Critical thinking is a disciplined and structured method for thinking that uses clear
standards to analyze information and make the best possible choices111. It is the
foundation of strategic planning and good decision-making
● Core Abilities: Objectively analyzing information, evaluating arguments, and
forming rational judgments
● Key Actions: Questioning assumptions, recognizing biases, and using logic to
solve problems
● Contemplation: Carefully considering the consequences of choosing one action
over another
2. Attributes of a Good Critical Thinker
A good critical thinker takes charge of their own thought process through
self-awareness and control.
● Direction: Setting a clear goal for your thinking
● Monitoring: Watching how your mind is working
● Self-Discipline: Keeping thinking on track and not letting emotions take over
● Self-Correction: Being willing to change your mind if evidence suggests you are
wrong
3. Reasoning Processes
Critical thinkers use two primary types of reasoning to reach conclusions:
● Inductive Reasoning: Moving from specific facts or data to a general idea (e.g.,
"All swans I've seen are white, so maybe all swans are white")
● Deductive Reasoning: Using general rules or ideas to support a specific instance
(e.g., "All birds have feathers. A robin is a bird. Therefore, a robin has feathers").
Standard Question to Ask
Clarity Is the issue easy to understand?
Accuracy Is the information true or factual?
Precision Is it specific enough? Do we need more detail?
Relevance Does this point matter to the issue at hand?
Logic Does it make sense? Is the reasoning sound?
Depth & Breadth Have I investigated this deeply and from various
viewpoints?
Universal Intellectual Standards
5. Common Thinking Errors (Fallacies) to AvoidCritical thinking involves
recognizing and avoiding these common traps:
● Ad Hominem: Attacking a person’s looks or personality instead of their argument.
● Appealing to Authority: Believing something is true just because a famous person
or "expert" said it.
● Hasty Conclusion: Jumping to a conclusion too quickly without enough evidence.
● Faulty Analogies: Comparing two things that are actually very different ("Apples
and Oranges")
● Stereotyping: Applying an inaccurate, broad conclusion to an entire group
● "We’ve Always Done It This Way": Resisting change simply because a method is
old.
6. Stages of Development
1. Uncontemplative Thinker: Does not think much about how they think
2. Challenged Thinker: Forced by a situation to question their thinking
3. Practicing Thinker: Starts using concepts and seeing new perspectives
4. Advanced/Accomplished Thinker: Critical thinking becomes a natural,
second-nature habit.
Types of Decisions
● Programmed Decisions: Standard, regular responses to routine or uncomplicated
problems, such as following building entry rules or expense report procedures
● Non-Programmed Decisions: Responses to unique, unstructured problems that
require judgment, creativity, and intuition, such as deciding on a new product line
● Gresham's Law of Planning: A phenomenon where managers allow routine
(programmed) events to dominate critical, unique (non-programmed) activities
2. The 8-Step Rational Decision-Making Process
● Problem Definition: Identify the root cause, not just symptoms
● Setting Priorities: Establish urgency, impact, and time factors
● Development of Alternatives: Brainstorm potential solutions
● Analysis: Evaluate options based on Risk, Certainty, and Uncertainty
● Selection: Choose the best alternative
● Action Plan: Create a specific plan for the choice
● Implementation: Execute the plan with effective communication
● Follow Up/Control: Monitor results and use Variance Analysis to make corrections
3. Behavioral Barriers & Bounded Rationality
● Bounded Rationality: The reality that decision makers have limited information
and processing ability
● Satisficing: Choosing a "sufficient" or "acceptable" alternative rather than the
absolute best (optimizing)
● Common Barriers
○ Confirmation Traps: Seeking only info that confirms existing biases.
○ Heuristics: Using mental "shortcuts" or rules of thumb.
○ Escalation of Commitment: "Throwing good money after bad" by continuing
an incorrect past decision due to prior investment.
○ Functional Fixedness: Seeing only one function for a thing, which limits
creative solutions.
4. Decision-Making Styles
Directive Rational Low Quick, logical, and
fact-focused19.
Analytic Rational High Thoroughly analyzes data20.
Behavioral Intuitive Low Supportive, focuses on
feelings, avoids conflict21.
Conceptual Intuitive High Broad viewpoint and highly
creative22.
5. Group Decision Making
5. Group-Think: Pressure to conform that stifles critical thought
Techniques for Improvement
○ Devil’s Advocate: Assigning a member to challenge the prevailing view.
○ Dialectical Inquiry: Challenging the underlying assumptions of the problem.
○ Stepladder Technique: Bringing in members one-by-one to minimize group
pressure.
6. Ethics and Culture
● Ethical Approaches: Including Utilitarianism (greatest good for the greatest
number), Justice (fairness), and the Golden Rule
● Cultural Dimensions:
○ Individualist vs. Collectivist: Decisions based on personal fulfillment vs. what
is best for the group/family
○ Power-Distance: The degree to which people accept authority and top-down
decision-making