Fabrication and Processing of

Engineering Materials

ISSUES TO ADDRESS...
• What are some of the common fabrication techniques
for metals?
• What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the
mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys?
• How is processing of ceramics different than for metals?
• What are the primary polymer processing methods?

Chapter 17 - 1
 Metal Fabrication
• How do we fabricate metals?
– Blacksmith - hammer (forged)
– Cast molten metal into mold

Hot working vs. Cold working

• Deformation temperature • Deformation below

high enough for recrystallization
recrystallization temperature
• Large deformations • Strain hardening occurs
• Small deformations

Chapter 17 - 2
 Metal Fabrication Methods (i)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Forging (Hammering; Stamping) • Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling)
(wrenches, crankshafts) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate)
force
die roll
Ad
A o blank A d often at Ao
elev. T
roll
Adapted from
force
• Drawing • Extrusion Fig. 17.2,
Callister &
Rethwisch 9e.
(rods, wire, tubing) (rods, tubing)
Ao
die Ad container
tensile die holder
Ao force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die
container die
die must be well lubricated & clean ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot)
Chapter 17 - 3
Forging is a manufacturing process involving the shaping of a
metal through hammering or pressing. These compressive forces
are delivered with a hammer or die. Forging is often categorized
according to the temperature at which it is performed—cold or hot
forging.

Hot Forging
Compressive force squeezes the metal between a punch and die at
temperature above the recrystallization temperature of the metal
until the material conforms to the die’s contours.

Cold Forging
Compressive force squeezes the metal between a punch and die at
temperatures below the recrystallization temperature until the
material conforms to the die’s contours.

Chapter 17 - 4
Rolling process is best defined as the shaping of metals into
semi-finished or finished forms by passing between rollers
rotating in opposite direction.

Rolling is the most important and widely used metal forming

process because of its lower cost and higher productivity.

Rolling is classified according to the temperature of the metal

rolled. If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization
temperature, then the process is known as hot rolling. If the
temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization
temperature, the process is known as cold rolling.

Chapter 17 - 5
Metal drawing is a metalworking process by which metal is
stretched and formed using tensile force. The process is
typically performed cold, which is done to ensure accurate
tolerances, better grain structure and surface finish, as well as
improved material properties.

Extrusion is a process where a material undergoes plastic

deformation by the application of a force causing that material
to flow through an orifice or die. The material adopts the cross-
sectional profile of the die and if the material has suitable
properties, that shape is retained in the final extrudate.

Chapter 17 - 6
 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Casting- is a manufacturing process in which a liquid
metal is usually poured into a mold, which contains a
hollow cavity of the desired shape, and then allowed to
solidify.

• The mold is made of 2 parts, the Cope and the Drag.

– gives good production of shapes

– weaker products, internal defects
– good option for brittle materials
– common and inexpensive.
Chapter 17 - 7
 Types of Casting

• Sand Casting
(large parts, e.g., Sand Sand
auto engine blocks) molten metal

• Sand casting, is a metal casting process characterized

by using sand as the mold material.
• To create mold, pack sand around form (pattern) of
desired shape

Chapter 17 - 8
• Investment casting, also known as precision casting or
lost-wax casting, is a manufacturing process in which a wax
pattern is used to shape a disposable ceramic mold.
(low volume, complex shapes., jewelry, turbine blades)

• Stage I — Mold formed by pouring wax I

plaster of paris around wax pattern.
Plaster allowed to harden.
• Stage II — Wax is melted and then
poured from mold—hollow mold
II
cavity remains.
• Stage III — Molten metal is poured
into mold and allowed to solidify. III

Chapter 17 - 9
Die casting is a metal casting process that is
characterized by forcing molten metal under high pressure
into a mold cavity.

Die casting is often used to make components for the

automotive industry or decorative hardware and many
other small components

Chapter 17 - 10
Continuous casting, is the process whereby molten metal is
solidified into a "semi-finished" billet, bloom, or slab for
subsequent rolling in the finishing mills.

Chapter 17 - 11
 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi)

FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS

• Powder metallurgy is a term covering a wide range of

ways in which materials or components are made from metal
powders.

Typical Powder Metallurgy parts are made in three basic

steps: the blending of the metal powder (pulverization), die
compaction, and sintering of the product.

Welding is a fabrication process whereby two or more parts

of a metal are fused together by means of heat or pressure.

Chapter 17 - 12
Heat Treatment Temperature-Time Paths

a) Full Annealing A
b) Quenching P

c) Tempering
(Tempered
Martensite) A
B

Fig. 12.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

[Adapted from H. Boyer (Editor), Atlas of
Isothermal Transformation and Cooling
Transformation Diagrams, 1977.
Reproduced by permission of ASM
International, Materials Park, OH.] b) a)
c)
Chapter 17 - 13
 Thermal Processing of Metals
Annealing is a heat treatment process that changes the physical
properties of a material to increase ductility and reduce the
hardness to make it more ductile.

Stress Relief Annealing is a heat-treatment procedure of casts

with the aim to reduce inner stress within the castings through
heating and slow cooling-down.

Spheroidize Annealing is a type of annealing process involving

controlled heating and cooling to produce a microstructure
consisting of spherical (spheroidal) carbides in a ferrite matrix.*

Chapter 17 - 14
Process Annealing the process of softening steel by
heating it to a temperature near but below the
transformation (Solid to Liquid) range and then cooling
slowly.

Normalizing is a heat treatment process in which steel is

heated about its recrystallization temperature and slow cooled
in air

Full annealing is the process by which distorted cold-worked

lattice structure is changed back to one that is strain-free through
the application of heat.

Chapter 17 - 15
Thermal Processing of Metals

• Stress Relief: Reduce • Spheroidize (steels):

stresses resulting from: Make very soft steels for
- plastic deformation good machining. Heat just
- nonuniform cooling below Teutectoid & hold for
- phase transform. 15-25 h.

• Full Anneal (steels):

Types of Make soft steels for
good forming. Heat
Annealing to get γ, then furnace-cool
to obtain coarse pearlite.
• Process Anneal:
Negate effects of
• Normalize (steels): Deform
cold working by
steel with large grains. Then heat
(recovery/
treat to allow recrystallization
recrystallization)
and formation of smaller grains.

Chapter 17 - 16
 Hardenability -- Steels
• Hardenability – measure of the ability to form martensite
• Jominy end quench test used to measure hardenability.
Fig. 17.5, Callister &
flat ground Rethwisch 9e.
specimen (Adapted from A.G. Guy,
Essentials of Materials Science,
(heated to γ McGraw-Hill Book Company,
New York, 1978.)
phase field) Rockwell C
24°C water hardness tests

• Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end.

Hardness, HRC

Fig. 17.6, Callister &

Rethwisch 9e.

Distance from quenched end

Chapter 17 - 17
 Influences of Cooling Medium &
Specimen Geometry on Hardness
• Effect of cooling medium:
Medium Severity of cooling Hardness
air low low
oil moderate moderate
water high high
• Effect of specimen geometry:
When surface area-to-volume ratio increases:
-- cooling rate throughout interior increases
-- hardness throughout interior increases
Position Cooling rate Hardness
center low low
surface high high

Chapter 17 - 18
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods (i)

GLASS PARTICULATE CEMENTATION

FORMING FORMING

Fiber drawing is a process in which a comparatively thicker glass

structure is heated and drawn into extended lengths of micro-
structured fiber glass.

wind up

Fig. 17.25, Callister & Rethwisch 9e. (Adapted from C.J. Phillips, Glass: The
Miracle Maker. Reproduced by permission of Pittman Publishing Ltd., London.) Chapter 17 - 19
 Glassblowing is a glass forming technique that involves
inflating molten glass into a bubble (or parison) with the aid of a
blow pipe (or blow tube). Compressed
air

Finishing
mold

Glass Pressing is a forming or shaping of glass by pressing

molten glass into a mold using a plunger

Pressing
Gob
operation

Parison
mold

Chapter 17 - 20
 Sheet Glass Forming
• Sheet forming – continuous casting
– sheets are formed by floating the molten glass on a pool of
molten tin

Fig. 17.26, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Courtesy of Pilkington Group Limited.)

Chapter 17 - 21
 Heat Treating Glass

• Annealing:
-- removes internal stresses caused by uneven cooling

• Tempering: heating and then quickly cool it down to make it

stronger and more durable than annealed or untreated glass.

-- puts surface of glass part into compression

-- suppresses growth of cracks from surface scratches.

Chapter 17 - 22
 Ceramic Fabrication Methods

(50%) 1. Clay
(25%) 2. Filler – e.g. quartz (finely ground)
(25%) 3. Fluxing agent (Feldspar)

Chapter 17 - 23
 Hydroplasticity of Clay
• Clay is inexpensive and compresses mainly of aluminosilicate

• When water is added to clay

-- water molecules fit in between
layered sheets
-- reduces degree of van der Waals
bonding
-- when external forces applied – clay
particles free to move past one
another – becomes hydroplastic

Chapter 17 - 24
 Drying and Firing
• Drying: as water is removed - interparticle spacings decrease
– shrinkage .
Fig. 17.30, Callister
& Rethwisch 9e.
(From W.D. Kingery,
Introduction to Ceramics,
Copyright © 1960 by
John Wiley & Sons, New
York. Reprinted by
permission of John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.)

wet body partially dry completely dry

Drying too fast causes sample to warp or crack due to non-uniform shrinkage

micrograph of porcelain
Si02 particle
• Firing: (quartz)
-- heat treatment between glass formed
900-1400°C around
the particle
-- vitrification: liquid glass forms
from clay and flux – flows
between SiO2 particles. (Flux 70μm
Fig. 17.31, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.
lowers melting temperature). (Courtesy H.G. Brinkies, Swinburne University of
Technology, Hawthorn Campus, Hawthorn,
Victoria, Australia.)
Chapter 17 - 25
 Sintering
Sintering occurs during firing of a piece that has
been powder pressed
-- powder particles coalesce and reduction of pore size

Chapter 17 - 26
 Polymer Formation
• Polymer is a large molecule composed of repeating
structural units connected by covalent chemical bonds.

• Polymerization, any process in which relatively small

molecules, called monomers, combine chemically to
produce a very large chainlike or network molecule, called
a polymer.

• There are two types of polymerization

– Addition (or chain) polymerization
– Condensation (step) polymerization

Chapter 17 - 27
In Condensation Polymerization, each step of the process is
accompanied by the formation of a molecule of some simple
compound, often water.

In Addition Polymerization, monomers react to form a polymer

without the formation of by-products. Addition polymerizations
usually are carried out in the presence of catalysts, which in certain
cases exert control over structural details that have important
effects on the properties of the polymer.

Chapter 17 - 28
 Addition (Chain) Polymerization

– Initiation

– Propagation

– Termination

Chapter 17 - 29
Condensation (Step)
Polymerization

Chapter 17 - 30
 Polymer Additives
Improve mechanical properties, processability,
durability, etc.
• Fillers
– Added to improve tensile strength & abrasion
resistance, toughness & decrease cost
– ex: carbon black, silica gel, wood flour, glass,
limestone, talc, etc.
• Plasticizers
– Added to reduce the glass transition
temperature Tg below room temperature
– Presence of plasticizer transforms brittle polymer to a
ductile one
– Commonly added to PVC - otherwise it is brittle

Chapter 17 - 31
 Polymer Additives (cont.)
• Stabilizers
– Antioxidants
– UV protectants
• Lubricants
– Added to allow easier processing
– polymer “slides” through dies easier
– ex: sodium stearate
• Colorants
– Dyes and pigments
• Flame Retardants
– Substances containing chlorine, fluorine, and boron

Chapter 17 - 32
 Processing of Plastics
• Thermoplastic
– can be reversibly cooled & reheated, i.e. recycled
– heat until soft, shape as desired, then cool
– ex: polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene.
• Thermoset
– when heated forms a molecular network
(chemical reaction)
– degrades (doesn’t melt) when heated
– a prepolymer molded into desired shape, then
chemical reaction occurs
– ex: urethane, epoxy

Chapter 17 - 33
 Processing Plastics – Compression Molding
Thermoplastics and thermosets
• polymer and additives placed in mold cavity
• mold heated and pressure applied
• fluid polymer assumes shape of mold

Fig. 17.36, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(From F. W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 3rd edition. Copyright ©
1984 by John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.)
Chapter 17 - 34
Processing Plastics – Injection Molding
Thermoplastics and some thermosets
• when ram retracts, plastic pellets drop from hopper into barrel
• ram forces plastic into the heating chamber (around the
spreader) where the plastic melts as it moves forward
• molten plastic is forced under pressure (injected) into the mold
cavity where it assumes the shape of the mold

Fig. 17.37, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(From F. W. Billmeyer, Jr., Textbook of
Polymer Science, 3rd edition. Copyright ©
1984 by John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Reprinted by permission of John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.)

Barrel
Chapter 17 - 35
Processing Plastics – Extrusion
thermoplastics
• plastic pellets drop from hopper onto the turning screw
• plastic pellets melt as the turning screw pushes them
forward by the heaters
• molten polymer is forced under pressure through the
shaping die to form the final product (extrudate)

Fig. 17.38, Callister & Rethwisch 9e.

(Reprinted with permission from Encyclopædia
Britannica, © 1997 by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.)

Chapter 17 - 36
 Summary

• Metal fabrication techniques:

-- forming, casting, miscellaneous.
• Hardenability of metals
-- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated.
-- increases with alloy content.
• Precipitation hardening
--hardening, strengthening due to formation of
precipitate particles.
--Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable.

Chapter 17 - 37
 Summary (Cont.)

• Ceramic Fabrication techniques:

-- glass forming (pressing, blowing, fiber drawing).
-- particulate forming (hydroplastic forming, slip casting,
powder pressing, tape casting)
-- cementation
• Heat treating procedures for ceramics
-- glasses—annealing, tempering
-- particulate formed pieces—drying, firing (sintering)
• Polymer Processing
-- compression and injection molding, extrusion,
blown film extrusion
• Polymer melting and glass transition temperatures

Chapter 17 - 38
 ANNOUNCEMENTS
Reading:

Core Problems:

Self-help Problems:

Chapter 17 - 39