UNIT V - CALIBRATION AND ERRORS

1. Define Calibration.
Calibration is the process of comparing a measuring instrument's output to a known standard
value to ensure accuracy and reliability.
Calibration is also considered as the process of adjusting the output or indication on a
measuring instrument to be equal with the value of the applied standard, within a specified accuracy.

2. What is the need for Calibration?

The needs for calibration of instruments are:
1. To determine and maintain the accuracy of the measuring instrument
2. To ensure readings from the instrument are consistent with other measurements
3. To establish the reliability of the instrument
4. To establish and demonstrate traceability of the instrument

3. Define Standards of Measurement.

A Standard is physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate measure of
physical quantity is termed as a standard.
These Standards of Measurement are used to determine the values of other physical quantities
by the comparison method.
The Standards of measurement are devices or substances of known and traceable accuracy
used to compare and verify the performance of other instruments or devices.
The reference standards are preserved and used for calibrating other measuring standards.

3. List the classification (types) of Standards.

The different types of Standards of Measurement are classified into the following categories:
1. International Standards,
2. Primary Standards,
3. Secondary Standards, and
4. Working Standards.

4. Write short notes on International Standards, Primary Standards, Secondary Standards, Working
standards.

5. Write short notes on Calibration of Ammeters, Calibration of Voltmeters, and Calibration of

Thermometers.

6. Define Error.
An error may be defined as the difference between the measured value and actual value.
An error can be positive or negative. Therefore, the error is given as
Error = Measured value - Actual Value

7. What are the types of Error in measurement?

There are three types of errors in measurements which are given here.
1. Systematic Errors
2. Random Errors
3. Gross Errors

8. What is Limiting Error?

The Limiting Error is the maximum allowable error in the measurement and is specified in
terms of true value. It is always with respect to the true value, so it is a variable error.
The Limiting Errors are the maximum errors guaranteed by a manufacturer for an instrument.

II Sem DICE/R2023/ BEI Theory / Unit V/ Calibration and Error

Explain the different types of Standards in measurement.
The Standards are the fundamental reference for a system of weights and measures, which are
used to determine the values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
Different standards have been developed for other units of measurement (including
fundamental units as well as derived mechanical and electrical units). All these standards are
preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Sevres, Paris.
The different types of Standards of Measurement are classified into the following categories
1. International Standards,
2. Primary Standards,
3. Secondary Standards, and
4. Working Standards.

International Standards:
1. They are defined by international agreement and are maintained at the International Bureau
of Weight and Measure at Sevres, Paris, France.
2. These are very accurate to the level scientifically possible to achieve.
3. They may be used for comparison with primary standard, but cannot be used for any other
applications.
4. They are not available to ordinary users for measurements and calibrations.

Primary Standards:
1. They are important copies of international prototypes.
2. They are maintained at institutions in various countries around the world, such as the National
Bureau of Standards in New Delhi, India.
3. These are as accurate as it is scientifically possible to achieve.
4. The main function of primary standards is the calibration and checking the accuracy of
secondary standards.
5. The primary standards are not available for use outside the National Laboratory.
Secondary standard:
1. The Secondary standards are basic reference standards maintained by a particular industry
used for measurement and calibration in laboratories in the industries.
2. They are used for checking the accuracy of working standards in the industry.
3. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to the National Standards
Laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard with a certification of
measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.

Working Standard:
1. The working standard is used for actual measurement in workshop or laboratories by the
workers.
2. In a factory or industry, the production of measuring instruments is checked against these
working standards by technicians and workers.
3. They are used to check and calibrate general laboratory instrument for accuracy and
performance in industries.
4. The working standard is periodically calibrated against a secondary standard. The accuracy of
any measurement is ultimately traceable to the primary standard involved.

II Sem DICE/R2023/ BEI Theory / Unit V/ Calibration and Error

Explain the different types of errors in measurement.
An error in measurement is defined as the difference between the measured value and actual
value. An error can be positive or negative. Therefore, the error is given as
Error = Measured value - Actual Value

There are 3 types of Errors in measurement.

1. Gross Error
2. Systematic Error
3. Random Error
Gross Errors are called human errors. Carelessness of an observer leads to gross error.
This type of error arises due to human mistakes during reading, recording and calculating
measurement values from an instrument. Suppose a person reads 12 as 21 by mistake then this type of
error is called Gross error.
A Gross Error can be avoided by two methods.
1. A user should care while taking reading and recording measurement values.
2. Secondly, the user should take more number of reading of an experiment. After that taking
average value of whole experiments will reduce the gross error.

Random Errors: The Random Error is a type of error that is random in nature. Random errors affect
the precision of the observation in the measurements. The reasons for random errors in the
measurement can be of different types, like changes in environmental factors, variations in the testing
procedure, etc.
The causes of Random error are unknown and also cannot be determined.
Systematic Error: The Systematic Errors are usually caused by measuring instruments that are
incorrectly calibrated or used incorrectly.
The Systematic Error is a consistent and repeatable error associated with faulty equipment or
imperfect experiment design.

The Systematic Errors are classified into 3 types as

a) Instrumental Errors
b) Environmental Errors
c) Observational Errors
a). The Instrumental Errors: This type of error occurs mainly due to inherent shortcomings in the
instruments, loading effect of instrument or misuse of an instrument.
b). The Environmental Errors: This type of errors occurs due to external conditions like pressure,
temperature, vibrations, humidity, magnetic or electric fields, etc.

II Sem DICE/R2023/ BEI Theory / Unit V/ Calibration and Error

c). The Observational Errors: This type of errors occurs due to observer while taking the meter
readings. It is due to human inability to read the value correctly in the instrument. One such example is
Parallax error.

Random Errors
The errors, which occur due to unknown sources during measurement time are known as random
errors. Hence, it is not possible to eliminate or minimize these errors. But, if we want to get the more
accurate measurement values without any random error, then it is possible by following these two
steps.
• Step1 − Take more number of readings by different observers.
• Step2 − Do statistical analysis on the readings obtained in Step1.

Statistical Methods of Assessing Measurement Error

Following are the parameters that are used in statistical analysis.
• Mean
• Median
• Variance
• Deviation
• Standard Deviation
Now, let us discuss about these statistical parameters.
Out of the various possible errors, the random errors cannot be determined in the ordinary
process of measurements. Such errors are treated mathematically.
The mathematical analysis of the various measurements is called statistical analysis of the data.
For such statistical analysis, the same reading is taken number of times, generally using
different observers, different instruments and by different ways of measurement. The statistical
analysis helps to determine analytically the uncertainty of the final test results.

Arithmetic Mean:
The Arithmetic Mean is defined as the average value of all the values in the data set. In other
words it is the sum of all the values divided by the number of values in the data set.
𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠
Arithmetic Mean =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

Median: To calculate the median, arrange your data in ascending order, then find the middle value (if
the number of items is odd) or the average of the two middle values (if the number of items is even).

Deviation:
Deviation is the departure from the observed Readings from the arithmetic mean of the group
of readings.
D1 = Data Value - Arithmetic Mean

Standard Deviation:
The Standard Deviation is the square root of the sum of the individual deviations squared, divided by
the number of Readings. It may be expressed as

Variance:
Variance is a measure of how data values differ from the mean. The value of variance is equal
to square of Standard Deviation.
Variance = (Standard Deviation)2

*****
II Sem DICE/R2023/ BEI Theory / Unit V/ Calibration and Error