ice giants:

• Gas giants: Jupiter, Saturn

• Ice giants: Uranus, Neptune

Giant planets possess strong gravitational fields, extensive systems of moons, and prominent ring systems.

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18.2.3 Smaller Bodies

The Solar System also contains numerous smaller bodies, including

• Asteroids: Rocky bodies that primarily orbit between Mars and Jupiter in the asteroid belt.

• Comets: Icy bodies that often have highly elliptical orbits, and develop tails when they approach
the Sun.

• Meteoroids: Small fragments of asteroids or comets that can enter Earth’s atmosphere and cause
meteor showers.

18.2.4 Kuiper Belt and Oort Cloud

The outer regions of the Solar System are populated by icy bodies and dwarf planets:

• Kuiper Belt: A region beyond Neptune that contains icy bodies, including dwarf planets like Pluto.

• Oort Cloud: A hypothetical cloud of icy bodies that is believed to surround the Solar System at
great distances, thought to be the source of long-period comets.

19 Study of the Sun

19.1 Composition

The Sun is primarily composed of hydrogen and helium, with trace amounts of heavier elements. Hydrogen
nuclei (protons) undergo nuclear fusion in the solar core:

4p −→ 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + γ + 26.7 MeV

powering the Sun through the proton-proton chain.

19.2 Internal Structure

1. Core:

• Radius: ∼ 0.2 R⊙

• Site of nuclear fusion: 4p −→ 4 He + 2e+ + 2νe + 26.7 MeV

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19 STUDY OF THE SUN By Pika and Owen

• Temperature: ∼ 1.5 × 107 K

2. Radiative Zone:

• Energy transported by radiation

• Temperature gradient decreases outward

3. Convective Zone:

• Energy transported by convection

• Outer ∼ 30% of Sun’s radius

• Convection cells cause granulation on the photosphere

19.3 Atmosphere

• Photosphere: Visible surface; T ∼ 5800 K

• Chromosphere: Above photosphere; hotter than photosphere; T ∼ 104 K

• Corona: Outermost layer; T ∼ 106 K; source of solar wind

19.4 Solar Surface Activities

19.4.1 Sunspots

Sunspots are temporary dark regions on the solar photosphere (visible surface of the Sun) caused by strong
magnetic fields.

19.4.2 Solar Wind

The solar wind is a continuous outflow of plasma from the solar corona. The solar wind consists mainly of

• Protons (p+ )

• Electrons (e− )

• Alpha particles (α = 4 He2+ )

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The solar corona has high temperature (T ∼ 1 × 106 K). The sound speed is
s
kB T
cs ∼
mp

As the corona cannot remain static with such high thermal pressure, the plasma expands outward, forming
the solar wind. Plasma is often called the fourth state of matter. It is a fully or partially ionized gas,
meaning that a significant fraction of the atoms or molecules are electrically charged (ions and electrons).
The heliosphere is the region of space dominated by the solar wind and the Sun’s magnetic field, extending
well beyond the orbit of Pluto.
The magnetosphere is the region around a planet where the planetary magnetic field dominates the
motion of charged particles, protecting the planet from the solar wind.

19.5 Magnetohydrodynamics

Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) is the physical theory that describes the dynamics of electrically conduct-
ing fluids in the presence of magnetic fields. Such fluids include plasmas, liquid metals, and saltwater.
MHD combines principles from:

• Fluid dynamics (Navier–Stokes equations),

• Electromagnetism (Maxwell’s equations), and

• Thermodynamics

In the MHD approximation, the plasma is treated as a single conducting fluid rather than as separate ions
and electrons. This approximation is valid when the characteristic length scales are much larger than the
particle mean free paths and the Debye length. The basic set of ideal MHD equations consists of:

∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρv) = 0
∂t

where ρ is the mass density and v is the fluid velocity.

 
∂v
ρ + v · ∇v = −∇p + J × B + ρg
∂t

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19 STUDY OF THE SUN By Pika and Owen

where p is the gas pressure, B is the magnetic field, J is the current density, and g is the gravitational
acceleration.
∂B
= ∇ × (v × B) − ∇ × (η∇ × B)
∂t
where η is the magnetic diffusivity. In ideal MHD, η = 0.

∇·B=0

which expresses the absence of magnetic monopoles. The Sun is composed primarily of ionized hydrogen
and helium, making it an excellent example of a natural MHD system. Different layers of the Sun exhibit
different MHD behaviors:

• Solar interior: Dense plasma with strong coupling between flow and magnetic fields.

• Photosphere and chromosphere: Visible surface where magnetic structures emerge.

• Corona: Extremely hot, low-density plasma dominated by magnetic forces.

The Sun possesses a large-scale magnetic field generated by a solar dynamo. This dynamo operates in
the convection zone and is driven by

• Differential rotation,

• Turbulent convective motions,

• Plasma conductivity.

MHD equations describe how plasma flows stretch, twist, and amplify magnetic field lines, converting
kinetic energy into magnetic energy. Sunspots are regions of strong magnetic fields that inhibit convective
heat transport. In MHD terms, the magnetic pressure

B2
pmag =
2µ0

partially balances the gas pressure, leading to cooler and darker regions on the solar surface. Solar flares
and coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are dramatic manifestations of MHD processes. They are powered by
magnetic reconnection, a non-ideal MHD process in which magnetic field lines break and reconnect,
rapidly releasing stored magnetic energy. This energy is converted into

• Thermal heating,

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• Particle acceleration,

• Electromagnetic radiation.

MHD predicts the existence of wave modes in magnetized plasmas. One important example is the Alfvén
wave, which propagates along magnetic field lines with speed

B
vA = √
µ0 ρ

Proof. Consider an ideal, perfectly conducting plasma with uniform background magnetic field B0 = B0 ẑ,
uniform mass density ρ, no background flow (v0 = 0), and small perturbations in velocity and magnetic
field. The governing equations are
∂v
ρ = −∇p + J × B
∂t
For incompressible, transverse perturbations, pressure gradients can be neglected, giving

∂v
ρ =J×B
∂t

By Ampère’s law neglecting displacement current,

1
J= ∇×B
µ0

Note that
∂B
= ∇ × (v × B)
∂t

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19 STUDY OF THE SUN By Pika and Owen

By Faraday’s law,
∂B
∇×E=−
∂t
By Gauss’s law,
∇·B=0

In magnetohydrodynamics, the generalized Ohm’s law is

E + v × B = ηJ

where η is the resistivity. For an ideal conductor (η = 0), this reduces to

E = −v × B

Substitute E = −v × B into Faraday’s law:

∂B
∇ × (−v × B) = −
∂t

Rearranging gives
∂B
= ∇ × (v × B)
∂t

Let the magnetic field and velocity be written as

B = B0 + b, v = v1

where b and v1 are small perturbations. To first order, the equation of motion becomes

∂v1 1
ρ = (∇ × b) × B0
∂t µ0

The linearized induction equation is

∂b
= ∇ × (v1 × B0 )
∂t
Take the time derivative of the equation of motion:
 
∂ 2 v1 1 ∂b
ρ 2 = ∇× × B0
∂t µ0 ∂t

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20 HUMAN AND ROBOTIC EXPLORATION WITHIN THE SOLAR SYSTEM By Pika and Owen

Substitute the induction equation:

∂ 2 v1 1
ρ 2
= [∇ × (∇ × (v1 × B0 ))] × B0
∂t µ0

For transverse waves propagating along B0 (take ∂/∂z 6= 0 only), this simplifies to

∂ 2 v1 B02 ∂ 2 v1
=
∂t2 µ0 ρ ∂z 2

The above equation is a standard wave equation of the form

∂ 2 v1 2
2 ∂ v1
= v A
∂t2 ∂z 2

from which we identify the Alfvén speed as

B0
vA = √
µ0 ρ

20 Human and Robotic Exploration within the Solar System

20.1 Human Exploration of the Solar System

Human exploration of the Solar System involves sending astronauts beyond Earth to explore, study, and
potentially inhabit other celestial bodies.

• Purpose: advancing scientific knowledge, developing space technology, inspiring societies, and en-
suring long-term survival of humanity.

• Major challenges: long-duration exposure to microgravity, cosmic radiation, limited medical sup-
port, psychological isolation, and safe re-entry.

• Key destinations: the Moon for testing technologies, Mars for long-term exploration, and near-
Earth asteroids for scientific and resource studies.

• Approach: step-by-step expansion using space stations, lunar missions, and sustainable life-support
systems.

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20 HUMAN AND ROBOTIC EXPLORATION WITHIN THE SOLAR SYSTEM By Pika and Owen

20.2 Planetary Missions

Planetary missions are robotic or crewed missions designed to explore planets, moons, asteroids, and
comets.

• Flyby missions: provide brief but valuable observations with minimal fuel and mission complexity.

• Orbiter missions: allow long-term monitoring, global mapping, and atmospheric studies.

• Landers and rovers: enable direct surface analysis, geology, and chemical investigations, but
require complex entry, descent, and landing systems.

• Scientific value: reveal planetary formation history, climate evolution, and potential habitability.

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21 PROBABILITY By Pika and Owen

Part II: Data Analysis

21 Probability

21.1 Introduction

The probability of an event A is a number between 0 and 1 that represents the likelihood of the event
occurring. It is defined as
Number of favorable outcomes
P (A) =
Total number of possible outcomes
For example, the probability of getting heads in a fair coin toss is:

1
P (Heads) =
2

The probability of the complement of an event A, denoted as Ac , is:

P (Ac ) = 1 − P (A)

1 1
For example, if P (Heads) = , then the probability of getting tails, P (Tails) = .
2 2
The probability of event A occurring given that event B has occurred is called conditional probability and
is denoted as P (A|B). It is given by
P (A ∩ B)
P (A|B) =
P (B)
This is the probability of A given B, assuming P (B) > 0.

21.2 Random Variables

A random variable is a numerical outcome of a random phenomenon. It can be classified as either discrete
or continuous:

• Discrete Random Variable: Takes distinct values (e.g., number of heads in 10 coin tosses).

• Continuous Random Variable: Takes any value within a given range (e.g., height of individuals).

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22 LINEAR AND LOGARITHMIC SCALE By Pika and Owen

The probability mass function (PMF) gives the probability of each possible outcome for discrete random
variables. For example, the PMF of a fair die roll (with outcomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) is

1
P (X = x) = , x ∈ {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
6

The probability density function (PDF) is used for continuous random variables. The probability that a
continuous random variable X takes a value in the interval [a, b] is given by the integral of the PDF over
that interval: ˆ b
P (a ≤ X ≤ b) = fX (x) dx
a

where fX (x) is the PDF of X.

22 Linear and Logarithmic Scale

In a linear scale, the distance between points is the same for each increment. The axis values increase by
a constant amount.
In a logarithmic scale, the distance between values is proportional to the logarithm of the values:

Example
y
104

103

102

101

x
2 3 4 5

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24 MEASURE OF DISPERSION By Pika and Owen

23 Measure of Central Tendancy

Definition. 23.1: Mean

The mean x̄ is the sum of all values divided by the number of observations. For a sample of size n,

1X
n
x̄ = xi
n i=1

Definition. 23.2: Median

The median is the middle value when the data is ordered from least to greatest.
n+1
• If n is odd: The median is the value at position .
2
• If n is even: The median is the average of the two middle values.

Definition. 23.3: Mode

The mode is the value that appears most frequently in the dataset.

24 Measure of Dispersion

24.1 Basic Concepts

Definition. 24.1: Quartile

Quartiles are statistical measures that divide an ordered dataset into four equal parts. They help
describe the spread and distribution of the data. The three quartiles are:

Q1 (first quartile), Q2 (second quartile or median), Q3 (third quartile)

These quartiles divide the data into four segments, each containing 25% of the observations.

Definition. 24.2: Standard Deviation

Standard deviation is a measure of the spread or dispersion of a set of numerical data. It tells us how
much the values deviate, on average, from the mean (average). A small standard deviation indicates
that the data points are clustered close to the mean, while a large standard deviation indicates that

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25 FULL WIDTH AT HALF MAXIMUM By Pika and Owen

the data are spread out. For the data points

x1 , x 2 , x 3 , . . . , x N

the standard deviation is defined as

v
u
u1 X N
σ= t (xi − x̄)2
N i=1

24.2 Box Plots (Box-and-Whisker)

A box plot is a graphical method for displaying the distribution of numerical data using five key summary
values:
IQR

Min Max
Q1 Median (Q2 ) Q3

25 Full Width at Half Maximum

FWHM is the width of a curve measured at half of its maximum amplitude.

Max

Max/2 FWHM

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x

Example. For Gaussian function

(x−µ)2
f (x) = Ae− 2σ 2

where

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26 ERROR ANALYSIS By Pika and Owen

• A is the amplitude (maximum value) of the Gaussian,

• µ is the mean (center) of the distribution,

• σ is the standard deviation (width) of the distribution.

From
(x−µ)2 A
Ae− 2σ 2 =
2
(x−µ)2 1
e− 2σ 2 =
2
(x − µ)2 1
− 2
= ln = − ln 2
2σ 2
(x − µ)2 = 2σ 2 ln 2

The points x1 and x2 are

√
x = µ ± σ 2 ln 2

Therefore, the FWHM is

√
FWHM = x2 − x1 = 2σ 2 ln 2

26 Error Analysis
In experimental measurements, quantities have uncertainties or errors. If a function depends on multiple
variables:
z = f (x, y, . . . )

and x, y, . . . have uncertainties ∆x, ∆y, . . . , then the approximate uncertainty in z is

s 2  2
∂z ∂z
∆z ≈ ∆x + ∆y + ...
∂x ∂y

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27 REGRESSION ANALYSIS By Pika and Owen

27 Regression Analysis

27.1 Linear regression

27.1.1 Introduction

Linear regression is a fundamental supervised learning algorithm used to model the relationship between
a scalar response (dependent variable, Y ) and one or more explanatory variables (independent
variables, X). For simple linear regression (one independent variable), the relationship is modeled by
a straight line:
ŷ = β0 + β1 x

Where ŷ is the predicted response, x is the independent variable, β0 is the intercept, and β1 is the slope.

27.1.2 Least Squares Method

The goal is to find the optimal coefficients (β0 , β1 ) that make the line best fit the observed data points
(xi , yi ). The best fit is defined by the least squares method, which minimizes the sum of the squares of
the residuals (errors).

Definition. 27.1: Residual

A residual, ei , for the i-th data point is the difference between the actual value yi and the predicted
value ŷi :
ei = yi − ŷi = yi − (β0 + β1 xi )

Definition. 27.2: Cost Function

The cost function, J(β0 , β1 ), is the quantity we want to minimize:

X
n X
n
J(β0 , β1 ) = e2i = (yi − (β0 + β1 xi ))2
i=1 i=1

Theorem. 27.1: Linear Regression

To find the minimum of J(β0 , β1 ), we set the partial derivatives with respect to β0 and β1 to zero.
This leads to the following solutions for the optimal coefficients, β̂0 and β̂1 :

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27 REGRESSION ANALYSIS By Pika and Owen

• The optimal slope coefficient is given by

X
n
(xi − x̄)(yi − ȳ)
i=1
β̂1 =
X
n
(xi − x̄)2
i=1

• The optimal intercept coefficient is then found using the fact that the regression line must pass
through the point of means (x̄, ȳ):
β̂0 = ȳ − β̂1 x̄

27.2 Nonlinear Regression

Nonlinear regression aims to fit a curve to data where the relationship between variables is not linear.
While computers can do this accurately, it is possible to get an approximate fit manually using eyes and
pen.
y

Draw a smooth curve that visually passes as close as possible to all points. Adjust the shape until it
captures the overall trend.

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

Part III: Observational Astronomy

28 Instrumentation and Space Technologies

28.1 Telescope

28.1.1 Type of Telescope

Optical Telescope Refracting telescope uses lenses to bend (refract) light to a focal point.

• Advantages: Sealed tube, no central obstruction, good for planetary observation

• Disadvantages: Chromatic aberration, size limitations, expensive

• Structure: Objective lens −→ Tube −→ Eyepiece

Reflecting telescope uses mirrors to reflect light to a focal point.

• Types by Optical Design:

1. Newtonian: Primary parabolic mirror and flat secondary diagonal

2. Cassegrain: Primary hyperbolic and secondary convex mirror

3. Ritchey-Chrétien: Both mirrors hyperbolic (no spherical aberration)

4. Nasmyth: Light directed to side of telescope

• Advantages: No chromatic aberration, easier to make large apertures

• Disadvantages: Central obstruction, coma in some designs

Radio Telescopes Radio telescopes collect radio waves using large parabolic dishes or arrays.

• Examples: Arecibo (305 m), FAST (500 m), ALMA (array)

• Components: Dish, feed antenna, receiver, amplifier, recorder

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

Mount Type Advantages Disadvantages

Altazimuth Simple, compact Field rotation
Equatorial Natural tracking Complex, heavy
Fork Stable for Cassegrains Limited sky access
German Equatorial Good balance Meridian flip required

Table 9: Comparison of telescope mount types

28.1.2 Mount Types

28.1.3 Key Components

1. Primary Mirror/Objective: Main light-gathering element

2. Secondary Mirror: Redirects light path (in reflectors)

3. Focuser: Adjusts position of eyepiece or instrument

4. Eyepiece/Instrument: Final light analysis

5. Mount: Supports and points the telescope

6. Drive System: Tracks celestial objects

28.1.4 Linear Magnification

The magnification of a telescope is the factor by which the telescope increases the apparent size of an
object. It is given by
fobj
M=
feye
where fobj is the focal length of the objective lens or mirror and feye is the focal length of the eyepiece.

28.1.5 Angular Magnification

Consider an object of height h placed at a distance D from the eye. The angle θ subtended at the eye
(called the visual angle) is
h
θ ≈ tan θ = (θ  1)
D
The approximation tan θ ≈ θ is valid for small angles (measured in radians), which is typical in optical
systems.

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

Angular magnification M is defined as

θ′
M=
θ
where

• θ′ is the angle subtended at the eye when viewing the object through the lens,

• θ is the angle subtended at the eye when viewing the object directly (unaided eye).

28.1.6 Chromatic Aberration

Chromatic aberration is an optical defect of lenses that arises due to the dispersion of light. It occurs
because the refractive index of lens material depends on the wavelength of light.
The refractive index n of a transparent medium is a function of wavelength λ:

n = n(λ)

In general, shorter wavelengths (violet light) experience a higher refractive index than longer wavelengths
(red light):
nviolet > nred

The focal length f of a thin lens is given by the lens maker’s formula (for thin lens)
 
1 1 1
= (n − 1) −
f R1 R2

Since n depends on λ, the focal length also depends on wavelength:

f = f (λ)

Hence, different colors of light are brought to focus at different positions along the optical axis.

28.1.7 f -number

The focal ratio (or f -number) is the ratio of the telescope’s focal length f to the diameter D of the
aperture:
f
f /# =
D

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

A smaller focal ratio corresponds to a wider field of view and faster exposure times, which is important
for observing faint objects.

28.1.8 Light-gathering Power

The light-gathering power of a telescope is its ability to collect light from an astronomical object. This
is important because the more light a telescope can gather, the fainter objects it can detect. The light-
gathering power is proportional to the area of the telescope’s aperture, A, which is typically circular. The
formula for the area of a circular aperture is
 2
D
A=π
2

where D is the diameter of the aperture. Therefore, the light-gathering power is proportional to the square
of the aperture diameter:
L ∝ D2

This relationship means that a telescope with a larger aperture collects more light, allowing for observations
of fainter objects.

28.1.9 Adaptive Optics

Adaptive optics is a technology used to improve the performance of optical systems by compensating
for distortions caused by the Earth’s atmosphere. These distortions, known as atmospheric turbulence,
can blur images taken with ground-based telescopes. Adaptive optics systems use deformable mirrors to
correct for these distortions in real-time. The process involves

1. A guide star or laser is used to create a reference point in the sky.

2. A wavefront sensor measures the distortion of the light coming from the guide star.

3. A computer calculates the necessary corrections to the wavefront.

4. A deformable mirror adjusts the light path, compensating for the distortion.

The result is sharper images with significantly reduced atmospheric distortion.

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

28.1.10 Artificial Light

Artificial light pollution affects astronomical observations, particularly in urban areas. The brightness of
the night sky due to artificial lighting can drown out faint celestial objects, making it harder to observe
stars, planets, and galaxies. Efforts such as light pollution mitigation are crucial for preserving the
quality of astronomical observations.

28.2 Interferometer

Geometric Model of a Two-Element Interferometer A two-element interferometer uses two tele-

scopes to observe the same astronomical object simultaneously. The signals from the two telescopes are
combined, and the interference pattern is analyzed to extract higher resolution data than a single telescope
could provide. For two telescopes separated by a distance D, the resolution of the interferometer is related
to the wavelength λ of the observed light and the baseline D by the following formula for the angular
resolution θ:
λ
θ∼
D

Aperture Synthesis Aperture synthesis is a technique used in radio astronomy and interferometry to
create an image with the resolution of an aperture much larger than the physical size of the telescope. The
method involves observing the same object with multiple telescopes at different positions and combining
the data to simulate the effect of a much larger telescope.
The resolution of a synthetic aperture is determined by the maximum separation between the telescopes,
referred to as the baseline. By changing the positions of the telescopes, astronomers can collect data at
multiple baselines, which allows them to improve the resolution over time.

28.3 Detector

28.3.1 Photometers

A photometer measures the intensity of light from a source in a specific wavelength band. It typically uses
a single detector element and filters to isolate desired wavelengths.

28.3.2 Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)

CCDs are widely used digital detectors that convert photons into electrons and then into a measurable
voltage. They offer high quantum efficiency and the ability to create 2D images. The number of electrons

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

generated in a pixel can be calculated as

Ne = Fγ A t QE

where

• Fγ is the photon flux (photons s−1 m−2 ),

• A is the telescope collecting area (m2 ),

• t is the exposure time (s),

• QE is the quantum efficiency of the detector.

28.4 Plate Scale

28.4.1 Introduction

For small angles (where tan θ ≈ θ), the plate scale P for telescope is given by

s 1
P = =
θ f

where

• θ is the angular size on sky (radians)

• s is the linear size in focal plane

• f is the telescope focal length

Since astronomers work with arcseconds and millimeters (or microns for pixels):

206265
Parcsec/mm =
fmm

The constant 206,265 comes from:

180
1 radian = × 3600 = 206264.8 arcseconds
π

For digital detectors like CCDs,

206265 × pµm
Parcsec/px =
fmm × 1000

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28 INSTRUMENTATION AND SPACE TECHNOLOGIES By Pika and Owen

where pµm is the pixel size in micrometers.

28.4.2 Field of View

The total angular field covered by a detector is

FOVwidth = Nx · Ppx [arcseconds]

FOVheight = Ny · Ppx [arcseconds]

where Nx and Ny are the number of pixels in each dimension.

28.5 Space-Based Instruments

Space-based instruments operate above Earth’s atmosphere to observe the universe with high precision.

• Atmospheric limitations: Earth’s atmosphere absorbs or distorts many wavelengths such as ul-
traviolet, X-ray, and infrared radiation.

• Improved resolution: absence of atmospheric turbulence allows sharper images and more stable
measurements.

• Instrument types: telescopes, spectrometers, particle detectors, and magnetometers.

• Constraints: high cost, limited repair opportunities, and finite operational lifetimes.

28.6 Signal-to-Noise Ratio

28.6.1 Introduction

Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) is a measure of the quality of a signal in the presence of noise. It quantifies
how much the signal stands out from the background noise. High SNR means a clear signal, while low
SNR indicates that noise dominates.
SNR is defined as
S
SNR =
N
where

• S is the signal strength (e.g., number of detected photons from the source),

• N is the noise (e.g. standard deviation of the background).

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28.6.2 Pure Poisson Noise

Definition. 28.1: Poisson Distribution

The Poisson distribution is a discrete probability distribution that expresses the probability of a
number of events occurring in a fixed interval of time or space, given the average number of occur-
rences. It is commonly used to model random events like the number of phone calls received at a
call center, the number of accidents at an intersection, or the number of particles decaying per unit
time. The probability mass function of a Poisson distribution is given by

λk e−λ
P (X = k) = , k = 0, 1, 2, . . .
k!

where

• X is the random variable representing the number of events,

• λ is the average number of occurrences in the given interval (also called the rate or intensity),

• k! is the factorial of k, i.e., k! = k(k − 1)(k − 2) . . . 1.

The Poisson distribution is characterized by the mean and variance both being equal to λ, i.e.,

µ = σ2 = λ

For photon-counting detectors, the dominant noise is often Poisson. If the expected signal is S photons,
then Poisson statistics give
√
σ= S

Hence,
S √
SNR = √ = S
S

28.6.3 Background Noise

Suppose the measurement includes both the object signal S and the background B. The total number of
detected photons is
Stot = S + B

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Poisson statistics give total variance

σ2 = S + B

Hence,
S
SNR = √
S+B

28.6.4 Readout Noise

A CCD or CMOS detector adds readout noise σread per pixel. If npix pixels are used, the read noise
contribution is
2 2
σread,tot = npix σread

The total variance becomes

σ 2 = S + B + npix σread
2

Hence,
S
SNR = p 2
S + B + npix σread

28.6.5 Complete Equation

S
SNR = s  
npix 2
S + B + npix 1 + (Ns + ND + σread + G2 σf2 )
nB

where

• nB is the background pixels in the image, which correspond to regions with no object or light source.

• Ns represents the signal from the source, representing the number of photons from the object being
observed.

• ND represents the dark noise, which arises from thermally generated electrons in the CCD detector,
even in the absence of light.

• G is the gain of the CCD detector, which relates the number of electrons collected by the pixel to
the digital output recorded by the system.

• σf is the fluctuations or Fano noise, which arises from the statistical nature of electron counting
processes.

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