CHILD DEVELOPMENT (0-9)

DR V KGABO

LEARNING UNIT 3 - COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG

CHILDREN

DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
PRETORIA

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Learning unit 3:COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG

CHILDREN 85

3.1 INTRODUCTION 85
3.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURAL CONTEXT 86
3.3 GENERAL MILESTONES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 87
3.4 MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT 88
3.4.1 Piaget’s constructivism theory 89
3.4.2 Overview of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 89
3.4.3 Discussion of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development 91
[Link] Sensorimotor stage 91
[Link] Preoperational stage 92
[Link] Concrete operational stage 93
3.4.4 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory 95
[Link] Zone of Proximal Development 96
[Link] Higher and lower mental functions 97
[Link] Critical periods 98
[Link] Vygotsky on language development 98
3.4.5 Bruner’s theory of cognitive and language development 99
[Link] Bruner's theory on language development 101
3.4.6 Information processing theory 102
[Link] Mental hardware 102
[Link] Mental software 103

[Link] General age-related advances in memory 105

3.5 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT 106
3.5.1 Language development of babies 106
3.5.2 Language development during early childhood 107
3.5.3 General language development during middle childhood 109

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 [Link] Bilingualism 109
3.6 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT 111
3.6.1 Cognitive prerequisites for mathematical thought 112
3.6.2 Fostering a positive reading culture
[Link]. Classroom library
3.7 CONCLUSION 113
REFERENCES 113

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 FOREWORD

1. INTRODUCTION

Dear Student

Welcome to CDE3701, CHILD DEVELOPMENT (0-9).

Because this is a blended module, you will need to use myUnisa to study
and complete the learning activities for this module. Visit the website for
CDE3701 on myUnisa frequently. The website for your module is the
module website code written out in full, for example, MODULE CODE-20-
Y.

We trust that you will find the course rewarding and hope you will integrate
the knowledge and skills you acquire in this module to become more
successful in your teaching career.

Broadly speaking, the field of early childhood development is a field that is

shared among three government departments in South Africa albeit from
different perspectives. The focus of the Department of Social Development
(DSD) was on the wellbeing and care of young children from birth to the
age of five years, hence the title they use is “early childhood development
and care” (ECDC). Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE) has now
moved to the Department of Basic Education (DBE). This is important as
it gives the DBE an opportunity to professionalise ECCE. In the field of
education, the focus on young children is to understand how they develop
and to plan educational activities that can promote their learning. Their
education is based on the curriculum of the foundation phase that is
guided by the Curriculum and Programme Statement (CAPS) and the
Early Learning and Development Areas (ELDA’s).

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There are six (6) ELDAs (DBE, 2015):

Early Learning and Development Area One: Well-being

Early Learning and Development Area Two: Identity and belonging

Early Learning and Development Area Three: Communication

Early Learning and Development Area Four: Exploring mathematics

Early Learning and Development Area Five: Creativity

Early Learning and Development Area Six: Knowledge and

understanding of the world.

This module is on child development in the early years; the foundation

phase is one of the core modules in the Early Childhood Education (ECE)
curriculum. It is thus important for you to learn and understand the content
since it cuts across all other modules in the curriculum. Please read this
section carefully so you understand how it links to other modules in the
foundation phase curriculum.

CDE3701 serves as an overview and links with a number of modules in

the foundation phase curriculum. The first learning unit gives an overview
of child development. The important theories in the field will give you an
overview on the different facets of child development like the physical,
social-emotional, cognitive and language aspects. The second learning
unit focuses on physical development of the foundation phase child and
explains how the different development areas are integrated with one
another. The unit addresses child growth and motor development, and
provides the student with some ideas and a lesson plan on teaching
physical education that promotes holistic physical development . This is
followed by learning unit three, which focuses on cognitive development.

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In this study unit, an overview will be given of some general milestones of
cognitive development from birth to nine years. Major theories of cognitive
development will be discussed, namely Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and
Information Processing Theory. Considering the complex relationship

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that cognitive development has with both language and with mathematical
thought, as visually depicted, children’s development in both of these
areas will be addressed.

Figure 1.1: Overview of the foundation phase instructional time per

subject

Source: ( CAPS, 2012, p. 6)

Figure 1.2: Overview of the foundation phase English Home Language

curriculum

Source: ( CAPS, 2012, p. 8)

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The last learning unit focuses on the social and emotional development of
the child. An overview of some general social and emotional milestones
will be given, and how the teacher and parent can support the child in
their development.

The best way to discuss child development is to adopt a holistic approach,

that is, see the child as one whole. Scholars like to depict the holistic
development of the child as follows:

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 Figure 1.3: Holistic development of the child

I see you blossoming into a competent and creative teacher after completing
this module! Thank you.

1.1 Getting started …

Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and
find your study material in print and online. Go to the website at
[Link] and log in using your student number and
password. You will see [module site-CDE3701] in the row of modules
displayed in the orange blocks at the top of the webpage. Select the More
tab if you cannot find the module you require in the blocks displayed. Then
click on the module you want to open.

We wish you much success in your studies!

2. OVERVIEW OF CDE3701

2.1 Purpose

Students who have completed this module successfully will have the
knowledge, skills, and values related to the development of the young child
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through the framings of a reflective teacher. Students will explore each
domain of child development in the early childhood phase from birth to
nine years. As students engage with the domains of development, they
will be afforded opportunities to understand child development in diverse
contexts with sensitivity to the varying capabilities of children. In this way,
students will enhance their understanding of the variations and complexities
of child development. The age and stage contextual approach will assist in
developing appropriate activities for supporting early learning.

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2.2 Learning Outcomes

For this module, you will have to master the following outcomes:

• Engage with various theories of child development and learning.

• Examine physical development of young children.

• Examine cognitive development of young children.

• Examine social and emotional development of young children.

• Address the moral development of young children.

• Discuss the creative development of young children.

3. DEPARTMENT CONTACT DETAILS

3.1 Department

You can contact the Department of Early Childhood Department:

Telephone number: 012 429 4583

E-mail: makgome1@[Link]

4. RESOURCES

4.1 Joining myUnisa

The myUnisa learning management system is the university's online

campus, which will help you communicate with your lecturers, with other
students, and with the administrative departments at Unisa.

To go to the myUnisa website directly, go to [Link] Click

on the Claim UNISA Login on the top of the screen on the myUnisa
website. You will then be prompted to give your student number in order to
claim your initial myUnisa details as well as your myLife e-mail login details.
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 For more information on myUnisa, consult the brochure, Study @ Unisa,
which you received with your study material:
[Link]/brochures/studies

4.2 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)

Please see the different e-reserves’ articles in the different learning units.

E-reserves can be downloaded from the Library catalogue. More

information is available at [Link]

4.3 myUnisa tools

The main tool that we will use is the Lessons tool. This tool will provide
the content of and the assessments for your module. At times you will be
directed to join discussions

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 with fellow students, and complete activities and assessments before
you can continue with the module.

It is very important that you log in to myUnisa regularly. We recommend

that you log in at least once a week to do the following:

• Check for new announcements. You can also set your myLife e-mail
account so that you receive the announcement e-mails on your cell phone.

• Do the Discussion Forum activities. When you do the activities for each
learning
unit, we want you to share your answers with the other students in your
group. You
can read the instructions and even prepare your answers offline, but
you will need to go online to post your messages. We have also
provided a Social Cafe where you can socialise with the other
students in the module.

• Do other online activities. For some of the learning unit activities, you
might need
to post something on the Blog tool, take a quiz, or complete a survey
under the Self-
Assessment tool. Do not skip these activities because they will help
you complete the assignments and the activities for the module.

We hope that by giving you extra ways to study the material and practise all
of the activities, you will succeed in the online module. To get the most out
of the online module you MUST go online regularly to complete the
activities and assignments on time.

5. CONCLUSION

Do not hesitate to contact us by e-mail if you are experiencing problems

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 with the content of this study guide or with any academic aspect of the
module.

We wish you a fascinating and satisfying journey through the learning

material and trust that you will complete the module successfully.
Enjoy the journey!

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LEARNING UNIT 3

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT OF THE YOUNG CHILDREN

Aim of learning unit

In this learning unit, you will examine the cognitive development

of young children. An overview of some general milestones of
cognitive development will be given, and major theories of
cognitive development will be discussed, namely Piaget,
Vygotsky, Bruner, and the Information Processing Theory.

Learning outcomes

When you have completed this module, you should be able to do

the following:

• Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive

development

• Outline stages of development of a young child

• Discuss the importance of cognitive development through

contextual examples
and case studies
•
Unpack relevant theories related to the cognitive development
•
• of young children Reflect on implications of cognitive
development for own practise
Apply specific outcomes to CAPS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

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Most teachers are likely to find themselves, at some point in their careers,
wondering why some children are able to grasp difficult concepts with ease,
whereas others struggle with the most “simple” of concepts no matter how
much effort the teacher puts in. Differing levels of cognitive development
is one possibility that can account for differences in children’s abilities.
With the current focus on inclusivity in South African classrooms,
understanding these differences can be a powerful tool for teachers to
ensure that every child is receiving instruction that they can truly benefit
from.

In a nutshell, according to Piaget (1896-1980), cognitive development

refers to children’s thinking and how it becomes more integrated and
complex over time. The first two years of life is filled with major
developmental accomplishments in how babies understand and interact
with the world around them, from starting to use objects constructively, to
their first words. The thinking of preschool children becomes more
sophisticated, organised, and less vague than that of babies. They are
constantly expanding their knowledge of the physical and social world.
However, their thinking is still quite illogical. The research done on cognitive
development during middle childhood is considerably less than that done
on early childhood, but that does not make this phase any less crucial, as
the cognitive

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patterns and habits that individuals develop during this time have lasting
effects on their cognitive functioning for the rest of their lives (Louw &
Louw, 2014).

In this learning unit, an overview will be given of some general milestones

of cognitive development, and major theories of cognitive development
will be discussed, namely Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, Gardner and
Information Processing Theory. Considering the complex relationship
that cognitive development has with both language and with mathematical
thought, children’s development in both of these areas will also be discussed
in separate sections.

3.2 THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CULTURAL CONTEXT

Before addressing the theoretical aspects of cognitive development, it is

crucial to reflect on the importance of the cultural context of the child. Most
well-known developmental theories are based on Western culture.
Considering the cultural diversity of South African schools, having
extensive knowledge about cognitive development will not necessarily
enable teachers to include all their children if they do not have insight into
children’s individual cultural contexts. You are advised to keep this in mind
as you progress through the whole module.

One factor influencing children’s cognitive development in different cultural

contexts is the problems that they are expected to solve. In more modern
communities, a young child who, for example, is able to complete a
structured pattern matching activity more quickly than a peer, may be
considered “intelligent”; whereas a young child in a more rural community
would be considered intelligent if they can retell a story in the correct
sequence (Dawes & Biersteker, 2011).

Most African children seem to experience both modern and traditional

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cultural influences. According to Nsamenang (2011), the cognitive
abilities, technical skills, and local cultural competencies of African
children develop side by side. For example, early mathematical concepts
are developed as children in rural areas learn how to count objects from
their environment; motor skills develop while assisting with domestic tasks
and financial concepts are transferred as children learn from parents’
businesses. Young children are expected to run errands, which fosters the
development of self-regulation, attention, and memory (Nsamenang,
2011). In the African context, it is also more common for other children,
rather than for adults, to play with young children and to provide them with
developmental stimulus. Serpel (2011) cautions that children’s skillsets
that are the product of local African approaches to learning and
development, may not always be aligned with the skill sets expected of
children by modern schools.

Activity 3.1

Think of a few general strategies to accommodate and include

foundation phase children, age 6-9, and their skillsets from the
different cultural contexts in which their cognitive development is
taking place. See the table that follows as guidance when
completing the activity.

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 Feedback on Activity 3.1

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Provide learning activities that make use of real-life or

contextual scenarios
 Make sure that there are both opportunities for working
together collaboratively, as well as engaging in friendly
competition
 Make sure there is a balance between important academic skills
and real-life competencies

3.3 GENERAL MILESTONES IN COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

The following table provides an overview of general milestones of

children’s cognitive development:

Table 3.1: General milestones in cognitive development (Brewer,

2014)

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 Birth-3 years 3-4 years 5-6 years 7-8 years

• Predominantly • Follows the • Can follow • Transition to

sensorimotor instructions of three concrete
investigation of the two commands unrelated operational
environment
• Impulsive and
commands thinking (logical

• The rapid makes • Displays

thought when
they have
development of frequent growing
access to
concepts mistakes attention
concrete objects
• Develops object • The rapid
span
to help them
permanence development • Can arrange
think)
• Develops
of objects
• Enjoys engaging
language
vocabulary
• Can
in discussions
• • Uses categorise
May use words
numbers objects
• Is able to plan
without under-
standing them
without
• Thinking is
• Can sustain
understanding interest over long
more
• Has difficulty deliberate
periods of time

differentiating
• Differentiate
• Begins to
between under- stand
s between
fantasy and cause and
fantasy
reality effect
and reality
• Begins to classify
• Can use
• Develops a
objects, growing
language to
especially understanding
categorise
by function of time
• Is aware that
• Begins to use words and • Understands
abstract and uses more
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 words pictures abstract terms

• Constant “Why?”
represent real
• Expresses
objects
questions more

• Egocentric
• Interested in awareness of
numbers and their community
thinking
letters

• Does not
spontaneo
usly use
rehearsal in
memory tasks

• Begins to con-
serve number
and
length of
objects

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Activity 3.2: A case study

Sello is at the beginning of his grade R year, and he has just turned 6 years old.
He is always well-behaved, and is the first to follow his teacher’s instructions,
even if she gives a few in a row. When she asks a question, he never shouts out
and first considers his answer carefully before raising his hand. He does very well
in activities where they need to sort objects and can even sort objects verbally
by describing their characteristics. However, when he has to solve addition and
subtraction problems, he is unable to do so, even if the teacher gives him
blocks to help him. He usually then just starts writing random numbers down
just for the fun of it.

After reading the case study, refer to the milestones of cognitive

development in the table above, and answer the following
questions:

• Identify the cognitive milestones that Sello seems to have

• achieved; are these in line with his age?
Which cognitive milestones does he still need to achieve before
• he can do all that his teacher is expecting of him?
Should the teacher be concerned that he is struggling with
• mathematical problems? How do you think knowledge of
children's cognitive developmental milestones can help you in
your own lesson planning and student teaching practice?

Feedback on Activity 3.2

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

(1) Can Sello follow a few unrelated commands?

 thinking is more deliberate

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  can categorise objects, and also use language to do so.
Sello is 6 years old – these milestones are in line with 5-
6-year-olds

(2) He still needs a transition to concrete operational thinking,

where he can use objects to think logically (in line with 7-8-
year-olds).
(3) NOT YET, as what he can do is appropriate for his age. The
teacher will need to monitor how his thinking develops over
the year, before having to be concerned.
(4) Possible responses:

 Knowing what to expect from children

 Planning activities that they will be able to do, and benefit
from
 Helping them move to higher levels of cognitive
development may be possible if you know where they
need to go

3.4 MOST INFLUENTIAL THEORIES OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT

Some of the most well-known theories of cognitive development are Piaget’s

constructivist theory, Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Bruner’s theory,
and Information Processing

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Theory, which has been described by multiple theorists. We will now
examine all of these theories in detail.

3.4.1 Piaget’s constructivism theory

As stated in LU1, the different theories will be discussed to enhance your

knowledge of child development.

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) formulated one of the best-known theories of

cognitive development. He believed that children are naturally curious and
construct their knowledge and understanding of the world around them as
a result of active engagement with the environment (Waite-Stupianksi,
2017).

By acting like scientists, they form intuitive theories about how the
physical and social world works, and these theories are then tested by
experience (Louw & Louw, 2014). For example, a baby drops her bottle
and it falls to the floor. She then forms the theory that things fall to the floor
when she lets go of them. When she then drops a teddy to the floor, her
theory is strengthened. When she lets go of a helium balloon, however, this
may cause her to “question” her theory when the balloon does not drop
to the floor as expected.

Piaget believed that there are four stages in a child’s cognitive

development, around ages two, seven, and twelve, where their way of
thinking and forming theories change radically. This implies four distinct
stages of cognitive development, each with a more sophisticated level of
reasoning than the last. These stages are the sensorimotor stage, the
preoperational stage, the concrete operational stage, and the formal

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operational stage. Understanding Piaget’s concept “operations”, on which
most of the names of the stages are based, is essential to understanding
the stages themselves. Operations are actions or mental representations
achieved through logical thinking (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017).
Preoperational thought thus implies the absence of logic, concrete
operational thought includes the ability of logical thinking by using
concrete materials, and formal operational thought then refers to abstract
logical thought. Look at the table below to understand each stage and
their cognitive characteristics.

3.4.2 Overview of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Table 3.2: Overview of Piaget's stages of cognitive development (Louw

& Louw, 2014).

Sta Approximate Cognitive

ge age characteristics
Sensorimotor Birth to 2 years • Understanding of the world
constructed
through senses (e.g.
looking, tasting,
touching) and movement.

• Object permanence
develops i.e. knows that if an
object is out of sight, it still
exists.

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 Sta Approximate Cognitive
ge age characteristics
Preoperational 2 to 6 years • Language and symbols
(e.g. drawing pictures) are
used to represent ideas
and objects.

• Animism: thinks lifeless

things can think and feel (e.g.
baby thinks her doll is cold).

• Egocentric thinking: finds it

difficult to see things from
other people’s perspectives.
Concrete 7 to 11 years • Development of logical
operational thinking still rooted in
concrete objects (e.g. solves
the mathematical problem
with help of counters).

• Abstract thinking mostly

absent.
Formal operational 12 to adulthood • Able to think abstractly: can
speculate about hypothetical
situations and reason
deductively.

To describe how children’s understanding of the world develops

throughout these stages, Piaget used the concept of schemas –
cognitive/mental structures that organise information gained from

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experiences, based on prior experiences and memory. In other words,
schemas are mental categories of related information.

These schemas develop through the processes of organisation and

adaptation. Organisation refers to cognitive processes becoming not only
more complex, but also more systematic and coherent (Louw & Louw,
2014).

Adaptation occurs when children are confronted with new experiences

and have to deal with information that seems to be in conflict with what
they already know (i.e. their existing cognitive schemas). Adaptation
includes two processes, namely assimilation and accommodation:

Assimilation – Interpreting new experiences in terms of an existing schema.

This essentially entails making new experiences “fit” into existing schemas.
For example, if a child who is familiar with horses (i.e. has a cognitive
scheme for the concept of horses) sees a donkey for the first time, he
might think it is also a horse.

If someone corrects him by calling it a donkey, and he then sees that there
is a difference, he will have to create a new cognitive schema for donkeys.
This process is called accommodation – when a cognitive schema is
changed or extended to include new information.

Piaget observes that there is a constant process of striving for balance

between including new experiences into existing cognitive schemas
(assimilation) and changing schemas to accommodate new information
(accommodation) as equilibration (Louw & Louw, 2014).

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 3.4.3 Discussion of Piaget’s stages of cognitive development

Although Piaget cautioned against the rigid interpretation of these stages,

emphasising the fact that earlier ways of thinking often reappear at later
ages, (Waite-Stupiansky, 2017), the analysis of each of his stages still
provides valuable insights into the progressive nature of cognitive
development.

[Link] Sensorimotor stage

The term “sensorimotor” refers to babies obtaining information through their

senses and motor activities (movement). Piaget (2000) believed that early
cognitive development occurs through a process called circular
reaction: when a baby learns to repeat interesting or pleasurable
situations that were discovered by chance. This repetition leads to the
consolidation of new schemas.

Piaget further divided this stage into six sub-stages that show advances
in cognitive abilities:

Table 3.3: Sub-stages that show advances in cognitive abilities (Waite-

Stupiansky, 2017).

Sub-stage Approxi Cognitive characteristics

mate
age
1. Reflexes Birth-1 • Newborns are aware of only the present
month and respond
to stimuli available in the moment.

• Actions are mostly reflexive, such as

grasping and sucking reflexes.

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 • Do not appear to plan their actions or
remember
events or things.

2. Primary circular 1-4 months • Beginning of coordination between

reactions listening and looking, looking and
reaching, and reaching and sucking
– actions that help them explore
their surroundings.

• This coordination is achieved because

of primary circular reactions:
intentionally repeating actions related to
own body after discovering them, e.g.
accidentally sucking his/her thumb,
finding it pleasurable and then
intentionally sucking their thumb again
later.
3. Secondary 4-8 months • Interested in manipulating objects.
circular
• Actions that trigger responses in their
reactions
environment are repeated intentionally,
e.g. shaking a rattle to hear the sound it
makes again and again.
4. Coordination 8-12 months • Actions are purposeful and
of secondary experienced as a means
reactions to an end, e.g. pushing something out
of their way
or crawling towards something they
see.

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 • They begin to understand cause and
effect.

• The emergence of object

permanence: realises that
objects still exist if they cannot be
seen, but object
permanence is incomplete, e.g. if a
baby repeatedly discovers a toy when
opening a specific container, and

Sub-stage Approxi Cognitive characteristics

mate
age

the baby sees someone putting that toy

somewhere else, they will continue
searching for the toy in the first
container.

• Starts to imitate others’ behaviour, i.e.

they are able
to form a mental image of something
they have perceived, e.g. imitating their
mothers’ facial expression.

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5. Tertiary 12-18 months • Different circular reactions are used to
circular find new ways of dealing with
reactions challenges, e.g. trying different sounds
to get his or her mother’s attention.

• Shows originality in solving problems,

and uses trial and error to reach goals,
e.g. opening various containers until
they find a toy.

• Object permanence further

developed: babies still have problems
with aspects of object permanence,
e.g. if they see a toy in someone’s
hand, and that person places the toy
under a pillow, they will not think of the
possibility that the toy was transferred,
and will continue looking in the hand.
6. Mental 18-24 • Develops the ability to use mental
representatio months symbols such as words, numbers, or
n pictures to represent objects, events,
and actions.

• Mental planning is used, instead of

trial and error approach, e.g. a two-
year-old who wants a specific toy,
will know which container to open to
get it.

• Object permanence fully developed:

will search for objects even if they did

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 not see it being hidden.

• Deferred imitation: is able to imitate

behaviour a while after they have
seen it, e.g. sees their mother
speaking on the phone, and then
picking it up and repeating her
behaviour the next day.

[Link] Preoperational stage

As mentioned earlier in this section, preoperational thinking means that

children are not yet able to engage in logical mental operations. This stage
is further subdivided into two sub-stages: the symbolic/pre-conceptual
period (2-4 years) and the intuitive period (4-7 years). During the symbolic
period, children’s use of symbols/mental representations, that is, words,
numbers, or pictures to which the child attaches meaning, becomes
increasingly complex. The intuitive period is characterised by endless “why?”
questions, as they begin to use primitive reasoning to develop ideas about
how the world works. They are also very sure about their ideas, although
the ideas are generally simple and irrational.

Cognitive advances that may be identified during the preoperational

stage involve symbolic/mental representation. There are a few basic types
of symbolic representation, including deferred imitation, symbolic/pretend
play, and spoken language. Deferred imitation, which has already
developed during the sensorimotor stage, is continued and becomes
more complex; for example, they will imitate their preschool teacher and
pretend to teach their toys. Symbolic play involves substituting imaginary
situations for

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real ones or representing actual objects/events by using other objects or
acting them out, for example, pretending that a box is a car and that they
are driving around in it. Spoken language is the most apparent
development in this stage (Louw & Louw, 2014). It enables children to think
by means of mental representation of actions, rather than simply through
actions alone as occurs during the sensorimotor stage. This statement
conveys Piaget’s (2000) belief that children’s ability to think develops before
their ability to use language.

Immature aspects of young children’s thinking, that Piaget (2000) claimed

deter the development of logical/ operational thought, are perceptual
centration, irreversibility, egocentrism, animism, and transductive
reasoning.

Perceptual centration refers to their tendency to pay attention to only

one aspect or attribute of an observed situation while ignoring other
relevant aspects. For example, they may think that if you take a certain
number of cookies, and then spread them out, there are suddenly more
cookies because they are only paying attention to the size of the surface
area the cookies are taking up, rather than the actual quantity. This is
due to a lack of understanding of conservation: the insight that the
appearance of matter can change, without changes in quantity. Piaget
identified three well-known problems with conservation during the
preoperational stage: conservation of number, (see above example of
cookies); conservation of liquid quantity, for example, thinking that if
juice is poured from a normal glass to a taller glass, there is suddenly
more juice; and conservation of mass, for example, thinking that if a ball
of clay is stretched out, there is suddenly more clay.

Irreversibility refers to the inability to mentally reverse an operation, for

example, they cannot imagine moving cookies, which have been spread

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out, closer together again. This also has implications for the mathematical
abilities of young children, for example, they may not be able to make the
logical conclusion that 1 + 2 = 3, and therefore 3-2 = 1.

The term, egocentrism, as used by Piaget (2000), refers to the tendency

to view the world from their own perspective, and the lack of realisation that
others may see things from different perspectives. For example, they may
think that it becomes dark because it is their bedtime, that everyone else is
hungry because they are, or that not everyone in their household enjoys
listening to the same song repeatedly.

Animistic thinking refers to the assumption that non-living things have

thoughts, feelings, and motives just as they do, for example, thinking that
rain means that the sky is crying.

Transductive reasoning is when children do not yet understand the

relationship between cause and effect, causing them to think that one
event that occurred close to another, caused that event, whether it is
logical or not, for example, thinking that their father came home because
the dog started barking (Louw & Louw, 2014).

[Link] Concrete operational stage

During this stage, spanning from approximately 7 to 11 years, children start

using mental operations to reason logically and to solve problems. All of
these operations reflect some kind of general rule about objects and the
relationships between objects. Some

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of them apply to numbers, such as the mathematical operations of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Other mental operations apply to
categorise objects according to different characteristics, and others apply
to spatial relations between objects (e.g. reading a map or orienting
oneself in an unfamiliar place).

Piaget (2000) believed that one of the most critical operations is reversibility
– the understanding that both physical actions and mental operations can
be reversed (Louw & Louw, 2014). In other words, each operation has an
inverse that will undo or reverse its effects. For example, if you have 5
and add 3 to it to get 8 (5 + 3 = 8), the inverse operation would be to
subtract 3 from 8 to get 5 again, thereby reversing the operation.

Reversible mental operations enable children to perform conservation

tasks that children were unable to perform during early childhood, such as
reasoning that when the juice is poured into a taller glass, the
transformation could be reversed (i.e. pouring the juice back into the
original glass), showing that the quantity of juice remains the same.
However, it is important to note that children do not master all kinds of
conservation at the same time (number, liquid quantity, and mass).

In contrast to preoperational children, who think egocentrically and often

confuse the appearance of things with reality, concrete operational
thinkers become increasingly able to understand the perspective of
others, even when different to their own. They learn that problems may
have many facets – a process referred to as decentering – and that
appearance can be deceptive, and therefore start paying attention to
more than one facet of a situation.

Despite its advances, concrete operational thinking remains limited to

that which can be observed or manipulated – the tangible and real.
Abstract or hypothetical thought is thus not yet within the capabilities of

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children in this stage.

Based on the above information, read the case study and answer the
following questions.

Activity 3.3: A case study

Ntombi is in grade 2 and experiences difficulties with mathematics. When her

teacher hands out a sheet of addition and subtraction sums, Ntombi tries only
the first few. She then goes up to her teacher and asks if she may go fetch her
blocks because the work is too difficult. The teacher immediately starts scolding
her and says that she is too old to play with blocks and that she should count in
her head to get the answers, like the other children. Ntombi goes back to her
table and starts drawing pictures on the back of her paper, discouraged.

(1) What could you say to Ntombi’s teacher about Ntombi’s level
of cognitive development, according to Piaget’s theory?
(2) Do you think that her behaviour towards Palesa is helpful
to Ntombi’s cognitive development?
(3) What advice would you give her teacher?

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 Feedback on Activity 3.3

(1) Ntombi is most likely in Piaget’s stage of concrete operational

thinking, as she is approximately 8 years old, and seems to
need concrete objects to help her perform the logical
operations of addition and subtraction.
(2) No, because if Ntombi realises that she still needs concrete
objects, but she may not use them, this may keep her from
moving to the formal operational stage of thinking.
(3) Possible responses:

 Ntombi is not yet at a level of cognitive development

where she can think abstractly about mathematical
operations.

 If she is allowed to use blocks until she is ready to

mentally perform the operations without them, she will
then be able to do it well and with a true understanding.

 Children develop at different rates and expecting all of them

to be able to do the same things at the same time, is not
fair.

3.4.4 Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) according to Bodrova and Leong (2017) was

one of the first psychologists who emphasised the cultural context of
children’s development, and he criticised Piaget for neglecting to do so.
He believed that the fundamental aim of all societies is to transfer essential
values and skills to their children and that all aspects of child development
should thus be considered with their context in mind. The biggest
difference between Piaget and Vygotsky is that Piaget believed age
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precedes development, while Vygotsky believed that readiness precedes
development. Thus, he did not believe children should be a certain age to
think in a certain way.

Vygotsky acknowledged the importance of children’s inherent curiosity and

creativity in their development, as was studied by Piaget (Louw & Louw,
2014). However, he believed that children need cognitive tools provided by
their cultures, such as language, memory aids, writing, numerical
systems, and scientific concepts, to develop their minds fully. He referred
to these tools as “cultural tools” and stated that they extend one’s
mental abilities in the same way that physical tools extend one’s physical
abilities (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). Since he recognised a mutual influence
that cognition and language have on each other, his primary focus was
language-based tools (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). His views on language
and the development thereof will be discussed in more detail at the end of
this section.

Vygotsky emphasised the culture-specific nature of cultural tools, believing

that children learn how to use them from older members of their society
(Bodrova & Leong, 2017). In attempting to explain exactly how these tools
are acquired, Vygotsky made valuable conceptual contributions regarding
cognitive development, such as the Zone of Proximal Development.

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[Link] Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky described the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) as an area

between an individual’s actual developmental level of problem solving, and
the developmental level that they are able to achieve with the guidance or
collaboration of more capable adults or peers (Bodrova & Leong, 2017).
In other words, it is the difference between what the child can achieve
while working independently, and what the child can achieve when
working with a more skilled other. Therefore, if a child is unable to master a
skill or concept, even with a great amount of assistance, the task is most
likely above the child’s ZPD at the present time.

Figure 3.1: Vygotsky’s Zone of Proximal Development

The skills and competencies within the child’s ZPD do not convey the child’s
current level of development, but rather their potential for development, as
it may go unrealised without a more competent other’s intervention. If they
are able to realise this potential, a new level of development is attained.
Others can help them achieve this by using prompts, clues, modelling,
explanation, leading questions, discussions and encouragement (Louw &
Louw, 2014). As children progress from needing assistance, to being able
to accomplish tasks independently, the skills and competencies within their
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ZPD become more complex.

Activity 3.4

Critically discuss how Vygotsky’s ZPD can be used by teachers

to the benefits of children with developmental delays or who
come from educationally impoverished backgrounds.

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Feedback on Activity 3.4

Possible responses:

 Children who have experienced delays in their development

will not have the same abilities as other children. By providing
additional support, however, they may be raised from
the level of things they can achieve by themselves, to a higher
level of achievement – in their ZPD.

 Especially in inclusive classrooms, this is very useful in

providing equal and fair opportunities to all children. This can
be extremely useful in assessment in particular, as it will
help children show what their potential for achievement is,
rather than only what they can do at that time.

 Children from impoverished backgrounds are likely not to have

had the same stimulus and access to quality early childhood
development services, as more financially advantaged
children. This could mean that they are not used to
environments with as many educational materials, such as
books.

 When these children enter primary school, they can be at a

severe disadvantage, as they are not used to the same
educational materials, and did not have the same educational
opportunities during early childhood. Providing support and
assistance, and helping them bridge the gap between what
they can do and their true potential (ZPD), will help such
children overcome educational barriers.

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

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  Think of the importance of cognitive development
 Reflect on relevant theories related to cognitive development
 Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own
practise

The following section will focus on cultural tools during the learning
process.

[Link] Higher and lower mental functions

As children learn an increasing number of cultural tools through

processes such as scaffolding, a new category of mental functions
develop, referred to as higher mental functions (Bodrova & Leong,
2017). Higher mental functions include using language, focused
attention, remembering things deliberately, and logical thinking. All
higher mental functions are acquired in a culturally specific way, affecting
their development through a system of cultural practices associated with
these tools (e.g. think of how language development will be affected by
cultural practices such as singing or storytelling). Vygotsky identified three
characteristics shared by all higher mental functions. They are deliberate
(controlled by the person and not their environment), mediated (the use
of tools to make deliberate actions possible), and internalised (no longer
relying on physical actions or tangible objects).

The main difference between higher and lower mental functions is that only
higher mental functions are dependent on cultural tools. Vygotsky
described lower mental functions as innate and dependent on
maturation, not on culture, to develop. Examples of lower mental functions
are using one’s senses, reactively shifting one’s attention to new stimuli in
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the environment (e.g. responding to a loud and sudden noise),
associative memory

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(e.g. seeing an item of familiar food and then mentally associating it with
a good taste), and sensorimotor intelligence (as described by Piaget). As
they develop before higher mental functions, the lower mental functions
may be restructured and integrated with the higher mental functions
(Bodrova & Leong, 2017).

[Link] Critical periods

According to Bodrova and Leong (2017), Vygotsky did not complete his
theory on child development during his lifetime, although he appeared to
believe that development occurs in a succession of stable periods
followed by critical periods. During the stable periods, children develop
their existing competencies and quantitative changes occur in the
number of things they can remember and process. During the critical
periods, their entire system of mental functions is restructured,
resulting in the emergence of cognitive and social-emotional
developmental accomplishments. Externally, the critical periods are
accompanied by changes in behaviour, which are often perceived as
oppositional or defiant by adults. Vygotsky explained that these changes
were a result of a child’s emerging cognitive needs being constrained by
their social context and that overcoming these constraints propels them to
the next level of development (Bodrova & Leong, 2017). Vygotsky
identified the typical ages associated with these critical periods as 1, 3 and
7 years old.

[Link] Vygotsky on language development

In contrast to Piaget who believed that thought develops first, in turn

enabling language development, Vygotsky insisted that thought and
language initially develop separately and independently (Palaiologou,
2010). Around the age of two years, language and thought begin to

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influence each other mutually, as thought takes on verbal characteristics,
and language becomes an expressive outlet for thought. He also
suggested that the development of logical thought results from internalising
speech routines acquired from older children or adults in their social context.
Vygotsky stated that a language is a cultural tool, learnt from others, which
enables children to structure their thoughts (Louw & Louw, 2014). Social
interaction is therefore central to his theory of language development.

Activity 3.5

Compare Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on language

development, and explain how both can be utilised, but in
different educational scenarios, when teaching language in the
foundation phase classroom.

CAPS integration

Use the CAPS web link below on language development and

reflect on how you will integrate Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views on
language development in your daily class activities

[Link]
oundation%20 Phase%20CAPS%[Link]

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 Feedback on Activity 3.5

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit: Aspects of these theories that may be
compared:
 When language and thought develop
 The relationship between language and thought

3.4.5 Bruner’s theory of cognitive and language development

Jerome Bruner’s most notable theoretical contributions towards the

understanding of cognitive and language development are built on
Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). He too
focused on the social and cultural context in which learning and
development take place. Some of these contributions are the concepts of
scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and the three modes of
representation.

Scaffolding a task entails revealing only the parts of a task that the child
will be able to do, thus allowing the child to achieve higher levels of cognitive
development (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). This process usually comes quite
naturally to those working with children, such as teachers and parents,
without having to give it much thought. Different ways in which children’s
thinking can be scaffolded include motivation and encouragement,
providing models to imitate, simplifying a task or idea, and highlighting errors
or important elements of a task. Because of the similarity between
scaffolding, and the processes described by Vygotsky in explaining how
children can move to higher levels of accomplishment with assistance (in
their Zone of Proximal Development), the term, scaffolding, is commonly

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used in association with Vygotsky’s theory.

An essential aspect of the spiral curriculum is the belief that any learning
content needs to be taught in line with what the child already knows and
can do. The child is said to benefit from learning experiences that can be
revisited continuously in more depth in the future, as it results in the
consolidation of their understanding (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). This
gives children the opportunity to reflect on learning experiences and build
on their existing knowledge, and thereby enhances their ability to meet
new learning experiences with creativity.

According to Conkbayir and Pascal (2014) Bruner suggested three

modes of representation that explain how a child stores and processes
information at different ages, namely enactive representation, iconic
representation, and symbolic representation:

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Table 3.4: Three modes of representation of how a child stores
and processes information (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014).

Approxim
Mode of Characteristics ate age
representation that mode
develops
Enactive representation • Babies store information 0-1 year
(action based) through
hands-on experiences:
learning through their
movement and actions.

• Knowledge is stored as
“motor
memory”.
Iconic representation • A child is limited to 1-6 years
(image based) understanding
concrete experiences.

• Information about
objects in their
environment is stored
and categorised as
images in their mind.

• Cannot yet think

abstractly.

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 Symbolic representation • A child can think in 7 years and
(language based) abstract terms, onwards

and no longer depends on

images.

• Language has increased

influence on thought.

• Information can now be

stored
as symbols (i.e.
language and
numbers).

Although these modes develop sequentially, they are not referred to as

stages, seeing that children do not replace earlier modes of representation
when they attain more complex ones, but continue using them, (Conkbayir
& Pascal, 2014). For example, not only babies can learn through the
hands-on manipulation of objects, but as indicated in the table, children
of 6-9 years old also benefit from visual and/or touchable resources when
learning new things.

Activity 3.6: A case study

You are a foundation phase teacher with culturally diverse learners in your
classroom. You are also challenged with intellectually diverse learners. Think of
creative ways to assimilate scaffolding, the spiral curriculum, and the three
modes of representation, for example, enactive representation (action based)
iconic representation (image based) and symbolic representation (language
based), in your lessons to accommodate all learners

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How would you incorporate scaffolding, the spiral curriculum,
and the modes of representation in a culturally diverse grade 1
classroom, to ensure that every child gets ample opportunity for
cognitive development, despite their educational backgrounds?

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 Feedback on Activity 3.6

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Scaffolding: Providing additional support to children, and

lessening it as they improve.
 As this could be difficult to implement in a large classroom,
teachers could divide children into groups by ability, without
doing it so in a discriminatory manner. As children will have
different needs in different learning areas, these groups will
likely differ depending on the subject being taught.

 Spiral curriculum: Lesson planning will need to be done in a

way that topic is revisited more than once. The same topic
may also be explored in different learning areas, integrating
their learning.

 Modes of representation: Children in grade one are likely to

either have reached the symbolic mode of representation or
be very close to it, still only having achieved the iconic mode
of representation. Children should thus be exposed to
learning activities that are still at a concrete level, as well as
those requiring more abstract thought.

 All activities should be sensitive towards the expectations of

the cultures of all the children in the class.

[Link] Bruner's theory on language development

Bruner believes that children have a proactive role in their own language
development, as their mastery of language depends on their realising that

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interactions between themselves and others are intentional (Conkbayir &
Pascal, 2014). In addition to this, he also acknowledges that language
development is influenced by children’s biological maturation to some
extent, although his primary focus is on the importance of the child’s social
network.

By providing age appropriate opportunities for play, as well as meaningful

interactions, a child’s family, friends, and teachers act as a Language
Acquisition Support System. This enables the child to understand the
rules and customs of their language, thereby learning it with ease.

Activity 3.7

Compare the theories of Bruner and Piaget of cognitive

development and identify a few similarities and differences.
Motivate in which teaching scenario a specific theory will be
applicable.

Feedback on Activity 3.7

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of

the learning unit:

 Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive

development
 Outline the stages of development of a young child
 Discuss the importance of cognitive development

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The following section will focus on the processing of new information.

3.4.6 Information processing theory

The information processing theory attempts to explain exactly how new

information is processed in order for the person to gain meaning from
it, rather than describing a sequence of developmental stages. It is
likened to the way people think about the functioning of a computer and
suggests that human cognition consists of mental hardware and mental
software, just like that of a computer. Mental hardware refers to cognitive
structures such as memories, where information is stored. Mental
software refers to an organised set of processes that enable one to
perform specific tasks, such as reading a sentence or hitting a ball.

This theory explains that cognitive development occurs as children’s

mental hardware and software become more sophisticated, like upgrading
the hardware and software of a computer (Louw & Louw, 2014). Their
memory (mental hardware) increases in capacity, and their mental
processes (mental software) become faster and more complex over time,
due to increased processing speed and growing bases of knowledge.

[Link] Mental hardware

Memory is an important aspect of cognitive development. The information

processing theory states that the memory system (mental hardware)
consists of several components that acquire, store, and retrieve
information, including sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-
term memory. Sensory memory is where information is recognised, but
also quickly forgotten if not attended to, for example, when meeting
someone, and not being able to remember their name a few minutes
later.

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The short-term memory is where immediate information is stored
temporarily, and its limited capacity means that it can hold information only
that has been actively processed in some way, for example, remembering
a phone number for a short while after repeating it a few times. Short-term
memory includes working memory, where information is processed to
enable learning.

The long-term memory is where information is stored permanently or semi-

permanently and is almost unlimited in capacity. It includes:

• Episodic memory, referring to the memories of events

• Semantic memory, which refers to remembering facts and general

knowledge

• Procedural memory, which includes one’s memory of how to do

certain things

• Implicit memory, referring to memories of which one is not

necessarily aware, but
can influence daily functioning, such as habits and routines

• Explicit memory, which is knowledge acquired through conscious

efforts such as words and concepts (Louw & Louw, 2014).

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Activity 3.8: Article

To learn more about working memory, read the article titled “The
role of working memory in child education”, which can be found
under e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701, and answer these
questions:

(1) Refer to the section about the importance of working memory

for childhood learning and education, and then create a mind
map or diagram that depicts components and processes
involved in working memory.
(2) How can an understanding of working memory benefit you as
a teacher?
(3) Refer to the section on whether working memory can be
improved, and then think of a few practical strategies that you
would implement in your classroom to improve the working
memory of the children.

Feedback on Activity 3.8

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of

the learning unit:

 Reflect on relevant theories related to cognitive development

 Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own
practise.

Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

(1) See 1.4.2, theoretical perspective of cognitive development,

to make sure you have included all the components of the
information processing theory, namely: mental hardware;
sensory memory; short-term memory; long-term memory that

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 includes the episodic, semantic, procedural, implicit and
explicit memory and the mental software; memory strategies,
including rehearsal, retrieval and metacognition; and lastly
the executive functioning.
(2) Knowing how children process new information in their working
memory will help teachers structure activities in such a way
that help the children transfer new information to their long-
term memories more easily.
(3) Possible answers:

− Teaching memory strategies, such as rehearsing new

information or making associations
− Providing appealing visuospatial or verbal tasks, such as
completing complex patterns, or remembering and
repeating longs lists that will implicitly strengthen working
memory
− Providing tasks that do not place too much of a strain on
their working memory

[Link] Mental software

Examples of mental software, described by information processing

theorists, are memory strategies, metacognition, and executive
functioning:

• Memory strategies consist of deliberate mental activities that are

intended to improve the processing and storing of information. Two of
the most researched memory strategies are a rehearsal – where the
information the individual wants to remember is repeated – and
retrieval, the process of accessing information that is mentally
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represented.

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 The change that takes place in children’s cognitive processing during their
development may largely be ascribed to changes in their memory
strategies, as these strategies become more complex as the children
get older. Children older than five are more likely than younger children
to use rehearsal, resulting in them in holding information in their short-
term memory more effectively than younger children.

Older children also have an improved ability to access and retrieve

information from memory storage. Two common forms of retrieval are
recognition, referring to the type of memory that identifies similarities
between current and past stimuli; and recall, the ability to remember
a stimulus that is no longer present. An example of recognition is
recognising someone’s face that looks familiar. The recall involves the
ability to mentally represent a past stimulus; therefore, younger children
also tend to have weaker recall memory.

• Metacognition refers to knowledge about and control over one’s

thought processes. For example, a child listening to a story may realise
that they have forgotten the name of the main character, and ask the
reader to repeat the name. This implies that the
child is considering the information that they have stored, and evaluating
whether it is sufficient for the task at hand, that is, listening to the story
with comprehension. Both knowing that they have forgotten a
character’s name, and knowing that remembering the name of the
character will make the story easier to understand, are instances of
metacognition at work. Furthermore, metacognition enables children to
generate strategies, such as asking for information to be repeated, to
solve problems that they have identified.

• Executive functioning entails the conscious control of thoughts,

feelings, and behaviour in order to accomplish goals or solve problems. It
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 enables children to plan and use
their thoughts in a goal-directed way. It seems to develop just before
12 months of age, and becomes increasingly complex between the
ages of two and five, as young children start to create and use complex
rules for solving problems (Louw & Louw, 2014). Executive functioning
consists of 11 different types:

• Response inhibition: is the ability to evaluate a situation and how

someone’s behaviour might be affected

• Working memory: is the ability to hold information in mind while

performing com- plex tasks

• Emotional control: is the ability to manage emotions to help

regulate and guide behaviour

• Flexibility: is the ability to revise plans in the face of obstacles, setbacks,

new information, or mistakes

• Sustained attention: is the capacity to attend to a situation or task in

spite of distraction, fatigue, or boredom

• Task initiation: is the ability to begin a task without undue

procrastination in a timely fashion

• Planning and prioritising: is to make decisions about what’s

important to focus on and what is not important

• Organisation: is the ability to create and maintain a system for

arranging or keeping track of important details and items.

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• Time management: is the ability to estimate how much time is
available to complete a task

• Goal-directed persistence: is the ability to establish a goal and

follow through on
achieving it

• Metacognition: is the ability to self-monitor when performing a task

[Link]
function-skills- and-how-an-executive-function-planner-develops-them/

[Link] General age-related advances in memory

Although information-processing theorists did not intentionally describe a

sequence of stages, some age-related advances in memory
development can still be identified:

Table 3.5: Age-related advances in memory development (Berger,

2012).

Approximate Memory
age capabilities
Under 2 years Babies remember actions and routines
involving them. Memory is implicit and is
triggered by sights or sounds.
2-5 years Words are used to encode (mentally represent) and
retrieve memories. Beginning of explicit memory,
although memory strategies are not yet used.
Children can remember things, such as parents’
phone numbers or nursery rhymes, without truly
understanding them.

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5-7 years Children begin to realise that some things need to
be remembered, and they begin to use simple
memory strategies, primarily rehearsal (also
described below).
7-9 years Children can use new strategies that are taught to
them.
Information organised into categories can now be
of great benefit in helping children remember
things.
9-11 years Memory becomes more adaptive and strategic
as children learn more complex memory
techniques.
They are able to develop their own memory aids,
such as categorising information or material.

Activity 3.9: A case study

You are teaching in an under resourced school and want to improve the
children’s memory. Based on the table above, assimilate the key concepts in
every age group to create memory games for the foundation phase children
in your classroom.

What are the implications of foundation phase children's

memory capabilities for their teachers?

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 Feedback on Activity 3.9

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Reflect on implications of cognitive

development for own practise. Keep the
following in mind when answering the question:

Foundation phase children (ages 7-9) will need to be taught

memory strategies explicitly to help them deal with all of the new
information that they will be taking in as they start school.
Referring to prior knowledge, and providing an overview of how
all of the concepts they have already learnt and are yet to learn
fit together. For example, putting up a mind map of new concepts
that they have learnt at the end of a lesson may help the children
to integrate what they have learnt into their long-term memories.

The following section will focus on the stages of language development.

3.5 LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

3.5.1 Language development of babies

Acquiring a language is one of the most significant and complex aspects

of cognitive development. Receptive language (understanding language)
starts to develop before productive language (speaking).

Babies know quite a lot of words by the time they start talking at
approximately 12 months. Babies as young as nine months already have
an elementary receptive vocabulary (words that are understood, but

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cannot necessarily be spoken yet). A vocabulary spurt usually occurs
between 16 and 24 months, as babies start learning words more rapidly,
progressing from knowing approximately 50 words at the age of 16
months, to knowing approximately 320 words at 24 months. During this
time, children are able to learn new words without many repetitions. The
vocabulary learnt firstly tends to relate to the naming of objects and people,
then to social interactions (e.g. “bye”), while learning the words for actions
takes place a little later (Louw & Louw, 2014).

The first few phases of speech development that occur before the child
starts to speak are referred to as prelinguistic speech. This is followed by
phases that indicate the emergence of increasingly comprehensible
language use:

Table 3.6: Phases of speech development (Louw & Louw, 2014).

The
phase Approximate age Characteristics
of
speech
developm
ent
Undifferenti Birth-1 month Crying is used to signal needs
ated crying and there aren’t different cries
for different needs for the
listener to distinguish between

The
phase of Approximate age Characteristics
speech

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 developme
nt
Differentiat 2 months • Babies use various pitches
ed crying and pat-
terns of sound to indicate
(Also, from about 2 different
Cooing
months) needs, making it easier for
the listener to distinguish
between them

• Squealing/gurgling sounds
are made
to indicate happiness or
satisfaction
Babbling 5 months Simple repetition of
consonant/vowel sounds, e.g.
“ma-ma-ma-ma-ma” or “da-
da-da-da-da”
Lallation 7-8 months Sounds or words that they
have heard are repeated,
usually incorrectly
Echolalia 9-10 months Sounds or words are repeated
more deliberately and
correctly
Single- 1 year • Intelligible words are
word spoken to communicate
sentences with others

• Single words are used to

convey more complex

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 meanings, e.g. “mama”
can either mean “I want to
be picked up” or “I want my
mama” or “I am hungry”
Full sentences 21 months onwards • Progression from single
words to full
sentences

• Develops from two-word

utterances to increasingly
sophisticated sentences

3.5.2 Language development during early childhood

Areas of young children’s language development:

• Vocabulary: similar to babies’ vocabulary spurt that takes place

between 16 and 24 months, further rapid expansion occurs between
three and six years of age. Three- year-olds know and can use
approximately 1 000 words, and by the age of six, most children have a
receptive (understood) and expressive (speaking) vocabulary of about
10 000 to 20 000 words, implying that a few new words are learnt per
day.

Although their vocabulary is much larger than it used to be, several

immaturities may still be observed. Under extensions may take place,
referring to the tendency to restrict the meaning of a word. For example,
using the word “juice” to refer to only apple juice, not other juices.
Overextensions may also occur when a child uses a word to refer to a
wider variety of objects that is correct, for example, using the word “cat”
to refer to a lion (August & Shanahan, 2006; Jordaan, 2015).

• Phonology and morphology: Phonology refers to the sounds in a

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language. By the age of three, most children are able to produce all of
the vowel sounds and most of the consonant sounds of their language.
Morphology refers to the smallest unit of language/sound that carries
meaning, such as adding –s to a word to indicate the
plural form or adding –ed to indicate a past experience. When children
start using more words in sentences, their knowledge of morphology
rules becomes apparent.

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 They start to use the plural and possessive forms (two cats/ the cat’s
food), their use of the correct verb form improves (I ate yesterday), and
they begin to use prepositions (on/around) and articles (a /the).

However, some of the morphological rules are still overgeneralised, for

example, saying “foots” instead of “feet” (Carr & Honeybone, 2007).

• Grammar and syntax: The grammar (the general rules of a

language) and syntax (an aspect of grammar referring to combining
words into meaningful phrases and sentences, according to
grammatical rules) of preschool children become increasingly
complex. Three-year-old children begin to use past tense sentences
and are able to ask what and where questions (how and why questions
are more complex and develop a bit later). However, their sentences
are still mostly quite short and declarative, for example, “I want milk”.

Between the ages of four and five, they are able to use more complex
types of sentences, such as negatives, exclamations, and compound
sentences (e.g. sentences linked by but/because). They also enjoy
telling long stories, by lining sentences with “and then… and then”.

Between the ages of five and seven, children’s speech becomes

similar to that of adults, and they are able to have an effective
conversation or tell a story effectively. Their sentences are longer, more
complex, and grammatically correct, and they mostly speak fluently.
They are able to use conjunctions, prepositions, and multiple clauses.
However, they have not yet mastered all aspects of language
development, such as passive voice (e.g. “The sandwich was eaten by
me”) or conditional sentences (e.g. “If I had R10, I would buy sweets.”)
(Probyn, 2009).

• The pragmatic use of language: Pragmatic language represents

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 the social aspect of language, as it entails the rules for using language
effectively and appropriately in social contexts, and according to social
conventions. Young children learn to use language to communicate,
while learning about social etiquette, such as saying “please” and “thank
you”, addressing people correctly depending on the context (e.g.
asking for a favour of giving a command), and changing the content and
intonation of their speech according to the identity of the listener (e.g.
addressing younger siblings in a different way than they would address
a parent or a teacher). It thus becomes easier for the listener to have a
two-way conversation with them.

Three-year-olds tend to be quite talkative and are able to pay attention

to how their words affect others, for example, they will provide more
information if realise that they are not being understood. Most four-year-
olds will use a higher pitch when talking to younger children, as parents
often do. Five-year-olds will adapt what they say to the listener’s
perspective, for example, using more formal language when addressing
adults than when addressing friends. They are also able to resolve
disputes with words and can stick to a topic of conversation if it interests
them (Berko Gleason, 2005).

• Emergent literacy: This refers to the development of skills needed to

understand the printed word. In order to achieve a functional level of
literacy, that is, to learn to read a write, the following sequence of skills
need to develop:

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1. The ability to recognise letters.
2. Linking letters to the correct sounds (grapheme-phoneme
correspondence). Some languages are easier to decode from letters
to sounds than others are. For example, both Zulu and Afrikaans are
quite simple, whereas the letter-to-sound rules in English are often quite
unpredictable.
3. The ability to recognise whole words, that is, “sight words”.
4. Recognising the meanings of words.
5. The ability to comprehend and interpret sentences, which is reliant on
the automatic recognition of words, a large vocabulary, working
memory, and general knowledge of the world (Anthony, Williams,
McDonald & Francis, 2007).

3.5.3 General language development during middle childhood

Although language develops at a slower pace after the age of about five,
significant language development and refinements still take place. Their
sentences become even longer and more complex, and the use of
grammatical forms such as the passive voice are mastered during primary
school. Their vocabulary increases and they become comfortable with the
fact that words may have multiple meanings. Around eight or nine years,
children start to understand sarcasm, irony, as well as figurative language.
The older children get, the more they enjoy humour based on wordplay
or double-meanings.

Another significant improvement is the understanding and increased use

of facial expressions and gestures to emphasise meaning. Furthermore,
primary school children show also show an improved ability to adapt their
style of language according to the social context. They also begin to value
speaking correctly, as they tend to correct others’ language mistakes or
even laugh at them (Louw & Louw, 2014).

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[Link] Bilingualism

In South Africa, most children speak at least two languages. Children

acquire bilingualism through either simultaneous learning of the
languages, or consecutively (one language after the other). Researchers’
opinions on which approach is better varies. Most of them agree that
children who have learnt two languages from infancy have no issues with
language development, as each language is developed in its own right.
When a second language is acquired successively, children will initially
apply the syntactical rules and phonetic structures of their home
language to their second language.

For language proficiency to develop to such an extent that it may be used

to learn other subject matter – that is, to be used as an effective language
of teaching and learning – generally takes from six to eight years.

Concerning the benefits of bilingualism or even multilingualism (the

ability to speak three or more languages), children who are able to speak
more than one language often outperform monolingual children in tests
based on analytical reasoning, verbal- and non-verbal creativity, concept
formation, and cognitive flexibility (Louw & Louw, 2014). Therefore, the
conclusion can be made that learning more than one language advances
children’s cognitive development in several ways.

3.6 Fostering a positive reading culture

Many children in the South African context are not exposed to books,
reading and a positive reading culture. They often read at school for the
purposes of learning and assessment. Children need reading to be
modeled to them in different settings from different role models. In the
context of child development, parents should read to their unborn child
while pregnant. Intentionally creating time to read stories of different
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genres. This creates a routine that the child will be familiar with once
born.

What does fostering a positive reading culture look like?

At school: the teacher / ECD practitioner making time to sit with the
learners on the carpet and read a big book during a shared reading
lesson

At home: parents need to spend time reading on their own so that their
children can see tangible representations of what readers/reading
looks like. For example, they should spend time reading books,
magazines, newspapers and other forms of media including digital
literacies.

3.6.1 Classroom library

A classroom library is a valuable resource that supports early childhood

development by promoting literacy, language skills, imagination,
cognitive abilities, diversity, parental involvement, social and emotional
growth (Henderson, Warren, Whitmore, Flint, Laman, & Jaggers, 2020).
Having an inclusive, diverse and transformed catalogue of books for
children to choose from is very important. Children relate to stories that
they can relate to and need to see illustrations of characters and places
that look and feel like who they are and where they come from (McNair,
2016). Additionally, it creates a literacy rich environment that:

-promotes literacy cultivates a consistent reading culture,

-supports diverse interests and abilities,

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-fosters independent learning,

-develops critical reading and imagination,

-enhances language and vocabulary,

-encourages social interaction and,

-builds a foundation for lifelong learning.

It is important to promote reading in the classroom because children

having access to books of a diverse nature during their early years is
crucial to their lifelong learning (Henderson, et al., 2020). Having a well
curated classroom library builds a foundation for lifelong learning
because it sets the stage for children to start loving reading and
learning in their early years. When children develop positive
associations with books and reading early on, they are more likely to
become avid readers who continue to read outside the classroom and
throughout their adult lives (Motilal & Fleisch, 2020). Furthermore, it
lays a strong foundation for academic success and personal growth on
many different levels (Henderson, et al., 2020; McNair, 2016).

Overall, a literacy and pint rich classroom library plays a crucial role in
early childhood development by nurturing literacy skills, fostering a love
for reading, encouraging independent learning as well as promoting
social and cognitive development especially in the early grades lives
(Motilal & Fleisch, 2020) .

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Activity 3.10: Article

Both Vygotsky and Bruner emphasised the importance of the

social and cultural environment in the language development of
children. The article titled “The facilitative role of adults in the
language development of Afrikaans- and Sesotho- speaking
preschool children”, which can be found under e-reserves on
myUnisa under CDE3701, provides valuable insight into South
African children’s language development in two different
sociocultural contexts.

After reading the article, refer to the “discussion and

interpretation” section in order to answer the following questions:

(1) What are the roles that Sesotho and Afrikaans parents play in
interacting with their children, according to the authors?
(2) Discuss how adults scaffold their children’s language
development.
(3) Compare the social contexts and roles of the adults of the two
language groups, and reflect on the effect the differences
could have in a multicultural foundation phase classroom.

Feedback on Activity 3.10

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of

the learning unit:

 Explain and contextualise concepts related to cognitive

development
 Reflect on implications of cognitive development for own
practise

Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

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(1) Role of the mothers was especially important in both cultures

− Grandmothers were also often involved, in both cultures

− Fathers more involved in Afrikaans environments
− Older children and other adults more often involved in
Sotho environments
− The adults of both cultures encouraged language
production by asking questions or making requests
− Playing is seen as an opportunity for interaction by both
cultures

(2) Mothers of both cultures raised the levels of language

development in their children

− Mothers of younger children tended to ask many “why”

questions, supporting the learning of the names of
people and things, and the production of sentences
− They also expanded the responses of their children,
which is a great example of scaffolding
− Older children were scaffolded to improve their use of
adverbs to make their language more cohesive
− Out of all of the participating adults, mothers were found
to be the most systematic and effective in their
scaffolding

(3) Role of the mothers was very similar in both cultures, in that
they set the framework for interaction, and that they
extended their children’s sentences.

− The main difference in the topics of discussion: Sotho

children and their parents were more likely to talk about
people, and the social setting would likely contain several
people. This reflects the belief of Sotho mothers that a

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child’s language development is the responsibility of the
community.

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 − In the Afrikaans culture, the conversation is more object
orientated, and books are highly valued.
− Also, in some Sotho households, the TV seems to have
taken over the role of traditional storytelling.

3.7 THE DEVELOPMENT OF MATHEMATICAL THOUGHT

Children engage with mathematical concepts on a daily basis, whether

they are aware of it or not. In order to apply the basic mathematical
knowledge, they have acquired to more complicated situations, as is often
required by the mathematical curriculum, several cognitive (mental)
processes need to develop (Dednam et al, 2011). These processes include
problem-solving, reasoning and proving arguments, communicating their
mathematical ideas to others, making connections between mathematical
concepts, and visually presenting mathematical ideas.

Children also need to reach certain levels of development before they are
able to achieve success in formal mathematics instruction (Underhill, as
cited in Dednam, 2011):

• Content level: They need a developed number sense, as well as a

conceptual under- standing of addition, subtraction, multiplication,
and division operations

• Educational level: When children are able to relate pictures to

mathematical computations, they are also able to relate mathematical
concepts to real-world mathematical problems

• Cognitive level: The ability to actively work with mathematical

concepts, which is often linked to the use of concrete materials

• Emotional level: Children need to develop a positive attitude towards

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 mathematics and thus, be motivated to work with the concepts

• Contextual level: Children should realise the value that mathematics

can have in their everyday lives

CAPS integration

Use the CAPS web link below and assimilate the content, educational,
cognitive, emotional and contextual levels with a lesson plan.

[Link]
n%20 Phase%20CAPS%[Link]

Activity 3.11

Reflect on how you can keep children’s social context in mind while
teaching mathematics.

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 Feedback on Activity 3.11

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Reflect on implications of cognitive

development for own practise. Keep the
following in mind when answering the questions:

 Provide a variety of real-life problems, in real-life contexts,

where mathematics may be used to solve the problem

 Children can be asked to come up with their own contexts for

problems, which they can then share with one other, to see
the value of mathematics in a variety of situations.

The following section will focus on the cognitive skills for mastering
mathematical concepts.

3.7.1 Cognitive prerequisites for mathematical thought

Cognitive skills, as stated by Piaget, which enable children to master lower

level mathematical concepts and processes, consist of classification,
seriation, and conservation:

• Classification of objects according to characteristics such as

function, form, colour, shape, and size.

• Seriation of objects by arranging them in a logical way, such as from

big to small.

• Conservation of liquid quantity (e.g. realising that juice poured into a

taller, narrower

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 glass remains the same), number (e.g. number of objects in a row
remains the same
after being spread out), form (e.g. objects of different sizes can both
be round), and mass (e.g. a ball of clay does not become lighter when
flattened).

Higher levels of cognitive skills become necessary as children progress

through school, as they are often exposed to increasingly complex
mathematical concepts and processes (Lansberg, Kruger & Swart, 2011).
They will benefit from becoming aware of strategies that may be used to
solve mathematical problems. The use of metacognition regarding their
mathematical knowledge thus becomes increasingly important.

Mathematical knowledge furthermore develops from a concrete level to a

semi-concrete level, then to an abstract level (Lansberg et al, 2011). When
engaging with new mathematical concepts, children progress through the
following phases:

1. The first impression of a new concept: intuitive, vague, and

unanalysed
2. When encountering similar experiences, their understanding of the
concept improves
3. Systematic exploration of the concept results in improved
understanding
4. In-depth understanding of the concept: can be described in precise
mathematical terms.

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Enrichment

Watch the following YouTube video clip to obtain some ideas to embed
mathematical competencies in the daily classroom.

[Link]

Activity 3.12: Article

Read the article titled “Early numerical abilities and cognitive skills
in kindergarten children”, which can be found under e-reserves
on myUnisa under CDE3701. After analysing the “discussion
section”, think about the most recent primary school mathematics
class that you have observed, and evaluate whether the class
teacher actively fostered the development of those cognitive
abilities associated with success in mathematics, as identified by
the authors.

Feedback on Activity 3.12

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of

the learning unit:

 Outline the cognitive ability stages of mathematical

development of a foundation phase child

Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

Cognitive abilities associated with success in mathematics:

 processing speed
 phonological abilities
 verbal intelligence
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 You have to decide whether the teacher actively provided
activities to support the development of these abilities.

3.8 CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, you have examined the cognitive development of

children from the perspective of general milestones, as well as from the
cognitive theories of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Information
Processing Theory. You have also had an overview of the development of
language and mathematical thought.

3.9 REFERENCES

Anthony, J.L., Williams, J.M., McDonald, R. & Francis, D.J. (2007).

Phonological processing and emergent literacy in younger and older
preschool children. Annals of Dyslexia, 57(2), 113–137.

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August, D. & Shanahan, T. (2008). Developing Reading and Writing in
Second Language Learners. Lessons from the report of the National
Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Taylor &
Francis.
Berko Gleason, J. (2005). The development of language (6th ed.).
Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Bodrova, E. & Leong, D.J. (2017). The Vygotskian and post-
Vygotskian approach: Focusing on “the Future Child”. In L.E.
Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (eds.), Theories of Early Childhood
Education: Developmental, Behaviourist, and Critical (pp. 58-70).
New York: Routledge.
Brewer, J. (2014). Introduction to early childhood education: Preschool
through primary grades
(6th ed.). Essex: Pearson.
Carr, P. & Honeybone, P. 2007. English Phonology and linguistic
theory: an introduction to issues, and to “Issues in English
Phonology”. Language Sciences, 29(2), 117–153.
Conkbayir, M. & Pascal, C. (2014). Early Childhood theories and
contemporary issues: An introduction. London: Bloomsbury.
Dawes, A. & Biersteker, L. (2011). Early child development. In A.B.
Nsamenang & T.M.S. Tchombe (eds.), Handbook of African
educational theories and practices: A generative teacher education
curriculum (pp. 111–122).
Dednam, A. (2011). Difficulties in mathematics: Mathematical literacy
and numeracy. In E. Landsberg, D. Kruger & E. Swart (eds.),
Addressing barriers to learning: A South African perspective (2nd
ed., pp. 211–228). Pretoria: Van Schaik.

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Landsberg, E., Krüger, D. & Swart, E. (2011). Addressing Barriers to
Learning: A South African Perspective (2nd ed.). Pretoria: Van
Schaik Publishers.
Louw, D.A. & Louw, A.E. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development
(2nd ed.). Bloemfontein: Psychology Publications.
Jordaan, H. (2015). Chapter 1. In C. Nel, M. Nel, A. Adam, R.H. Good
& R.
Kaminski (eds.), How to Support English Second Language Learners;
Foundation and Inter- mediate Phase (pp. 1-13). Van Schaik:
Pretoria.
Palaiologou, I. (2010). Communication, language, and literacy. In I.
Palaiologou (ed.). The early years: Foundation stage theory and
practice (pp. 246–252). SAGE.
Piaget, J. (2000). Piaget’s theory of cognitive development. Childhood
cognitive development: The essential readings, 2, 33-47.
Probyn, M. (2009). Smuggling the vernacular into the classroom:
conflicts and tensions in classroom code-switching in
township/rural schools in South Africa.
International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 12(2), 123–
136.
Waite-Stupiansky, S. (2017). Jean Piaget’s Constructivist theory of
learning. In L.E. Cohen & S. Waite-Stupiansky (eds.), Theories of
Early Childhood Education: Developmental, Behaviourist, and
Critical (pp. 3–17). New York: Routledge.

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