Chapter II

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONDUCTION IN STEADY STATE :

Expression of the heat flux by conduction in a flat wall :

If Θ1 > Θ2, a heat flux flows by conduction through the wall from face 1 to face 2. We
assume that there is no heat loss through the lateral faces of the wall. The heat flow lines are
straight and perpendicular to the isothermal faces 1 and 2. The lateral faces of the wall define
a flow tube, and the law of conservation of heat allows us to write:

heat flux Φ1 = Heat flux Φ2 =Exiting

Heat flux Φ = passing through any through face 2
entering
parallel internal section heat flux

The heat flux passing by conduction through a thin wall of thickness dx located at a distance x
from face 1 and whose faces are respectively at temperatures 0 and 0 + d0, is given by :

Fourier's Law:

Based on integration, we obtain:

Hence, the expression for heat flux:

The heat flux density is the flux per unit area :

2.1.2. Expression of the thermal conduction resistance of a flat wall:

As in electricity, resistance is the ratio of a potential difference, so here we have temperature

and energy flow, so here we have the flux D, hence the following expression for thermal
resistance.

Application Example 1 :

Calculate the heat flux through a pane of glass with a surface area of 1 m² and a
thickness of 3.5 mm. The temperature of the interne surface of the glass is 10°C, and that
of the externe surface is 5°C.

Deduce the thermal resistance of the glass.

Thermal conductivity of glass: λg=0,7 W.m-1.K-1

For the same wall temperatures, calculate the heat flux through one m² of a 26 cm thick
brick wall. Deduce the thermal resistance.

Thermal conductivity of bricks : λb= 0,52 W.m-1.K-1

Temperature profile through the wall :

Let's revisit the expression of Fourier's law:

We obtain:

The temperature therefore decreases linearly with x between the two faces of the wall. For a
wall of a given thickness, the temperature drop (Ꝋ1 - Ꝋ2) is greater the lower the thermal
conductivity of the wall material. Note: 01 and 02 are the surface temperatures themselves.
Measuring them is very tricky, because as soon as you move slightly away from the wall
towards the outside, the temperature can vary considerably.

Conduction through several homogeneous flat walls, in series :

Consider several walls bounded by parallel planes (Fig), made of materials with different
conductivities, but in perfect contact. Let : λ1, λ2, λ3; the average thermal conductivities of
each wall whose thicknesses are respectively e1, e2, e3. We assume as before that there are no
lateral heat losses.

Each wall is therefore traversed by the same thermal flux D.

2.2.1. Expression of the heat flux by conduction through walls in series:

Based on the preceding paragraph, we can write the flux through each wall and deduce the
temperature differences between the faces of each wall:
And by adding member by member:

Hence the expression for heat flux:

Expression of the equivalent thermal resistance of walls in series:

The previous expression for the flux can be obtained by moving S to the denominator:

Application Example 2 :

Study of heat loss by conduction through double glazing Double glazing consists of
two panes of glass separated by a layer of still, dry air. The thickness of each pane is
3.5 mm and that of the air layer is 12 mm. The thermal conductivity of the glass is 0.7
W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹ and that of the air is 0.024 W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹ over the temperature range
studied. For a temperature drop of Given a 5°C temperature difference between the
two outermost panes of the double glazing, calculate the heat loss for a 1 m² pane.

(Note: this calculation neglects the effect of the convection coefficient on either side of
each pane.) Compare this heat loss to that which would be obtained with a single
pane of glass 3.5 mm thick.
Expression of the equivalent thermal resistance of parallel walls :

The thermal resistances R1, R2, and R3 of each element are in parallel, and R is the
equivalent resistance.

If the different parallel elements do not have the same thickness, as shown in Figure, the
preceding reasoning applies provided that heat exchange through the lateral faces of the
juxtaposed strips can be neglected :

we obtain :
Application Example 3 :

Calculation of heat flux through the facade of a 50 m² house. The wall is made of 26 cm
thick bricks. The facade has four 2 m² panes of glass, each 3.5 mm thick, and a 2 m²
wooden door, 42 mm thick. The internal wall temperature is assumed to be 10 °C for all
materials constituting the facade, and the external wall temperature is assumed to be 5
°C.

Thermal conductivity of glass: λ = 0.7 W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹

Thermal conductivity of brick: λ = 0.52 W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹

Thermal conductivity of wood: λ = 0.21 W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹

Conduction through the wall of a circular cylindrical tube :

Consider a cylindrical tube (Fig). Let r1 be the radius of the inner wall, r2 that of the
outer wall, Ꝋ1, Ꝋ2, the respective temperatures of the inner and outer faces, and λ the
average thermal conductivity of the material constituting the tube.

Expression of the heat flux through a cylindrical tube :

We wish to determine the heat flux flowing through the tube from the inside to the
outside (when Ꝋ1 > Ꝋ1) for a tube length L. Due to symmetry, the heat flow lines are
straight lines directed along radius. We say that the heat transfer is radial.

Consider a cylinder of intermediate radius r with r1 < r < r2 and of thickness dr

The heat flux density through this cylinder is given by Fourier's law:

The corresponding heat flux is

S being the area of the lateral surface of the cylinder of radius r and length L :

S = 2.Π.r.L

So :
This flux does not depend on the absolute dimensions of the tube. It depends only on the
ratio r2/r1.
Exercice :

Consider a 20/27 steel tube with an internal wall temperature of Ꝋ1 = 119.75°C and an
external wall temperature of Ꝋ2 = 119.64°C. The thermal conductivity of the steel is λ =
46 W.m⁻¹.°C⁻¹. Calculate: a) the thermal resistance of the tube for a length of 1 m. b) the
corresponding heat flux.

Two-Dimensional Conduction in Steady State :

Multidirectional Heat Transfer :

When heat propagation does not occur in a single direction, method of resolution can be
applied:

Shape Coefficient Method :

In two- or three-dimensional systems where only two limiting temperatures, T1 and T2,
are involved, it can be shown that the heat flux can be expressed as:
Le coefficient de la forme F ne dépend pas de la forme, de ses dimensions ni de la
position relative de ses surfaces S1 et S2. Les valeurs de F pour les configurations des
versions les plus récentes
Chapter III
 Heat transfer by convection:
In fluid mechanics, convection is the transfer of thermal energy accompanied by the
transport of matter in a fluid state. This fluid can be a gas or a liquid. Convection
induces an overall movement of matter. The movement of matter is vertical, from top to
bottom or bottom to top. Denser areas of the fluid sink, while less dense areas rise.
Thermal convection also refers to the heat transfer occurring between a moving fluid
and a solid surface. There are two types of convection: natural convection and forced
convection.

The most common example of thermal convection is the movement of water in a pot of
water being heated. The hot water, being less dense, rises through the center. When it
reaches the surface, in contact with the cold air above, the water loses heat and becomes
denser. It then descends through the sides (see Figure a). A second significant example is
that of a lava lamp (see Figure b). A mass of wax is heated from the bottom. When its
density becomes less than that of the surrounding fluid, the wax begins to rise. At the
top, where the wax encounters a cold surface, it becomes denser and descends.

Figure : Examples of thermal convection applications

Types of thermal convection :

Generally, we talk about two types of thermal convection:

• Natural convection :

Figure : Convection thermique naturelle

• Forced convection :

Figure: Forced thermal convection

Natural Convection :

Natural convection, also known as free convection, is a phenomenon that occurs only
when fluid movement occurs spontaneously as a result of a density anomaly caused by
heat.

Any calculation of heat exchange by convection requires determining the coefficient h,

which is always complicated.

We have :

Nusselt number.
Nu=hL/λ
 Nu=a(GrPr)b
Prandtl number :
Pr=cpμ /λ

Grashof number :

Gr=βgΔTρL3/μ

Where:
Cp: Specific heat capacity of the fluid ([[Link]-1.°C-1])
µ: Dynamic viscosity of the fluid ([kg.s-1.m-1])
β: Coefficient of cubic expansion of the fluid ([°C-1])
g: Gravitational force ([m.s-2])
∆T: Temperature difference between the surface and the fluid [°C]

L: Height or geometric diameter [m]

Forced convection

Unlike natural convection, forced convection is caused by an external factor such as a

turbine or pump driving an industrial mixer, for example. The fluid circulation is
therefore artificial.

Nusselt number.
Nu=hL/λ

Nu=a(Re)b(Pr)c
Reynolds number :
Re==ρυL/μ
Where:

ρ: Volumetric density of the fluid [kg.m-3]

v: Fluid velocity [m.s-1]

a, b and c are coefficients that depend on the convection regime and the geometry.

For flow in a cylinder (or tube), the Reynolds number ReReRe is defined as:
Where:

 v = average velocity of the air (m/s)

 D = cylinder diameter (m)
 ρ = air density (kg/m³)
 μ = dynamic viscosity (Pa·s)
 ν = kinematic viscosity (m²/s)

Practical rule:

 Re<2300Re < 2300Re<2300 → laminar flow

 Re>4000Re > 4000Re>4000 → turbulent flow

In your exercise, you are also given the Nusselt correlation for turbulent flow:

Nu=0.023 Re0.8 Pr 0.4

 Pr = Prandtl number = 0.74

 Heat transfer by radiation :

This is the mode of heat transfer by which heat passes from a hot body to
a cold one. The two bodies do not touch but are separated by a transparent
medium such as air.

Figure. Thermal radiation

The maximum flux density emitted by a surface is given by the Stephan

Boltzmann law:

 : Stephan's constant =5,669.10-8 W/m2 .K4

The maximum flux is obtained for an ideal surface (black body). However, real surfaces (grey
bodies) have a certain emissivity (ε) which reduces the flux emitted by the surface.

VI-2) Preliminary Definitions

Physical quantities will be designated according to the spectral composition or spatial

distribution of the radiation:

- Total quantity: it relates to the entire spectrum;

- Monochromatic quantity: it concerns only a narrow spectral interval (dλ), around a

wavelength (λ);

- Hemispherical quantity: it relates to all directions in space;

- Directional quantity: it characterizes a given direction of propagation.

During the study of the thermal equilibrium of a system, every body must be considered as:

- Emitter: if it emits radiation related to its temperature (unless it is perfectly transparent);

- Receiver: if it receives radiation emitted or reflected and scattered by the bodies

surrounding it.

- Opaque body: This is a body that does not transmit any radiation through itself; it stops the
propagation of all radiation from its surface. It heats up by absorbing radiation.

- Transparent body: This is a body that transmits all incident radiation.

- Black body: This is a body that absorbs all the radiation it receives. It is characterized by an
absorption power (αλT=1). All black bodies radiate in the same way at the same temperature;
a black body radiates more than a non-black body.

- Gray body: This is a body whose absorption power (αλT) is independent of the wavelength
(λ). It is characterized by (αλT=αT). A gray body at high temperature is defined as (λ<3µm,
Sun), and a gray body at low temperature is defined as (λ>3µm, Atmosphere).

Laws of Radiation

There are four main laws that govern the phenomenon of heat transmission by radiation:

a. Lambert's Law:

Lambert's Law states that for an orthotropic light source, the emittance is proportional to the
luminance, and the proportionality coefficient is π. More precisely: If M is the emittance and
L is the luminance, for an orthotropic light source,

we have :

Planck's Law:
This law defines the monochromatic radiance distribution of black-body thermal radiation as
a function of thermodynamic temperature. Consider the example of an incandescent light bulb
filament, which emits red light at approximately 700°C, and white or even blue light at higher
temperatures. (See Figure )

Figur. Incandescent light bulb filamen

Monochromatic radiance is an energy flux per unit area, per unit solid angle, and per unit
wavelength; it is expressed in W m⁻².m⁻¹.sr⁻¹

Where:

T is the temperature in kelvin

λ is the wavelength in μm

C1 is Planck's constant = 3.74 × 10⁸ W μ⁴ m⁻².

C2 = 14400 μK where: K is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

Wien's Law:

Wien's law describes the relationship between the wavelength λmax, corresponding to the
peak of light emission from a black body, and the absolute temperature T. It is generally
expressed as: where h is Planck's constant; k, Boltzmann's constant; and c, the speed of light
in a vacuum.
Wien's law explains why red stars are much cooler than blue stars. It also allows for the
classification of stars according to their spectral types, each of which corresponds to a
characteristic surface temperature.

Table : Classification of stars according to their spectral types

Kirchhoff's Law:

Kirchhoff's law of radiation relates the absorption and emission of a real radiator in thermal
equilibrium. It states that emission and absorption are linked. The German physicist Gustav
Robert Kirchhoff formulated this law in 1859 during his research on spectroscopy. It was the
cornerstone of the study of radiation and, beyond that, of Max Planck's quantum theory.
(Figure)

Figure. Photo illustrating Kirchhoff's law

The table below gives the overall hemispherical absorptivity for solar radiation and the hemispherical
emissivity ε at T= 300 K for some materials.

Table. Overall hemispherical absorptivity of some materials.

With:

M0λT: is the monochromatic emittance of the black body. The total emittance (MT) of a gray
body at temperature (T) is equal to the product of its absorption power (αT) and the total
emittance (MOT) of the black body at the same temperature.