re-thinking intersectionality

Author(s): Jennifer C. Nash

Source: Feminist Review , 2008, No. 89 (2008), pp. 1-15
Published by: Sage Publications, Ltd.

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89 re-thinking
intersectionality

Jennifer C. Nash

abstract

Intersectionality has become the primary analytic tool that feminist and anti-racist
scholars deploy for theorizing identity and oppression. This paper exposes and
critically interrogates the assumptions underpinning intersectionality by focusing on
four tensions within intersectionality scholarship: the lack of a defined intersectional
methodology; the use of black women as quintessential intersectional subjects; the
vague definition of intersectionality; and the empirical validity of intersectionality.
Ultimately, my project does not seek to undermine intersectionality; instead, I
encourage both feminist and anti-racist scholars to grapple with intersectionality's
theoretical, political, and methodological murkiness to construct a more complex way
of theorizing identity and oppression.

keywords
intersectionality; race and gender; feminist theory; anti-racist theory

feminist review 89 2008 1

(1-15) © 2008 Feminist Review. 0141-7789/08 $30 [Link]

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 introduction

Intersectionality, the notion that subjectivity is constituted by mutually

reinforcing vectors of race, gender, class, and sexuality, has emerged as the
primary theoretical tool designed to combat feminist hierarchy, hegemony,
and exclusivity. Leslie McCall stresses intersectionality's importance, calling
it '...the most important theoretical contribution that women's studies, in
conjunction with related fields, has made so far' (McCall, 2005: 1771).
This 'important theoretical contribution' has become the 'gold standard' multi-
disciplinary approach for analysing subjects' experiences of both identity
and oppression.

The term intersectionality, coined by legal scholar Kimberlé Crenshaw,

underscores the 'multidimensionality' of marginalized subjects' lived experiences
(Crenshaw, 1989: 139). Intersectionality emerged in the late 1980s and early
1990s from critical race studies, a scholarly movement born in the legal academy
committed to problematizing law's purported colour-blindness, neutrality, and
objectivity. From its inception, intersectionality has had a long-standing interest
in one particular intersection: the intersection of race and gender. To that end,
intersectionality rejects the "single-axis framework' often embraced by both
feminist and anti-racist scholars, instead analysing l... the various ways in
which race and gender interact to shape the multiple dimensions of Black
women's ... experiences' (Crenshaw, 1991: 1244).

Intersectionality serves a few theoretical and political purposes for both

feminist and anti-racist scholarship. First, it subverts race/gender binaries in the
service of theorizing identity in a more complex fashion. The destabilization
of race/gender binaries is particularly important to enable robust analyses
of cultural sites (or spectacles) that implicate both race and gender, like
the Clarence Thomas confirmation hearings,1 the O.J. Simpson trial,2
1 Clarence or the
Thomas
was appointed to
Kobe Bryant rape case.3 Because intersectionality is attuned to Court
the Supreme subjects
in
who 'exist ... within the overlapping margins of race and1991 to replace
gender discourse
retired Justice
and in the empty spaces between', it is a tool particularly adept at capturing
Thurgood Marshall and
(the first black
theorizing the simultaneity of race and gender as social processes (Crenshaw,
Supreme Court
1992: 403). Justice). Later that
year, Anita Hill
testified at Thomas'
Second, intersectionality aspires to provide a vocabulary to respond to critiques confirmation

of identity politics. While liberal critiques of identity politics criticize its failure hearing, alleging
that Thomas sexually
to transcend difference, Crenshaw argues that the real problem of identity harassed her when
the two worked
politics is that it elides ¡ntra-group difference, a problem that intersectionality together at the
purports to solve by exposing differences within the broad categories of 'women' Equal Employment
Opportunity
and 'blacks', and serving as a force for '...mediating the tension between Commission (E6OC).
Thomas denied the
assertions of multiple identity and the ongoing necessity of group politics' allegations, and
(Crenshaw, 1991: 1296). Ultimately, intersectionality seeks to demonstrate the famously declared
that he was being
racial variation(s) within gender and the gendered variation(s) within race

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made the victim of a through its attention to subjects whose identities contest race-or-g
'high-tech lynching'.
Thomas was categorizations.
confirmed by the
Senate in October
1991. The Thomas Finally, intersectionality invites scholars to come to terms with the lega
confirmation hearing exclusions of multiply marginalized subjects from feminist and anti-racist w
has been of
and
particular interest to the impact of those absences on both theory and practice (Crenshaw,
black feminists, who
have examined and
1991; Williams, 1989). As a response to the lengthy history of essentialism
debated the reasons exclusion that has plagued both feminist and anti-racist scholarshi
for the pervasive
cultural doubt intersectional project centres the experiences of subjects whose voices have
surrounding Hill's ignored. Undergirding this approach is a belief that l... those who
allegations. For
more on the Thomas experienced discrimination speak with a special voice to which we should
confirmation
hearings, see
(Matsuda, 1987: 324). For intersectional theorists, marginalized subjects ha
Morrison (1992). epistemic advantage, a particular perspective that scholars should conside
2 O.J. Simpson is a not adopt, when crafting a normative vision of a just society. Critica
former professional
football player scholars have evoked an array of terms to describe this methodology of dr
accused of
upon marginalized subjects' vantage points including 'looking to the botto
murdering his ex-
wife Nicole Brown (Matsuda, 1987), exploring 'iterative energy' (Wing, 1990: 182), and drawin
Simpson and her
friend Ronald black women's 'multiple consciousness' (Harris, 1989: 584) or 'outsider scho
Goldman in 1994.
status (Matsuda, 1992). These strategies enable intersectional theorists to
The Simpson trial
became a cultural on the ostensibly unique epistemological position of marginalized subjects
spectacle that
implicated race from
fashion a vision of equality.
the very beginning.
When Simpson's While 'intersectionality' has become a scholarly buzzword, the notion
attorney, Johnnie
Cochran, argued identity is formed by interlocking and mutually reinforcing vectors of
that police bias
tainted evidence gender, class, and sexuality has pervaded black feminist scholarship for de
collection practices, The women-of-colour critique of conventional feminism's essentialism em
the defence team
was accused of sized the disconnect between feminism's claims to speak for all wome
'playing the race
feminism's perennial inattention to racial, ethnic, class, and sexual differe
card'. Moreover, the
Simpson case is (Davis, 1981; Moraga, 1983; Smith, 1983; Spelman, 1988; Higginbotham, 19
often read as
Collins,
culturally significant 2000). Myriad feminist scholars have destabilized the notio
because of the vast
differences between
universal 'woman' without explicitly mobilizing the term 'intersectionalit
how blacks and arguing that 'woman' itself is contested and fractured terrain, and th
whites interpreted
Simpson's guilt.
experience of 'woman' is always constituted by subjects with vastly diffe
When Simpson was interests. To that end, intersectionality has provided a name to a pre-exi
acquitted, media
captured pictures of theoretical and political commitment.
celebratory blacks
and distraught
whites, emphasizing Despite intersectionality's theoretical dominance as a way of conceptu
the trial as a
identity, a number of paradoxes embedded in its literature remain uninterr
racially divisive site.
by feminist and anti-racist scholarship. These unresolved conflicts seep i
3 In 2003, Kobe
Bryant, a feminist and anti-racist theory, practice, and politics, confusing t
professional
basketball player,
conceptions of identity and oppression, and obscuring the normative goa
was accused of their work. It is precisely because intersectionality is now 'a leading fem
sexual assault.
Bryant insisted that paradigm' with expansive interdisciplinary reach that it is a critical mome
the sex between him
engage with its contradictions, absences, and murkiness (Zack, 2005: l).

Jennifer c. Nash fe m i n i st revi e w 89 2008 3

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 My article exposes these unexplored paradoxes in the service of inviting scholars and the alleged
victim was
to reconsider the goals and consequences of their push toward theoretical and consensual. When

political inclusivity. In particular, my article centres on four unresolved questions Bryant's attorneys
emphasized the
within intersectionality theory: the lack of a clearly defined intersectional alleged victim's
behaviour and
methodology, the use of black women as prototypical intersectional subjects, the reputation, she
elected not to
ambiguity inherent to the definition of intersectionality, and the coherence
participate in the
between intersectionality and lived experiences of multiple identities. In prosecution any
longer. Later the
advancing these challenges, my hope is not to dismantle intersectionality. state dropped the
Instead, my paper suggests questions and challenges that might help expose the case.

assumptions that underpin intersectionality, so that both feminist and anti-

racist theorists can continue working to dismantle essentialism, to craft nuanced
theories of identity and oppression, and to grapple with the messiness of
subjectivity.

Most importantly, scrutinizing intersectionality will enable both feminist

and anti-racist theorists to evaluate the possibilities and potential pitfalls of
'inclusive' theorizing. Both projects must attend to intersectionality's
attention to difference while also strategically mobilizing the language of
commonality (however provisional or tentative that commonality might be) in the
service of constructing a coherent theoretical and political agenda. While
intersectionality has demonstrated the ways in which difference can fracture
seemingly unitary political movements, it has left activists struggling
with balancing the efficiency of working 'as women' or las blacks' with the
necessary attention to variation and diversity within 'women' and 'blacks'.
Re-considering intersectionality enables activists to ask under what conditions
organizing as 'women' or 'blacks' or 'black women' makes sense, under what
conditions temporary coalition-building makes sense, and how to organize across
and beyond difference.

on methodology and the theoretical primacy of

black women

theories of ¡ntersectional methodology

McCall notes that '...despite the emergence of intersectionality as a major
paradigm of research in women's studies and elsewhere, there has been little
discussion of how to study intersectionality, that is, of its methodology' (McCall,
2005: 1771, emphasis in original). Crenshaw's conception of intersectionality, the
idea that a '...focus on the most privileged group members marginalizes those
who are multiply-burdened and obscures claims that cannot be understood as
resulting from discrete sources of discrimination' has given politically progressive
projects a way of describing both the simultaneity of multiple oppressions and
the complexity of identity (Crenshaw, 1989: 140). These projects have not yet

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developed a rigorous method of examining multiple subject positions. Robert
Chang and Jerome McCristal Culp, Jr. highlight the methodological murkiness of
intersectionality querying 'How does one pay attention to the points of
intersection? How many intersections are there? Is the idea of an intersection the
right analogy?' (Chang and Culp, 2002: 485). Chang and Culp's query suggests the
necessity of assessing whether intersectionality describes lived experiences of
identity, and developing methodological tools that are sufficiently flexible to
attend to the myriad intersections that constitute identity.

Intersectionality's relative inattention to methodology has been explained by the

difficulty of crafting a method adequately attentive to l...the complexity that
arises when the subject of analysis expands to include multiple dimensions of
social life and categories of analysis' (McCall, 2005: 1772). yet despite the
methodological challenges of complex analyses, some scholars have worked to
develop various tools that can be used to craft an intersectional methodology.
McCall analyses three distinct intersectional methodologies, each with
theoretical and practical shortcomings and benefits.

The first approach, 'anticategorical complexity', '..is based on a methodology

that deconstructs analytical categories' (McCall, 2005: 1773). This vision, born in
a theoretical moment '..in which hegemonic feminist theorists, poststructur-
alists, and antiracist theorists almost simultaneously launched assaults on the
validity of modern analytical categories...', starts from the theoretical
assumption that categories, including race and gender, are too simplistic to
capture the complexity of lived experience (McCall, 2005: 1776). This approach
emphasizes the fact that scholarly deployment of categories reinstalls the
regimes that progressive projects work to destabilize, and has successfully
produced '...great skepticism about the possibility of using categories in
anything but a simplistic way' (McCall, 2005: 1773). That is, scholars working out
of this tradition call attention to the social processes of categorization, and the
workings of exclusion and hierarchy that mark boundary-drawing and boundary
maintenance.

The second approach, 'intracategorical complexity', takes marginalized inter-

sectional identities as an analytic starting point l...in order to reveal the
complexity of lived experience within such groups' (McCall, 2005: 1774).
Hallmarks of this regime include the deployment of the narratives of black
women as a way of exposing the under-theorized experiences of doubly
marginalized subjects. In particular, intracategorical analyses attend to the
dangers of categorization, yet do not necessarily reject the categories
themselves. Instead, scholars working in this tradition problematize the
exclusionary repercussions of the act of categorization and use multiply
marginalized subjects' experiences as ways of demonstrating the inadequacy of
categories.

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 The third approach, 'intercategorical complexity' compels scholars to '...provi-
sionally adopt existing analytical categories to document relationships of
inequality among social groups and changing configurations of inequality along
multiple and conflicting dimensions' (McCall, 2005: 1773). McCall favours this
methodological approach, which '...begins with the observation that there are
relationships of inequality among already constituted social groups, as imperfect
and ever changing as they are, and takes those relationships as the center of the
analysis' (McCall, 2005: 1784-1785). The main work that this approach performs
is to expose the relationships between inequality and the categories themselves,
and to use categories strategically in the service of displaying the linkages
between categories and inequality.

practices of ¡ntersectional methodology

McCall's analytic frameworks highlight a tremendous gap between conceptions of
intersectional methodology and practices of intersectional investigations. In
particular, while intersectionality has worked to disrupt cumulative approaches
to identity (i.e. race + gender + sexuality + class=complex identity), and to
problematize social processes of categorization through strategic deployments of
marginalized subjects' experiences, intersectional projects often replicate
precisely the approaches that they critique.

The re-creation of cumulative conceptions of identity is most apparent in

Crenshaw's seminal critique of anti-discrimination law. Crenshaw attacks the
assumptions underpinning anti-discrimination law, arguing that black women are
compelled to assert either race-based or gender-based discrimination claims
instead of causes of action, which reflect their positions as intersectional
subjects. Because law recognizes only race- or gender-based injuries, black
women's injuries as black women cannot be wholly addressed by the existing
doctrinal structure. That is, the existing legal apparatus renders the court unable
to see '...that Black women can experience discrimination in ways that are both
similar to and different from those experienced by white women and Black men'
(Crenshaw, 1989: 149).

Crenshaw insists that simply adding black women to the existing regime will not
remedy their marginalization:

... because the ¡ntersectional experience is greater than the sum of racism and sexism, any

analysis that does not take intersectionality into account cannot sufficiently address the
particular manner in which Black women are subordinated .
(Crenshaw, 1989: 140)

For Crenshaw, it is the fixed mutually exclusive categorizations of race and

gender that marginalize black women. Only a regime that attends to the
'particular manner in which Black women are subordinated' can adequately

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redress black women's injuries. Ultimately, Crenshaw seeks to challenge law and
radical critiques of law (i.e. feminist legal theory, critical race theory) to attend
to the 'intersectional experiences of those whom the movements claim as their
respective constituents' (Crenshaw, 1989: 166). Rather than importing models
from the regimes they seek to disrupt, Crenshaw argues that these projects must
begin their analytic endeavours by attending to the most disadvantaged.

While Crenshaw endeavours to use black women's incapacity to comply with race/
gender categories to demonstrate the inadequacy of the categories themselves,
her argument shores up the conception that black women's identities are
constituted exclusively by race and gender. That is, Crenshaw focuses on black
women because they are 'multiply burdened', yet her analysis precludes an
examination of forms of 'multiple burdens' (or the intersections of privileges and
burdens) beyond race and gender. With little attention to the role that sexuality,
nationality, or class, for example, might play in mediating or entrenching black
women's experiences of 'burdens', black women function exclusively as sites that
demonstrate the importance of race-anai-gender, rendering black women's
experiences the aggregate of race and gender. Furthermore, Crenshaw offers little
attention to the ways in which race and gender function as social processes in
distinctive ways for particular black women in varying historical moments. That
is, black women's race and gender are treated as trans-historical constants that
mark all black women in similar ways.

While some scholars have reified cumulative notions of identity, others have used
poetry (Wing, 1990), narrative (Williams, 1989), and standpoint epistemology
(Matsuda, 1987) as a method for disrupting race-or-gender logic. Through non-
objective and often non-linear theoretical formations, intersectional scholars
have been able to articulate the often ignored injuries of the 'spirit-murder'
(Williams, 1989) of 'racism/sexism' (Wing, 1990).

Adrien Wing's work exemplifies the reliance on literary devices to describe black
women's experiences. She draws on poet £.£. Cummings' lines 'we're anything
brighter than even the sun/(we're everything greater/than books/might mean)/
we're everyanything more than believe/(with a spin/leap/alive we're alive/
we're wonderful one times one' to argue that black women's experiences are
'multiplicative' or 'one times one'. She argues, 'We, as black women, can no
longer afford to think of ourselves or let the law think of us as merely the sum of
separate parts ... . The actuality of our layered experience is multiplicative.
Multiply each of my parts together, one X one X one X one, and you have one
indivisible being' (Wing, 1990: 194). Wing's use of poetry is not simply to explain
the 'multiplicative' nature of black women's experiences; poetry also exemplifies
black women's particular relationship with the creative. She argues:

...I want to assert affirmatively to the legal academy and to ourselves as well, that we
black women are more than 'multiply-burdened' entities subject to a multiplicity of

Jennifer c. Nash feminist review 89 2008 7

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 oppression, discrimination, pain and depression. Our essence is also characterized by a
multiplicity of strength, love, joy, (with a spin leap alive we're alive) and transcendence
that flourishes despite adversity.

(Wing, 1990: 196, italics in original)

While the use of poetry as a mechanism for disrupting logocentrism is a

convention of feminist theory, and the use of narrative is a conventional critical
race tool for dislodging law's claims of objectivity, the deployment of poetry as
the primary vehicle for evoking the experiences of marginalized subjects
suggests a shortcoming in the methodological orientation of intersectional
theory. In particular, it suggests that the project has yet to produce a mechanism
for systematically articulating, aggregating, or examining the 'multiple levels
of consciousness' that form the basis of their study of subjectivity (Wing,
1990: 182).

Furthermore, it suggests that there is something poetic about black

women's experiences of both identity and oppression, and that black
women are inherently resilient subjects who retain an innate creativity
even in the midst of the opposition that a patriarchal white-dominated
culture produces. These assertions, while useful for problematizing the
notion that black women's experiences can be reduced solely to margin-
alization, ultimately romanticize and idealize positions of social subordin-
ation and reinstall conceptions that black women's bodies are sites of
'strength' and 'transcendence' rather than complex spaces of multiple
meanings. 4 Wing is not alone
in this tendency to
romanticize black
women's lived
experience as a site
the theoretical importance of black women of 'strength' and
'transcendence'.
Intersectionality's reliance on black women as the basis for its claims to complex
Alice Walker's earlier

subjectivity renders black women prototypical intersectional subjects whosedefinition of

'womanism' as:
experiences of marginality are imagined to provide a theoretical value-added.
lA black feminist
or feminist of color
That is, black women enable scholars to 'ask the other question', to expose the
... A woman who

spectres of racism and sexism, which leave their traces even in progressive
loves other women,
sexually and/or
analyses (Matsuda, 1987). Because 'black women are theoretically erased',
nonsexually.
Appreciates and
centring black women's experiences makes feminism and anti-racist work's
prefers women's
systematic inattention to black women apparent and demonstrates the culture, women's
emotional flexibility
necessity of deepening feminist and anti-racist conversations (Crenshaw, 1989:
(values tears
139). To that end, black women's experiences are used as a theoretical
as natural
counterbalance of
wedge, designed to demonstrate the shortcomings of conventional feminist and
laughter), and
anti-racist work. women's strength.
Sometimes loves
individual men,
The problems with a theoretical reliance on black women's experiences are two-sexually and/or
nonsexually.
fold. First, while seeking to underscore problems of exclusion within feministCommitted
and to the
anti-racist theory, black women are treated as a unitary and monolithic entity.
survival and
wholeness of entire
That is, differences between black women, including class and sexuality,

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people, male and are obscured in the service of presenting 'black women' as a category that
female. ... Loves
music. Loves dance. opposes both 'whites' and 'black men'. For example, Crenshaw's seminal
Loves the moon.
analysis of the ways in which black women's experiences of sexual assault and
Loves the Spirit.
Loves love and food domestic violence are mediated by both race and gender neglects the
and roundness.
Loves struggle. Loves
ways in which these experiences are also complicated by class, nationality,
the Folk. Loves
language, ethnicity, and sexuality. While she concedes that '...factors I address
herself. Regardless'
(Walker, 1983: xi- only in part or not at all, such as class or sexuality, are often critical in
xii) has a strong shaping the experiences of women of color', the wholesale abandonment
resonance with
Wing's interest in of addressing how factors beyond race and gender shape black women's
poetry as a tool for
theorizing black experiences of violence demonstrates the shortcomings of intersectionality to
women's
capture the sheer diversity of actual experiences of women of colour (Crenshaw,
experiences. Walker
is particularly 1991: 1244-1245).
interested in
drawing on black Second, in defining intersectionality as an analytic tool that '...denote[s] the
women's experiences
as a locus of theory- various ways in which race and gender interact to shape the multiple dimensions
building; it is
precisely because
of Black women's ... experiences', intersectionality recycles black feminism
'womanism' is
without demonstrating what new tools it brings to black feminism to help it
rooted in 'music',
'dance', 'moon', and fashion a more complex theory of identity (Crenshaw, 1991: 1244). Black
'Spirit', and in the feminism has, since its inception, sought to use black women's experiences to
experiences of the
'Folk' that it demonstrate the shortcomings of race/gender binary schemes (this is epitomized
connects the
personal, the by the edited anthology entitled All the Women Are White, All the Blacks
political, and the Are Men, But Some of Us Are Brave: Black Women's Studies, whose title alone
practical, privileging
experience as a suggests the primacy black feminists place on jamming the race/gender
significant form of
knowledge.
binary). In particular, black feminism imagines black women's subjectivities as
an inherent disloyalty to race-or-gender thinking and marshals black
women's stories, experiences, and narratives as a way of continuously and
strategically jamming the workings of binary thinking. While intersectionality
positions itself as a theoretical advance from black feminism, its work continues
in the tradition of black feminism with the addition of a new name for

conceptualizing the workings of identity. If, in fact, intersectionality purports t

theorize identity in a way that departs from or adds to black feminism, a more
explicit engagement with the nature (and distinctiveness) of its theoretica
contribution would be useful.

who is ¡ntersectional?

In its emphasis on black women's experiences of subjectivity and

intersectional theory has obscured the question of whether all id
intersectional or whether only multiply marginalized subje
intersectional identity. While some feminist scholars insist that in
refers to all subject positions (which are all fundamentally const
interplay of race, gender, sexuality, class, etc.), the overwhelmin
intersectional scholarship has centred on the particular positions

Jennifer c. Nash fe m i n i st re vi e w 89

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 marginalized subjects (Ferguson, 2000). 5 This unresolved theoretical dispute 5 Kimberlé Crenshaw
explains
makes it unclear whether intersectionality is a theory of marginalized subjectivity intersectionality
or a generalized theory of identity. noting that lthe
concept of
intersectionality [is
Generally, ¡ntersectional literature has excluded an examination of identities used] to denote the
that are imagined as either wholly or even partially privileged, although those various ways in
which race and
identities, like all identities, are always constituted by the intersections of gender interact to
shape the multiple
multiple vectors of power. Peter Kwan notes: dimensions of Black
women's

... straight white maleness arguably is a multiple identity, but intersectionality theorists employment
experiences'
would resist the claim by straight white males that theirs is an intersectional subjectivity. (Crenshaw, 1991:
Central to intersectionality theory is the recovery of the claims and identities of those who, 1244). yet later she
notes lmy focus on
like African American women, are pushed to the margins of racial discourse because of the intersections of
race and gender only
assumptions of patriarchal normativity, and simultaneously pushed to the margins of the
highlights the need
to account for
feminist discourse because of assumptions of racial normativity.
multiple grounds of
(Kwan, 1996: 1275) identity when
considering how the
social world is
Kwan's intervention suggests that intersectionality has generally been opposed to
constructed'
imagining non-multiply marginalized subjects as central to its theoretical and (Crenshaw, 1991:
1245). Thus, the text
political project, particularly because of its investment in 'recovering' rests on an internal
marginalized subjects' voices and experiences. paradox:
intersectionality as
a theory about black
Yet other scholars emphasize that intersectionality's most significant contribu-
women's experiences
tion is its general theory of identity. Zack argues that 'the term 'intersectionality' and intersectionality
as a theory of
refers to multiple oppressions experienced by nonwhite and poor women in 'multiple grounds of
particular, but more generally to all women because differences in sexuality, age, identity'.

and physical ableness are also sites of oppression' (Zack, 2005: 7). For Zack, all
women are intersectional subjects, precisely because of the possibility that their
womanhood (already a socially disadvantaged position) will intersect with other
social positions to multiply disadvantage them. Zack's work suggests that the
fact that some women experience privilege along particular axes (whether class,
sexuality, light-skinnedness, able-bodiedness, etc.) does not undermine all
women's claims to intersectional identities.

If intersectionality is solely an anti-exclusion tool designed to describe 'the

multiplier effect', or the 'lifelong spirit injury of black women', then it is
incumbent upon both feminist theory and anti-racist work to develop a
conceptualization of identity that captures the ways in which race, gender,
sexuality, and class, among other categories, are produced through each other,
securing both privilege and oppression simultaneously (Wing, 1990: 191). That is,
progressive scholarship requires a nuanced conception of identity that recognizes
the ways in which positions of dominance and subordination work in complex and
intersecting ways to constitute subjects' experiences of personhood. If, however,
intersectionality purports to provide a general tool that enables scholars to
uncover the workings of identity, intersectionality scholarship must begin to
broaden its reach to theorize an array of subject experience(s).

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processes of identity formation
If intersectionality theory purports to provide a general theory of identity, it must
grapple with whether intersectionality actually captures the ways in which
subjects experience subjectivity or strategically deploy identity. In particular,
intersectionality has yet to contend with whether its theory explains or describes
the processes and mechanisms by which subjects mobilize (or choose not to
mobilize) particular aspects of their identities in particular circumstances. The
theory has not attended to questions like: do black women use their multiple
identities to interpret the social world or do they deploy one at a time? What
determines which identity is foregrounded in a particular moment, or are both
always simultaneously engaged? What is the relationship between the 'matrix of
domination' (Collins, 2000: 299), the various forms of power that are inflicted on
all bodies, and the processes and articulations of identity? Answering questions
about the fit between intersectionality and lived experience of identity requires
intersectionality to craft a theory of agency and to grapple with the amount of
leeway variously situated subjects have to deploy particular components of their
identities in certain contexts.

the *so what1 questîon(s): theoretical advances

for a new intersectionality
While there are a number of unresolved paradoxes in intersectional theory,
attending to these contradictions will provide intersectional theory with an
opportunity to broaden its explanatory power and to develop its answer to what
Chang and Culp call the 'so what' question. Chang and Culp note 'it's one thing to
say that race, gender, sexuality, class, and nation operate symbiotically,
cosynthetically, multidimensionally, or interconnectedly. ... The next step is to
be able to prescribe or imagine points of intervention' (2002: 490). Simply
identifying particular intersections as undertheorized or unacknowledged is only
the first step in a larger theoretical and political project, which intersectionality
has yet to articulate with specificity. While the work emerging from critical race
feminism has sought to challenge law to alter its doctrinal structure to attend to
black women's particular subject positions, the work emerging from feminist
theory has suggested that feminism itself must better examine its history of
exclusions, yet neither of these projects has assessed or theorized the
repercussions of conceptualizing of identity as 'symbiotically, cosynthetically,
multidimensionally, or interconnectedly' formed.

One 'so what' question that remains unexplored by intersectional theorists is the
way in which privilege and oppression can be co-constituted on the subjective
level. That is, while intersectionality purports to describe multiple margin-
alizations (i.e. the spectre of the multiply-marginalized black woman that haunts

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 intersectionality) and multiple privileges (i.e. the spectre of the (heterosexual)
white man that haunts intersectionality), it neglects to describe the ways in
which privilege and oppression intersect, informing each subject's experiences.

In painting black women, for example, as wholly oppressed and marginalized,

intersectional theory can not attend to variations within black women's
experiences that afford some black women greater privilege, autonomy, and
freedom. In troubling the monolithism of 'black womanhood', intersectionality
could be strategically disloyal to dominant conceptions of black women as 'the
mules of the world', exploding the tendency of radical projects to elide critical
differences within ostensibly marginalized subject positions (Hurston quoted in
Churchill, 1999: 199). Mari Matsuda suggests that intersectionality works by
enabling scholars to lask the other question'. She argues:

The way I try to understand the interconnection of all forms of subordination is through a

method I call 'ask the other question.' When I see something that looks racist, I ask, 'where

is the patriarchy in this?' When I see something that looks sexist, I ask, 'Where is the
heterosexism in this?' When I see something that looks homophobic, I ask, 'Where are the
class interests in this?'.

(Matsuda, 1990: 1189)

Matsuda's intervention demonstrates the interconnections of forms of

subordination, yet gestures toward the tendency of intersectional theorists to

ignore the intimate connections between privilege and oppression. Her framework
underscores the ways in which patriarchy, racism, and heterosexism buttress each
other, but ignores the ways in which subjects might be both victimized by
patriarchy and privileged by race (it also ignores the ways in which subjects might
take pleasure in some of the trappings of patriarchal power) in particular social,
cultural, historical, and political moments. In conceiving of privilege and
oppression as complex, multi-valent, and simultaneous, intersectionality could
offer a more robust conception of both identity and oppression.

Conceptualizing 'black womanhood' as its own contested, messy terrain requires

that intersectionality theory abandon its commitment to sameness, what Rinaldo
Walcott has termed (in an admittedly different context, a critique of black
studies' tendency to elide differences among blacks) '...a regime that trades on
the myths of homogeneity' (Walcott, 2005: 93). In following Walcott's lead,
intersectionality can consider the differences between black women, producing a
potentially uncomfortable disunity that allows for a richer and more robust
conception of identity.

Another critical 'so what' question for intersectionality theory is to consider race
and gender as social processes that inform each other, but which operate in
distinct and particular ways. Currently, much of intersectionality theory conforms
to what Loie Wacquant terms the 'logic of the trial', a scholarly tradition of
locating practices that injure multiply marginalized subjects (Wacquant, 1997:

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222). While the 'logic of the trial' enables scholars to locate the racist and sexist
practices that undergird seemingly neutral and objective sites (like law), it also
tends to ignore the mechanisms through which domination operates, proliferates,
and entrenches itself (Wacquant, 1997). Wacquant advocates that social
scientists l... skirt issues of origins and abandon the search for a single
overarching concept to develop an analytic of racial domination, ... a
parsimonious set of categories designed to anatomize the diverse manners in
which ethnoracial government is exercised' (Wacquant, 1997: 230). Wacquant's
conception of an 'analytic of racial domination' circumvents a search for 'origins'
and, instead, examines how various processes of racial subordination coincide in
particular social moments.

Intersectionality scholars can draw on Wacquant's intervention in a number of

important ways: examining how race and gender utilize differing technologies
of categorization and control, disciplining bodies in distinctive ways, and
coalescing (or colliding) in particular formations in certain historical, social,
cultural, representational, legal, and technological moments. In analysing
race and gender both as co-constitutive processes and as distinctive and
historically specific technologies of categorization, intersectionality scholars will
be able to offer insights that far exceed imagining race and gender as
inextricably bound up.

Crenshaw's articulation of intersectionality has galvanized an array of disciplines

to consider questions of essentialism, exclusion, and complex identity in new
ways. Crenshaw argues:

With identity thus reconceptualized, it may be easier to ... summon the courage to
challenge groups that are after all, in one sense, 'home' to us, in the name of the parts of
us that are not made at home. ... The most one could expect is that we will dare to speak
against internal exclusions and marginalizations, that we might call attention to how the
identity of 'the group' has been centered on the intersectional identities of a few. ...
Through an awareness of intersectionality, we can better acknowledge and ground the
differences among us and negotiate the means by which these differences will find
expression in constructing group politics.
(Crenshaw 1991: 1299)

Crenshaw's intervention suggests the importance of lspeak[ing] against internal

exclusions and marginalizations' to challenge institutions and radical political
projects to hear the voices that have been silenced. Now that intersectionality
itself has become an institutionalized intellectual project, and the dominant
tool for excavating the voices of the marginalized, it is incumbent upon
intersectional scholars to critically interrogate the goals of the intersectional
project as they determine how to chart the future of this theoretical and political
movement. The important insights that identity is complex, that subjectivity is
messy, and that personhood is inextricably bound up with vectors of power are

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 only an analytic starting point; it is time for intersectionality to begin to sort out
the paradoxes upon which its theory rests in the service of strengthening its
explanatory power.

author biography
Jennifer C. Nash is a PhD candidate in African American Studies at Harvard
University, where she is writing her dissertation on representations of black
women in Golden Age pornography.

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doi:10.1057/fr.2008.4

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