Unit No-15 Inheritance
SLO1: Define genetics. (Kn)
Con.Q1: Differentiate between Genetics, Inheritance & Variation (UN)
Answer:
1- Genetics:
Definition: Genetics is the branch of biology that deals with the study of inheritance and
variation.
History of genetics: The term "genetics" was first used by W. Betensin in 1906. G. Mendel
discovered the fundamental mechanism of inheritance and is considered the father of genetics.
2: Inheritance:
Definition: Inheritance is the process by which characters are transmitted from parents to
offspring. Each cell in our body contains molecules called DNA or genes, which produce
specific proteins that determine a character. These molecules (DNA, genes) are transferred from
parents to offspring to transfer a particular character.
3: Variation:
Definition: Differences among the offspring are called variation, or the differences in
individuals of the same species are called variation. For example, we observe in our daily life
that no two individuals of a species are exactly similar, even the "Twins. This difference may be
in height, skin color, or intelligence. It is called variation.”
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Q2: write a detail note on chromosome? (UN)
Chromosomes:
Definition:
Chromosomes are thread-like structures that look like colored bodies.
They are formed from chromatin material inside the cell nucleus during cell division.
Discovery:
These structures were first observed by German embryologist W. Fleming in 1876. In 1908,
Sutton identified the function of chromosomes, which is to participate in the transmission of
hereditary characteristics.
Location:
In prokaryotic cells, chromosomes are not enclosed by the nuclear membrane, and they are
present in the cytoplasm. In contrast, in eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are enclosed by the
nuclear membrane and are found inside the nucleus.
Chemical composition:
In prokaryotes, chromosomes consist entirely of DNA, while in eukaryotes, chromosomes are
composed of 40% DNA and 60% proteins.
Number:
In eukaryotic cells (plants and animals), the Up of chromosomes is specific and remains
constant.
“For example, humans have 46 chromosomes in each somatic cell, potatoes have 48
chromosomes, and fruit flies have 8 chromosomes. Chromosomes are formed by the
condensation and coiling of chromatin materials during cell division.
Structure:
Each chromosome consists of 2 parts:
1. Chromatids: Each chromosome is made up of arms called chromatids.
2. Centromere: Chromatids are attached by a central joint called the centromere.
SLO3: Describe the composition of chromatin material. (Kn)
RRQ3. How are DNA and proteins packed to form a chromosome? (Kn+UN)
Con.Q3: What is chromatin material? Explain its structure. How are DNA and proteins packed to
form a chromosome? (UN)
Answer:
Chromatin material:
In prokaryotes: In prokaryotes, the chromatin material is made of DNA only.
In Eukaryotes: In eukaryotes, the complex combination of DNA and histone proteins is called
chromatin. Therefore, chromosomes are composed of thread-like structures called chromatin
materials. Chromatin is further composed of nucleosomes, which are the units of chromosomes.
Structure:
1: Nucleosomes: Nucleosome is the structural and functional unit of chromatin. Each
nucleosome is composed. Of 8-molecule of histone protein, Forming an octamers. Around the
Histone protein, two turns of DNA of 200 nucleotides are wrapped.
2: Nucleosome string:-
The Nucleosomes are linked together like beads on a string called N-string.
3: chromatin Fiber: - immediately the nucleosome string Begins to Coil again about its axis to
form another thick fiber called chromatin fiber.
4: Chromatids: - when cell division begins, the higher order
Coiling of chromatin fiber gives rise to super coil form chromatid
5: Chromosome: - chromatids combine through Centromere forms chromosomes.
Diagram:
Con.Q4: Differentiate between gene and allele. (UN)
SLO4: Define a gene (a localized region of DNA that codes for a protein). (Kn)
SLO5: State the difference between a gene and an allele. (Un)
Answer: 1-Gene:
Definition : A segment of DNA consisting of a Specific nucleotide sequence that has code for
protein synthesis is Known as the gene unit of heredity A gene is the fundamental physical and
functional unit of heredity present on chromosomes.
Number: - The DNA of each chromosome contains thousands of genes. Each determines a
particular trait in an organism’s gene.
Explanation: Genes are located on the chromosomes and they are responsible for the
transmission of characters from Parents. To off springs. The transfer of genes to the next
generation takes place through gametes.
Location: - (Locus)
The position of a gene on the chromosome is called, its locus.
Role of Gene:-Genes works in pairs. For a trait generally, two genes are present on the
chromosome having the same locus.
For example: - The gene controlling height in pea-plant exists in two forms (alleles). One allele
results in the tallness (T) while other alleles cause dwarfness (t)
2: Allele:
Definition: An alternate form of the same gene is called allele genes exist in pairs, each member
of the pair is called an allele.”
Location:-
Alleles are located on the same locus on homologous chromosomes but they have differences in
their nitrogen base sequence in the DNA.
Genotype:-The combination of alleles of a gene pair is called genotype
Types of genotype: - Genotype may be
Homozygous:-
When a gene pair has the same alleles the genotype is called Homozygous. i.e. - (TT)
11-Heterozygous:-
The genotype, in which the gene pair has i.e. (Tt) different alleles are called heterozygous. i.e.-
Tt.
For example:-
1: IF a pea plant is tall and has a" TT" alleles combination, so such same alleles combine for tall
characters called Homozygous.
2: IF a pea plant is tall and has a "Tt" allele's combination, so such different allele's combination
for a character is called Heterozygous.
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SLO6: Explain that a gene is a unit of inheritance and that it can be copied and passed on to the
next generation. (UN)
A gene is a unit of inheritance that carries information for specific traits. Here’s how genes are
copied and passed on:
1. Chromosomes: Genes are located on chromosomes in the nucleus.
2. DNA Replication: Before cell division, DNA is copied so each new cell has a complete set of
genes.
3. Meiosis: Reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) are formed with half the number of
chromosomes.
4. Fertilization: Sperm and egg combine, restoring the full chromosome number and mixing
genes from both parents.
5. Inheritance: Offspring inherit a mix of genes from both parents, determining their traits.
Conclusion:
This process ensures genetic information is passed from one generation to the next.
Q5 Differentiate b/w dominant and Recessive alleles. (Kn)
Answer: Dominant alleles:
Definition:-
The alleles that control the working of the other alleles in the heterozygous genotype are called
dominant alleles.
2: Recessive Alleles:
Definition:
The alleles that cannot express in heterozygous condition is called recessive alleles.
For example: - In case of heterozygous tall (T) of pea plant, the capital allele (T) is dominant-
allele while the A small allele (t) is a recessive allele.
Conc.Q6: differentiate between phenotype and genotype? (UN)
Phenotype:
Definition:-physical appearance of an organism -Or-
The visible character of a Living organism is called the phenotype.
Genotype:
Definition: The genetic makeup of the character is called genotype
For example: - Tallness of pea plant is a phenotypic character
While the homozygous (TT) or heterozygous (Tt) tallness of the pea plant is genotype.
Symbols used for alleles: - in the classical method of symbolizing dominant allele is represented
by a capital while the recessive allele is represented by a small Letter.
For example: - For tallness used (TT) and for dwarfness used (tt).
SLO2: Explain how genes control inheritance of characters. (UN)
Genes control the inheritance of characters through their roles as units of heredity, which are
passed from parents to offspring. Here’s a basic overview of the process:
1. Genes and DNA: Genes are segments of DNA located on chromosomes. Each gene
contains the instructions for making specific proteins, which in turn influence various
traits and functions in an organism.
2. Alleles: Genes come in different forms called alleles. An individual inherits two alleles
for each gene, one from each parent. These alleles can be the same (homozygous) or
different (heterozygous).
3. Dominant and Recessive Alleles: In many cases, one allele is dominant and the other is
recessive. The dominant allele’s trait will be expressed in the organism, while the
recessive allele’s trait will only be expressed if both alleles are recessive.
4. Mendelian Inheritance: Gregor Mendel’s laws of inheritance describe how traits are
inherited through dominant and recessive alleles. His principles of segregation and
independent assortment explain how alleles separate during the formation of gametes
(eggs and sperm) and how they combine randomly at fertilization.
5. Genotype and Phenotype: The combination of alleles an individual has is called their
genotype. The physical expression of these alleles, influenced by the genotype and
environmental factors, is called the phenotype.
6: Complex Traits: Some traits are controlled by multiple genes (polygenic inheritance) and
can also be influenced by environmental factors, making their inheritance patterns more
complex.
Through these mechanisms, genes determine the characteristics passed from one generation to
the next, ensuring the continuity of genetic information and contributing to the diversity of traits
within a population.
SL07: Describe the central dogma stating the role of a gene in protein synthesis. (UN)
ERQ2: Explain with the help of a diagram the relationship among DNA, RNA, gene, and
protein. (UN+kn)
Con.Q6: Describe the role of the gene in protein synthesis.-(UN)
Answer: Role of the Gene in Protein Synthesis:
Protein Synthesis is a two-part process that takes place with the help of DNA and RNA. It is
completed in 2 major steps.
1: Transcription:-
Definition:
The formation of messenger-RNA from DNA is called transcription.
Occurrence:
In eukaryotes, it takes place inside the nucleus.
Mechanism:
I-In this process, the two strands of DNA separate from each other and each strand then acts as a
template for a new Strand.
ii-When mRNA is synthesized it comes out from nuclear by nuclear pores in cytoplasm carrying
information for protein in the form of codons.
2: Translation:-
Definition – The process of protein synthesis is called translation.
Occurrence: - In eukaryotes, It take place in cytoplasm.
Mechanism: when mRNA is formed, then it moves from nucleus to cytoplasm through nuclear-
pores and attaches to ribosomes. In protein synthesis 3-types of RNA play important role. i.e.
i-mRNA: It carries information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
ii-rRNA: It is present on ribosomes, which recognizes reads the message of mRNA for protein-
synthesis.
iii-tRNA: It picks up amino-acids in cytoplasm and transfers them to ribosomes for protein
synthesis, where chains of amino-acids Linked to each other to form proteins.
Diagram
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Q7: Write note on the history of Mendel (kn)
.Answer: History of Mendel: Life span:-G. Mendel belonged to a peasant family. Mendel
Lived from 1822 to [Link]:-He was an Austrian monk.
Experiment on pea plant: He performed his famous experiments on the garden pea in 1856-
1864.
Principles of Inheritance: - He examined the inheritance patterns in peas and led him to the
discovery of several Principles of inheritance.
Father of genetics: - For his valuable work in genetics, Mendel is regarded as the father of
genetics.
ERQ3. Explain why Mendel selected peas as a subject for studying genetics. (Kn)
Answer: Choice of Mendel experimental material:
The main reasons for the Selection of pea plants were as follows
1: Easy to cultivate.
2: Flowers are hermaphrodite. (Having male and female parts).
3: It is normally a self-fertilization plant but cross-fertilization can be easy
4: The time gap between the generations is short.
5: pea plant has clear-cut phenotype traits (characters) with two car-cut alternate and contrasting
pair forms or alleles.
6: Numerous varieties are available.
7: These plants produced a large numb. Of seeds.
8: They have prominent inherited characteristics.
Table of seven characters of pea plant
Q9:-Discuss the seven characters Studied by Mendel in the pea plant. (Kn)
Answer: Seven characters in pea plants:
Mendel studied seven different characters in the pea plant, in which each character has a
dominant and recessive form.
Dominant character:-
Those characters that appear in the offspring of the F¹ generation are called dominant characters.
Recessive character: - Those characters that do not appear in the offspring of the F² generation
are called rec
The F-offspring that results from two parents with different characteristics are called hybrids.
For example: - The following chart clearly shows the dominant and recessive characters.
Table of seven characters of pea plant
SLO8: Describe complete dominance using the terms dominant, recessive, phenotype,
Genotype, homozygous, heterozygous, P1, F1, and F2 generations and proving it
Diagrammatically through a monohybrid genetic cross. (UN+Ap)
SLO9: Demonstrate that the 3:1 monohybrid F-2 phenotypic ratio is evidence of segregation of
alleles. (Ap)
SLO10: State Mendel’s law of Segregation. (Kn)
Conc.Q10 Explain Mendel’s law of segregation (monohybrid cross) by giving a suitable
example. (Kn)
Answer: Law of segregation: (monohybrid cross)
Statement:
This law states that each diploid organism (2n) possesses two Alleles of a given gene, which
segregate at the time of gametes formation and each gamete receives one or the other allele but
not both
Monohybrid cross:
The cross in which only a single character of an organism is studied is called a monohybrid
cross.”
Explanation with example:
1: Mendel crossed a true-breeding tall pea plant with h true-breeding dwarf (short) pea plant. He
called this parental Generation denoted by P¹
2: All the offspring obtained in the F¹ generation were tall. He called this First Filial Generation
denoted by F¹.
3: The character that appears in F¹ generation was called dominant. I-e Tall
4: The character that could not be expressed in F¹ was called recessive.
5: Now the F¹-plants were self-crossed and a second Filial F² generation was produced.
6: In the F² generation some plants were tall like the origin tall parent and some were short like
the original short Parent plant in the ratio of 3:1
Graphic representation of monohybrid cross
SLO11: Demonstrate that the 9:3:3:1 dihybrid F-2 phenotypic ratio is evidence of independent
assortment. (UN)
SLO12: State Mendel’s law of Independent Assortment. (Kn)
ERQ4. Explain the law of independent assortment with the help of an example and chart. OR-
dihybrid cross. (Ap)
Answer: Law of independent assortment: (dihybrid cross)
Statement
This Law States that "When two contrasting pairs of traits are brought together in the same cross,
the distribution of alleles for one trait in the gametes does not affect the distribution of the
alleles for the other trait. -OR-
The cross between two parents who differ in so many characters is called a dihybrid cross.
Explanation with example:-
1: Mendel crossed true breeding round-yellow seeded plants with true-breeding wrinkled green
seeded.
He called this parental generation denoted by "p¹" plants.
2: All the plants of the next generation produce seeds which we're round and yellow. He called
this the first filial generation denoted by 'F¹'
3: In F-generation the gene of round and yellow traits express itself and were called dominant,
while the genes of wrinkled and green traits could not express themselves and were called
recessive.
4- Now the F¹-plants were self-fertilized and a second Filial-generation F₂ was produced.
5-In F1-generation, the plants were of four types i-e Round-yellow, Round-green, wrinkled-
yellow and wrinkled-green in the ratio of 9:3:3:1.
Graphic presentation of dihybrid cross
Summary chart (F2)
Phenotypic ratio=
Round-yellow: round-green: wrinkled yellow:
9 : 3 : 3 :
Wrinkled green
1
Genotypic ratio = 4:2:2:2:2:1:1:1:1
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ERQ6: 6. Draw a cross between two pea plants. One of them has round green seeds (RRyy)
while the other has wrinkled yellow seeds (rrYY). (Ap)
Phenotypic ratio: RY 9: rY3:: rY3:ry1
RRQ5. Differentiate between different types of dominant relations. (UN)
Answer: Dominance Relationship:
Definition:
Dominance is the physical effect of an allele over its partner's allele on the same gene locus.
Types of dominance: - Dominance relationships are how we see how the two alleles at various
gene loci can affect the phenotype in a heterozygous state i-e
1: Complete Dominance:
Definition: Dominance in which one allele (dominant) completely hides the effect of another
allele (recessive) is Called complete dominance.
Example: The allele for tall character i-e ‘T’ is completely dominant over the allele of short
character i-e’t’. So in the in heterozygous condition (i-e Tt) the tall character is completely
expressed and hides the short character.
SLO14: Explain incomplete dominance in the Japanese 4 O’ Clock plant. (Uncaps)
2: Incomplete dominance:
Definition:
An inheritance pattern where two alleles blend to create a new phenotype.
Interaction among alleles:
In this case Dominant allele cannot completely hide the effect of recessive allele and phenotype
is a blending of both parents and a 3rd type of intermediate phenotype observed in offspring is
called incomplete dominance.
Example:
1: Japanese Four o’clock plant mirabilis Jalapa produces two types of flowers, Red color (RR)
and white color (rr).
2: Whenever a red color variety is crossed with a white color variety, the F1-offspring will have
pink color (Rr), and pink is intermediate between Red and white color.
3: When the F1 plants were crossed with one another, the Red, pink, and white Plants produced
in the F2-generation in a ratio of 1:2:1.
Phenotypic ratio= 1-red flower: 2-pink-flower: 1-white flower
Other Examples of incomplete dominance:
1-Human’s wavy hairs:
One example of incomplete dominance in humans is wavy hair. There are two alleles for hair
texture, curly or straight. If a person is homozygous for either type of these alleles, they either
have curly hair or they have straight hair. But in heterozygous condition person have wavy hairs.
SLO13: Selecting the example of the ABO blood group system, explain co-dominance. (UN)
RRQ6: Write down the phenotype of the individual in the following table (ap)
3: Co-dominance:
Definition:
The dominance in which the heterozygous individual clearly shows the effect of both alleles is
called co-dominance.
Explanation: - co-dominance occurs when both the alleles express independently in
heterozygous. The co-dominant Heterozygote would have both alleles which are equal express
and produce mixed phenotype.
Example: - In the case of blood group “AB” both antigens and antigen ‘B’ are expressed equally
and the group “AB”
Graphic presentation
Other Examples of Co-dominance
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Q1: IF a man with type AB-blood group marries a Woman with type ‘O-blood group. What
would blood types you expect in children or offspring? (Ap)
Answer: A man with blood group “AB’ when marries with ‘O’ blood group woman. Their
children will be. Having the following possible blood groups.
Phenotype = ♂️(AB) X ♀️(O) Genotype = IAIB X ii
Gametes = (IA), (IB) X (i)
F1-generation= checkerboard
Offspring blood group: So their children will have ‘A’ or ‘B’ blood groups. I.e-50% of children
have ‘A’ and 50% have ‘B’ blood group
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SLO15: Describe the sources of variation. (UN)
SLO 16: Relate meiosis with variation. (UN)
ERQ5. Describe the sources of variations. Explain the importance of variations in organisms.
(UN)
Answer: Variation:
Definition: Differences in traits among closely related individuals of the same species are called
variation.
Explanation:
No two individuals are identical. They must possess some differences. These differences are
Variation, which is very necessary for natural selection.
“It means nature only selects the best-adapted variants”
Sources of variation:
Those factors which brought variations are called sources of variation. I-e.
1: Genetic Recombination: - The recombination or rejoining of assorted alleles is called
recombination.
2: Independent Assortment: - During meiosis, alleles segregate independently and are assorted
during their inheritance to the next generation. This is also one of the sources of variation.
3: Crossing over: - The exchange of segment between non-sister chromatids are called crossing-
over. Crossing over is one of the important sources of variation which brings about differences in
the next generations.
4: Random Fertilization:
Each gamete has a unique genetic composition. Due to the random fusion of gametes, it will
produce different Variations in organisms.
5: Mutation: any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA or any change in the structure of
DNA is Called mutation. Alleles arise by mutation. Due to mutation Variations occur, so
mutation is the base of variation.
6: Environment:
Environment plays a very important role in variation because in nature those variants are allowed
to exist which are the fittest. So environment has greatly affected the variants in a way that
environment selects only the best variants. So only adapted and selected variant can further
produce their offspring.
Importance of variation:
1: positive variation helps in new species adjacent to a new environment, therefore increasing the
chance of survival.
2: The accumulation of variations through a large number of generations Leads to the evolution
of new species.
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RRQ2: How can crossing over bring variations? (UN)
Answer: Crossing over:
Definition: The exchange of segment between non- Sister chromatids is called crossing over.
1-Crossing Over and Exchange of Segments:
During crossing over, the exchange of segments occurs between the homologous chromosomes.
2- Resulting Chromosomes and Gene Combinations:
This process results in chromosomes with different combinations of genes in different gametes.
3-Formation of New Varieties
When such gametes combine during fertilization, it leads to the formation of a new variety of
organisms that differ from their parents in different characteristics.
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SLO 16: Relate meiosis with variation. (UN)
Meiosis contributes to genetic variation through:
1. Crossing Over: Homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material.
2. Independent Assortment: Random distribution of chromosomes into gametes.
3. Random Fertilization: Unique sperm and egg combinations.
These processes ensure each individual has a unique genetic makeup.
SLO17: Describe variation and explain the difference between continuous and discontinuous
Explain by giving examples like height, weight, IQ, gender, and blood groups in the Population.
(UN)
Q14: what is the variation? Write its types. (Kn)
Answer: Variations:
Definition: - Differences in traits or characteristics between individuals of the species are called
variation.
Types of variations:
There are 2 types of variation.
1: Continuous variations . 2. Discontinuous variation
1: Continuous Variation:
Definition:
The variation that consists of a variety of intermediate phenotypes between the two extremes is
known as Continuous variation.
Example: - In humans – Heights, skin color, weight, and I.Q show continuous variation.
Characters:
1-Genetic reason: - Such variations are controlled by many genes called polygenes and their
inheritance is called polygenic inheritance.
2-Additive effects of genes: These genes show additive effect because such variation depends
on the number of alleles;
3- Quantitative: they are also called quantitative variations.
4-Role of environment:-
Continuous variations are strongly affected by the environment
For example, a good IQ also needs proper education and training which is provided by the
environment.
2: Dis continuous variations:
Definition: The variations that show distinct clear-cut phenotypes and no intermediate characters
are known as Discontinuous variations.
1-Genetic reason: These variations are controlled by a few gene
2- Additive effects of gene: These genes cannot show additive effects because the trait expresses
according to the type of alleles present.
3- Qualitative: such variation is also called qualitative variation.
4-Role of the environment: These variations are not affected by the environment.
For example,-
1-Human blood groups are mainly controlled by 3-alleles i-e- IA, IB, and we have 4 types of
blood groups (ie-A, B, AB, O)There is no blood group having intermediate values.
Other examples:-
2-All seven characters studied by Mendel in the pea plant.
3-Gender in men.
4-Ear Lobes.
SLO18: Define organic evolution and explain how variation can lead to evolution. (Kn+UN)
QI5 what is Evolution? How variations lead to evolution, (UN+kn)
Answer: Evolution: (organic evolution)
Meaning: Evolution means gradual changes.
Definition: The gradual changes in Living organisms throughout generations over a long time
that Lead to the development of new species is called evolution.
-OR-
The development of advanced types of organisms from Pre-existing types of organisms over
time are called organic Evolution
Explanation:
Variation is considered to be the base of evolution, whereas evolution is a gradual change in the
characters of the population
Throughout generations, a long time is called as evolution. The process of evolution is very slow
and gradual and it occurs in populations rather than individuals. Descent with modification
implies that new types of organisms developed from ancestral with certain structure and feature
changes. So variation and natural selection Lead to evolution.
For example:
The diversity among living organisms.
The beauty of nature is because of
1: Natural selection is the process through which the individuals with better characteristics
(variations) produce
More surviving offspring than the individuals lacking these variations. As a result, the population
gradually includes more individuals with better variations.
2: various plants and animals, living today have descended from simple forms, by gradual
modification into complex, perfect, and advanced forms. This historical process is called organic
evolution.
SLO19: Describe how variation leads to competition in a population and differential survival by
best fitting the environment. (UN)
SLO20: Assess selection as a possible means of Evolution. (UN)
Q16 Explain Darwin’s theory of Natural selection. (Kn)
Answer: Darwin’s theory of Natural Selection:
Introduction:
According to this theory, nature selects the Best variant organism) which can only then further
increase their off springs.
Explanation: According to Darwin (1809-1882) evolution may occur in the following ways.
1: overproduction: - The organism has maximum potency to increase its offspring. However,
resources in the environment are very limited which creates competition for Survival. So a
limited number of offspring survive due to Competition.
2: Competition: - Oganisms compete with one another to get sufficient resources. So only those
individuals can Survive and compete successfully. It means nature selects the best-fitting
individual.
3: Heritable variation: The changes at the gene level that passes from parents to offspring is
called heritable variation. In nature, those individuals will survive which possess variations that
best suit them to their environment, while the other will perish.
4: Natural selection: Nature selects those organisms that have best adapted to the changing
environment. It is known as Natural selection.
5: Reproduction: The best-adapted individual Survive and reproduce which can pass the best or
most favorable variation to the next generation.
6: Speciation: Due to the continuous force of nature and Evolution, new species are formed after
a long time. This is called speciation.
Example of Natural selection: - An example of a natural Selection is the evolution of pesticide
resistance in insect Species. Pesticides are poisons used to kill pests (harmful Insects). When a
new type of pesticide is used, a relatively small amount may kill 99% of pests. But later Spraying
is less and less effective. Because of adaptation. Against pesticides develop in insects and
inheritance to the next generation such chemicals now cannot kill the pests.
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SLO 21: Develop an understanding of artificial selection as a means of improvement of yield in
economically important plants, like wheat, rice, etc. (UN)
RRQ4: How is artificial selection used for the improvement of crops? (UN+ap)
Answer: Artificial selection: (selective breeding)
Definition: The process by which numerous breeds of plants and animals have been produced by
man is called artificial selection.
Explanation:-
It is an old method in which we interbreed those organisms which have our desired
characteristics to obtain off springs having these characters in combined form. It is also called
hybridization and the organisms produced by this method are called hybrid organisms. In
artificial Selection, humans favor Specific traits. It produces a great deal of change in a species in
a short time-
Crop improvement:
1: Using selective breeding we have improved crops such as wheat, rice, vegetables, and fruits.
2: All present-day crops have been extensively reshaped our crops from their wild ancestors by
the repeated application of artificial selection.
For example, the major cereals rice, wheat, and maize were all developed from grasses by
artificial selection between 7000 and 12000 years ago.
3: Many plant varieties (cultivars) have been produced for better quantity and quality of food in
plants like wheat, rice, potato apple, etc.
4: Many ornamental plant breeds are the result of artificial selection.
Animal improvement:
1- We have obtained new varieties of dogs, cats, rabbits, Fish cows, buffaloes, and horses
by hybridization.
2- Many breeds of sheep, goats, cows, hens, etc. have been produced by artificial selection
to increase the production of meat, milk, eggs, wool, etc.
ERQ1. Relate the structure of chromosomes with DNA and genes and explain your answer.
Draw a concept chart (UN)
1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
•DNA: The Carrier of Genetic Instructions for Life
Encoding Genetic Information: The Sequence of Bases in DNA molecule that carries the
genetic instructions for life.
•Structure of DNA: The Double Helix
It consists of two long strands forming a double helix, with each strand made up of nucleotides.
•Components of DNA: Nucleotides
Each nucleotide includes a phosphate group, a sugar molecule, and one of four nitrogenous bases
(adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine). The sequence of these bases encodes genetic
information.
Genes
•Genes and Their Functions
• Specific Sequences of DNA
Genes are specific sequences of DNA bases that provide the instructions for making proteins,
which perform a vast array of functions in the body.
• Gene Structure
Each gene is a segment of DNA that contains the necessary information to produce a particular
protein or set of proteins.
•Human Genes
Humans have approximately 20,000-25,000 genes, which are responsible for inherited traits and
various functions within the organism.
Chromosomes
• Chromosomes and Their Structure
• Long, Thread-Like Structures
Chromosomes are long, thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins (histones) that are
located in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
•Gene Containment and Human Chromosomes
Each chromosome contains many genes. Humans have 46 chromosomes, organized into 23 pairs,
with one chromosome of each pair inherited from each parent.
•Role in Cell Division
Chromosomes ensure DNA is accurately replicated and distributed during cell division. They
play a vital role in maintaining the integrity of genetic information across generations.
In Summary:
DNA, genes, and chromosomes are essential for genetic information. DNA stores genetic data,
genes instruct protein production, and chromosomes manage this during cell division. They
ensure life’s continuity and diversity by storing, expressing, and passing on traits, crucial for
growth, development, and adaptation.
Concept chart:
Chromosome
└── DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)
└── Gene
Additional Objectives from text
1. .An organism’s expressed physical Trait, such as seed color or pod Shape, is called
its______
2. An organism has two different alleles for a single trait. Its genotype is said To be ______
3. How many genetically different kinds Of gametes an individual with
4. Genotype AAbb can produce______
5. Branch of biology that deals with the Study of inheritance is called as______
6. Transmission of characteristics from Parents to off springs is called as______
7. Chromosomes carry units of Inheritance called as______
8. Genes contain instructions for the Synthesis of______
9. How many pairs of homologous Chromosomes are there in human Body cell______
10. Chromatin is made up of______DNA wraps around histone protein And forms rounded
structures called as______
11. A DNA molecule consists of………….Polynucleotide strands
12. Sequence of amino acids in a protein is controlled by a sequence of…………in DNA.
13. Specific sequence of DNA nucleotides Is copied in the form of mRNA in a Process called
_______
14. Ribosome reads the sequence of mRNA nucleotides and joins specific amino acids to
form proteins. This step is known as________
15. The position of the g gene on the chromosome is known as_______
16. In_______ of cell, transcription takes place.
17. Which component of the cell is involved in translation______?
18. The alternate forms of a gene are called ______
19. The specific combinations of genes in
20. An individual is known as______
21. Dominant alleles is represented by ______letter and recessive alleles by______
22. Expression of genotype in the form of Trait is called_______
23. ______developed fundamental Principles of genetics
24. Pisum sativum is scientific name of______
25. Each trait studied in pea plant had .______distinct form.
26. ______ is an Example of co-dominance?
27. ______ is the Genotype of blood group O?
28. Pink flowered four o’clock plant is an Example of______
29. ______ is the source of variations?
30. ______variations show distinct Phenotypes and phenotypes of such Variations cannot be
measured?
31. ._______ Purpose the mechanism of organic Evolution in1838.