CHILD DEVELOPMENT (0-9)

DR V KGABO

LEARNING UNIT 1 - THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

DEPARTMENT OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
PRETORIA

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© 2024 University of South Africa

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the University of South
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CDE3701/1/2021–2024

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD vii

Learning unit 1:THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 WHAT IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT? 2
1.2.1 Perspective on child development 2
1.2.2 African perspective about the stages of child development 3
1.2.3 Domains of child development 3
1.2.4 Developmental milestones 4
1.2.5 The brain house 10
[Link] Physical development symbolises the foundation of the house 11
[Link] Emotional development represents the walls of the house 11
[Link] Social development symbolises the windows and doors 11
[Link] Cognitive development symbolises the roof of the house 12
1.3 GENERAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE CHILD DEVELOPMENT 14
1.3.1 Cultural Context 15
1.3.2 Risk factors 17
1.3.3 Protective factors 22
1.3.4 Theory on the importance of context in child development 24
[Link] The interaction depends strongly on two aspects 25
[Link] Process-person-context-time (PPCT) 26
1.4 THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT 31
1.4.1 Dimensions of physical development 31
1.4.2 Theoretical perspectives of cognitive development 34
1.4.3 Theories of socio-emotional development 38
1.5 CONCLUSION 39

REFERENCES 39

FOREWORD
8
1. INTRODUCTION

Dear Student

Welcome to CDE3701, CHILD DEVELOPMENT (0-9).

Because this is a blended module, you will need to use myUnisa to study and complete
the learning activities for this module. Visit the website for CDE3701 on myUnisa
frequently. The website for your module is the module website code written out in full,
for example, MODULE CODE-20-Y.

We trust that you will find the course rewarding and hope you will integrate the knowledge
and skills you acquire in this module to become more successful in your teaching
career.

Broadly speaking, the field of early childhood development is a field that is shared among
three government departments in South Africa albeit from different perspectives. The focus
of the Department of Social Development (DSD) was on the wellbeing and care of
young children from birth to the age of five years, hence the title they use is “early
childhood development and care” (ECDC). Early Childhood Care Education (ECCE)
has now moved to the Department of Basic Education (DBE). This is important as it
gives the DBE an opportunity to professionalise ECCE. In the field of education, the
focus on young children is to understand how they develop and to plan educational
activities that can promote their learning. Their education is based on the curriculum
of the foundation phase that is guided by the Curriculum and Programme Statement
(CAPS) and the Early Learning and Development Areas (ELDA’s).

There are six (6) ELDAs (DBE, 2015):

Early Learning and Development Area One: Well-being

Early Learning and Development Area Two: Identity and belonging

Early Learning and Development Area Three: Communication

Early Learning and Development Area Four: Exploring mathematics

Early Learning and Development Area Five: Creativity

Early Learning and Development Area Six: Knowledge and understanding of the

9
world.

This module is on child development in the early years; the foundation phase is one
of the core modules in the Early Childhood Education (ECE) curriculum. It is thus
important for you to learn and understand the content since it cuts across all other
modules in the curriculum. Please read this section carefully so you understand how
it links to other modules in the foundation phase curriculum.

CDE3701 serves as an overview and links with a number of modules in the foundation
phase curriculum. The first learning unit gives an overview of child development. The
important theories in the field will give you an overview on the different facets of child
development like the physical, social-emotional, cognitive and language aspects. The
second learning unit focuses on physical development of the foundation phase child and
explains how the different development areas are integrated with one another. The unit
addresses child growth and motor development, and provides the student with some
ideas and a lesson plan on teaching physical education that promotes holistic
physical development . This is followed by learning unit three, which focuses on
cognitive development. In this study unit, an overview will be given of some general
milestones of cognitive development from birth to nine years. Major theories of cognitive
development will be discussed, namely Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner, and Information
Processing Theory. Considering the complex relationship

10
 that cognitive development has with both language and with mathematical
thought, as visually depicted, children’s development in both of these
areas will be addressed.

Figure 1.1: Overview of the foundation phase instructional time per subject

Source: ( CAPS, 2012, p. 6)

Figure 1.2: Overview of the foundation phase English Home Language

curriculum

Source: ( CAPS, 2012, p. 8)

The last learning unit focuses on the social and emotional development of
the child. An overview of some general social and emotional milestones
will be given, and how the teacher and parent can support the child in
11
their development.

The best way to discuss child development is to adopt a holistic approach,

that is, see the child as one whole. Scholars like to depict the holistic
development of the child as follows:

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Figure 1.3: Holistic development of the child

I see you blossoming into a competent and creative teacher after completing
this module! Thank you.

1.1 Getting started …

Owing to the nature of this module, you can read about the module and
find your study material in print and online. Go to the website at
[Link] and log in using your student number and
password. You will see [module site-CDE3701] in the row of modules
displayed in the orange blocks at the top of the webpage. Select the More
tab if you cannot find the module you require in the blocks displayed. Then
click on the module you want to open.

We wish you much success in your studies!

2. OVERVIEW OF CDE3701

2.1 Purpose

Students who have completed this module successfully will have the

13
knowledge, skills, and values related to the development of the young child
through the framings of a reflective teacher. Students will explore each
domain of child development in the early childhood phase from birth to
nine years. As students engage with the domains of development, they
will be afforded opportunities to understand child development in diverse
contexts with sensitivity to the varying capabilities of children. In this way,
students will enhance their understanding of the variations and complexities
of child development. The age and stage contextual approach will assist in
developing appropriate activities for supporting early learning.

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2.2 Outcomes

For this module, you will have to master the following outcomes:

• Engage with various theories of child development and learning.

• Examine physical development of young children.

• Examine cognitive development of young children.

• Examine social and emotional development of young children.

• Address the moral development of young children.

• Discuss the creative development of young children.

3. DEPARTMENT CONTACT DETAILS

3.1 Department

You can contact the Department of Early Childhood Department:

Telephone number: 012 429 4583

E-mail: makgome1@[Link]

4. RESOURCES

4.1 Joining myUnisa

The myUnisa learning management system is the university's online

campus, which will help you communicate with your lecturers, with other
students, and with the administrative departments at Unisa.

To go to the myUnisa website directly, go to [Link] Click

on the Claim UNISA Login on the top of the screen on the myUnisa
website. You will then be prompted to give your student number in order to

15
claim your initial myUnisa details as well as your myLife e-mail login details.
For more information on myUnisa, consult the brochure, Study @ Unisa,
which you received with your study material:
[Link]/brochures/studies

4.2 Electronic reserves (e-reserves)

Please see the different e-reserves’ articles in the different learning units.

E-reserves can be downloaded from the Library catalogue. More

information is available at [Link]

4.3 myUnisa tools

The main tool that we will use is the Lessons tool. This tool will provide
the content of and the assessments for your module. At times you will be
directed to join discussions

16
with fellow students, and complete activities and assessments before
you can continue with the module.

It is very important that you log in to myUnisa regularly. We recommend

that you log in at least once a week to do the following:

• Check for new announcements. You can also set your myLife e-mail
account so that you receive the announcement e-mails on your cell
phone.

• Do the Discussion Forum activities. When you do the activities for

each learning
unit, we want you to share your answers with the other students in your
group. You
can read the instructions and even prepare your answers offline, but
you will need to go online to post your messages. We have also
provided a Social Cafe where you can socialise with the other
students in the module.

• Do other online activities. For some of the learning unit activities,

you might need
to post something on the Blog tool, take a quiz, or complete a survey
under the Self-
Assessment tool. Do not skip these activities because they will help
you complete the assignments and the activities for the module.

We hope that by giving you extra ways to study the material and practise all
of the activities, you will succeed in the online module. To get the most out
of the online module you MUST go online regularly to complete the
activities and assignments on time.

5. CONCLUSION

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Do not hesitate to contact us by e-mail if you are experiencing problems
with the content of this study guide or with any academic aspect of the
module.

We wish you a fascinating and satisfying journey through the learning

material and trust that you will complete the module successfully.

Enjoy the journey!

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LEARNING UNIT 1

THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Aim of learning unit

In this learning unit, you will engage with various theories of

child development, and examine personal and contextual factors
that influence child development.

Learning outcomes

After the completion of this learning unit, you should be able to

do the following:

• Explain the concept of child development

• Identify factors influencing child development

• Identify and explain theories underpinning child development

• Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s

lives and their varying
abilities
•
Reflect on and record the implications of theories for practise
• with children with diverse needs
Apply specific outcomes to CAPS

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Child development was largely ignored throughout history. Children were

viewed as small versions of adults and therefore not much attention was
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given to the many advances in cognitive, language, emotional, social or
physical growth during childhood. Interest in the field of child development
only emerged early in the 20th century with the increased focus on
abnormal behaviour. Researchers and well-known theorists became
interested in topics of child development along with the environmental
influences on their physical, cognitive, language, and social/emotional
development. These included the likes of John Locke (1632-1704); Sigmund
Freud (1856-1939); Erik Erikson (1902-1994); John Watson (1878- 1958); BF
Skinner (1904-1990); Albert Bandura (1925-present); Jean Piaget (1896-
1980); Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) and Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005).

Understanding children’s physical, cognitive, and social and emotional

development is essential for teachers and early childcare practitioners as
they have an immense responsibility to prepare each learner for success
in the informal (grade R) and formal (grades 1-3) educational bands. In
this learning unit, we will explore the concept of child development, as
well as the contexts and factors by which development may be
influenced. Finally, an introductory overview of the major theoretical
perspectives of child development, which will be discussed in detail in the
following learning units, will be given.

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1.2 WHAT IS CHILD DEVELOPMENT?

Child development refers to the biological, psychological and emotional

changes that occur in a human being between birth and the end of
adolescence (which is 19 years), as the individual progresses from
dependency to increasing autonomy. Developmental changes may occur
as a result of genetically controlled processes known as maturation, or as
a result of environmental factors.

There are different definitions of periods in a child’s development since

each period is a continuum with individual differences regarding where
the development starts and where it ends. The optimal development of
a child is considered vital to society, so it is important to understand the
physical, social/emotional, cognitive, and language development of the
child.

When engaging with different theoretical perspectives on child

development, it is still important to remember that a child develops as a
whole or holistically, and that the domains of development are always
interrelated (Brewer, 2014). Development in one domain influences
development in other domains. For example, as a child becomes more
mobile, there are more opportunities to explore since the child can move
around and view the environment from different angles and heights, thus
the child learns more about the environment.

1.2.1 Perspective on child development

In order to understand perspective on child development, we need to answer

this question, “Do all children in the world follow universal (the same)
developmental pathways or are there clear differences along cultural lines?
For many years it was believed that child development followed the same
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pattern in all countries and cultures. This view was mostly influenced by
psychologists who believed that development is discontinuous and therefore
the child develops in stages that have universal characteristics. According
to Louw & Louw (2014), the primary reason for the wide acceptance of
this viewpoint was that psychology as we know developed mainly in
Western cultures and developmental researchers in these countries,
especially in the USA and Europe, focused almost exclusively on their
own cultures. The inevitable result was that the study of child development
means the study of white middle-class Western/American children (Arnet
& Jensen, 2018). This was and largely still is, a very unfortunate state of
affairs as the majority of children in the world do not live in the USA or in
Western countries combined.

Now, as the horizon of psychology started to expand, many researchers

started to realise that the cultural context in which a person develops
cannot be rejected. (Culture refers to the beliefs, norms, customs and
general way of life of a specific group of people, which are passed from
one generation to another. Context refers to the setting or specific
environment in which development and behaviour occur). When studying
child development, it is important to understand that culture and context
play a pivotal role and may differ from one ethnic group, tribe, or nation
to another. Nsamenang (2003) indicates that culture influences
development by ensuring that children acquire appropriate cognitive,
communicative, motivational and social-emotional or affective and
spiritual

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attributes as well as practical skills that will make them competent adults
who will contribute to their own survival and progress of their people and
society (Louw & Louw 2014).

1.2.2 African perspective about the stages of child development

In an attempt to explain an African worldview on child development

Nsamenang (1999) explains human life cycle in term of three phases of
selfhood that is the spiritual selfhood, social or experiential selfhood
and ancestral selfhood. These stages were later modified by Ngaujah
and Dirks (2003) as captured in Table 1.1.

Unlike the Western view, the developmental stages among Africans, seem
to be defined not in terms of age alone, but also in terms of the capabilities
of an individual at a given period as well (Ramokgopa , 2001). To support
the view, Nsamenang (2005) also maintain that development in Africa is
interpreted within the social thought ‘‘as the acquisition and growth of the
physical, cognitive, social, and emotional competencies required to engage
fully in family and society’’. Table 1.1 shows the perspective on ontogeny
in indigenous African view of life stages (The conventional stages
described by Western theories are in italics).

Table 1.1: African perspective on ontogeny in African view of life

stages (Ngaujah & Dirks, 2003 cited in Ntshangase 2017)

Sequential Core features Developmental

stages task(s)
(1) Spiritual Infant is a “project in- Begins at conceptions
selfhood progress (Human and end at the naming

Prenatal frame to shelter a ceremony.

spiritual selfhood).

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 (2) First social The newborn period is The naming ceremony;
stage identified by happiness names are determined

Neonatal for the safe arrival, the on the basis of

gift, and the projections historical and
regarding his/her circumstantial factors-
future. transcendent,
character- evoking,
expectations-laden.
(3) Second social Infancy period(pre- Social priming such as
stage social) smiling, crying, teething

Infancy and sitting up

(4) Third social Social apprentice Initiated into social

stage (novice) roles. Expected to

Childhood recognise, and

rehearse social roles.

Adapted from Ngaujah & Dirks, 2003 (cited in Ntshangase 2017)

1.2.3 Domains of child development

Child development is studied and explained through domains. It is

important to identify and explain each developmental stage and domains
of development as they have a

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bearing on the child’s future and learning specifically. Domains of child
development generally encompass the following:

Physical: Growing in size and strength, and the development of both

gross motor skills and fine motor skills.

Cognitive: Ability to process thoughts, pay attention, develop memories,

understand their surroundings.

Emotional: The growth of a child in understanding and controlling

his/her emotions, awareness of self, how the child feels about
himself/herself as an individual.

Social: Ability to form relationships with others.

Language: Ability to communicate with others.

Moral development: Awareness of morality as children grow.

Furthermore, child development is also studied and understood through the

developmental milestones children need to achieve at a particular period of
time during their developmental process. Below is the explanation of the
developmental milestones.

1.2.4 Developmental milestones

Children move through stages of development as they mature. The rate of

development varies from one child to another. Development is influenced
by the culture, experiences children have, as well as by hereditary factors.
Children may grow rapidly in one area and more slowly in another. The
direction of development is from general to specific, from dependence
towards independence and interdependence, and from gross motor control
towards fine motor control. During the process of development, children
generally reach developmental milestones at more or less the same period.
Developmental milestones can be described as developmental skills that
are believed to be mastered at roughly the same time by all children,
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although they are far from exact. The developmental milestones are a
useful guideline of ideal development. By checking a child’s developmental
progress, one can ensure that the child is approximately ‘on track’ for their
age. If not, this checking of developmental milestones can be helpful in the
early detection of any delays in development. Though child development has
a predictable sequence, all children are unique in their developmental
journey and the time frames that they meet the many developmental
milestones. It is important that both teachers and parents observe and
monitor child developmental stages in order to identify any delays or any
abnormality. It is also important for the teacher to know that
developmental stages among children are not only defined in age, but also
in the capabilities of an individual’s readiness to be involved in a given task.
Researchers like Oppong (2015) and Erikson (1959) further put more
emphasis on collective responsibility and altruism – typical features from
an African perspective – than on achievement and failure, which are
typical features from a Western perspective.

The following table depicts the different child developmental milestones.

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Table 1.2: Movement development milestones (Brewer, 2014; Erikson,
1959; Ramokgopa, 2001)

Child development
milestones’ chart

Ag Physical Social- Cognitive Language

e Emotional
Birth *Lies in the *Bonds with *Develops *Cries
(infa fetal mother. concepts of vigorously.
nt) position with *Smile aware- *Responds
knees s at ness of to high-
tucked up. mother physical pitched
*Unable to . sensations tones by
raise the such as moving the
head. hunger. limbs.
*Head falls *Explores
back- wards using the
if pulled to senses.
sit. *Make eye
*Reacts to con- tact
sudden and cries to
sound and indicate
movement. needs.
*Closes
eyes to
bright light.
*Opens
eyes when

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 held in an
upright
position.

3 months *The pelvis is *Squeals. *Takes an *Attentive to

flat when *Reacts with increasing sounds.
lying Indicates
down. pleasure to interest in needs with
their
*The lower familiar surroundings differentiated
back routines. .
is still weak. *Discriminate *Shows cries.
s interest
*Back and smiles. in toys. *Begins to
neck are
firm when *Understand vocalise.
held s
sitting. cause and *Smiles in
effect
*Grasps e.g. tie a response to
objects balloon
placed in around the speech.
hands. hand

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 *Turns head and observe
the
around to movement.
have a
look at
objects.
*Establishes
eye
contact.

6 months *Can lift *Responds *Finds feet *Double

head and to syllable
shoulders. different interesting. sounds like
tones
*Sits up with or the *Understand “mama”
mother/ s “dada”.
support. caregiver. objects and *Laughs in
knows play.
*Enjoys *May display what to *Screams
standing expect with
and jumping. “stranger from them. annoyance.
*Transfers shyness”. *Understand
objects s
from one *Takes stuff “up” and
to “down”.
hand to mouth. *Makes
another. appropriate
*Pulls self- gestures
up-

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 wards to sit. such as
raising
*Sits erect the arms to
with be
support. picked up.

Child development milestones’

chart

Age Physical Social- Cognitive Language

Emotional
6 months *Rolls over to
prone
position.
*Palmer grasp
of a cube.
*Well-
established
visual
sense.

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9 months *Sits *Apprehensiv *Shows *Babbles
unsupported. e about interest in tunefully.
*Grasps with strangers. picture *Vocalises to
thumb and Imitates books. attract
index finger. handclapping *Watches attention.
*Release . activities of *Enjoys
toys by *Clings to others with communicatin
dropping. familiar interest. g with sounds.
*Wiggles adults.
and crawls.
*Sits
unsupported.
*Picks up
objects with the
pincer grasp.
*Looks for
fallen objects.
*Holds bottle.
*Is visually
attentive.

12 CDE3701/1
1 year *Stands *Cooperates *Respon *Babbles two
holding with se to or three
furniture. dressing. simple words
*Stands alone *Waves instructio repeatedly.
for a second goodbye ns *Responds
or two then . *Uses of trial to simple
collapses with *Under- and error to instructions
a bump. stands learn about .
*Walks simple objects. *Understand
holding one com- s several
hand. mands. words.
*Bends *Demonstrat *Use jargons.
down and es affection.
picks up *Participates
objects. in nursery
*Pulls to rhymes.
stand and
sits
deliberately.
*May walk
alone.
*Holds spoon.
*Points at
objects.
*Picks up
small
objects.

13 CDE3701/1
 Child development milestones’
chart

Age Physical Social- Cognitive Language

Emotional
15 months *Can crawl *Helps with *Is very *Can com-
up- stairs dressing. curious. muni- cate
forwards and *Indicates needs.
backwards. soiled or wet *Jabbers
*Kneels pants. freely and
unaided. *Emotionally loudly.
*Balance is de- pendent
poor. on the familiar
*Builds a two- adult.
block tower.
*Can place
objects
precisely.
*Turns pages of
picture books.

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18 months *Squats to *Plays alone *Enjoys simple *Uses jargon.
(children are pick up toys. near familiar picture books. *Uses many
able to do *Can walk adult. *Explores intelligible
chores alone. *Demands the words.
through play *Drinks constant environme *Repeats an
and imitation without mothering. nt. adult’s last
adults) spilling from a *Drinks *Knows the word.
cup. from a cup names of *Jabbering
*Picks up with both parts of the established.
toys without hands. body.
falling over. *Feeds self
*Shows a with a
preference spoon.
for one hand. *Attains
*Gets bowel
up/down control.
stairs holding *Tries to sing.
onto a rail. *Imitates
*Begins to domestic
jump with chores.
both feet.
*Can build a
tower of 3-4
cubes and
throw a ball.

15 CDE3701/1
2 years *Walks *Throw *Joins 2-3 *Talks to
more s words in a self
rhythmically tantrum sentence. continuously
. s *Recognis .
*Hurried walk *Can put on es details. *Speaks
changes to shoes. *Uses own over 200
run. *Completely name to refer words and
*Jumps, spoon feeds to the self. accumulates
hops, and drinks new words
throws and from a cup. rapidly.
catches with *Is aware of
a rigid physical
upper body. needs.
*Pushes *Cry by day.
ridging toy
with feet; little
steering.
*Can kick a
large ball.
*Squats with
ease.

Child development
milestones’ chart

Ag Physical Social- Cognitive Language

e Emotional

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2 years *Rises
without
using
hands.
*Builds a
tower of 6
cubes.
*Able to run.
*Walks up
&
downstairs
with 2 feet
per step.
*Turns
pages of a
picture
book one
at a time.

17 CDE3701/1
3 years *Can jump *Plays *Relates *Constantly
off lower cooperativ present asks
steps. ely. activities questions.
*Can pedal *Undresse and past *Speak
and steer s with experience s in
tricycle. assistance. s. sentenc
*Goes *Imaginary *Can draw a es.
upstairs 1 companions person with a *Talks to
foot per . head. self when
step and *Tries very *Can sort playing.
downstairs hard to objects into
2 feet per please. simple
step. *Uses categories.
*Throws spoon and
and fork.
catches
with slight
involveme
nt of the
upper
body; still
catches
by
trapping a
ball
against the
chest.
*Copies

18 CDE3701/1
 circle.
Imitates
cross and
draws a
man on
request.
*Builds a
tower of 9
cubes.
*Has good
pencil
control.
*Can cut
paper with
scissors.
*Can thread
large beads
on a string.
4 years *Sits with *Argues with *Counts *May use
knees other up to 20. infantile
crossed. children. *Asks substitutions
*Gallops *Plan meanings of in speech.
and skips games words. *Uses
with one cooperativ correct
foot. ely. grammar
*Dresses and most of the
time.

19 CDE3701/1
 Child development
milestones’ chart

Ag Physical Social- Cognitive Language

e Emotional
4 years *Ball undresses *Draws a *Enjoys
games’ with recognisable counting
skills assistance. house. up to 20 by
increase. *Attends to repetition.
*Goes own toilet
down- stairs needs.
one foot per *Developing
step. a sense of
*Throws the humour.
ball with *Wants to be
increased independent.
body
rotation and
transfer of
weight on
feet;
catches the
ball with
hands.
*Rides
tricycle
rapidly and
steers
smoothly.

20 CDE3701/1
 Imitates
gate with
cubes.
*Copies a
cross.
*Can turn
sharp
corners
when
running.
*Builds a
tower of
10 cubes.
5 years *Increases *Chooses *Writes *Fluent
(boy & running own friends. names. speech with
girl) speed. *Dis- *Dresses *Draws a de- few infantile
plays and tailed substitutions
mature, undresses person. in speech.
whole-body alone. *Matches *Talks
throwing *Shows most colours. about the
and caring *Understand past,
catching attitudes s numbers. present,
pat- terns; to- wards and future
increases others. with a good
throwing *Copes well sense of
speed. with time.
*Well- personal
developed needs.

21 CDE3701/1
 ball skills.
*Can walk
along a long
line.
*Skips on
both feet and
hops more
smoothly.
*Draws a
man and
copies a
triangle.
*Gives age.
*Can copy
an adult’s
writing.
*Colours
pictures
carefully.
*Builds
steps with
3-4 cubes.

Child development
milestones’ chart

Ag Physical Social- Cognitive Language

e Emotional

22 CDE3701/1
 6 years *Learns to *Stubborn *Draws with *Fluent
and skip with and precision and speech with
onwards rope. demanding. attention to confidence.
(boy & girl) *Copie *Eager for detail. *Can
sa fresh *Reading pronounce
diamo experiences. skills develop the majority
nd. *May be well. of the
*Knows quarrelsome *May write sounds of
right from with friends. independe own
left and ntly. language.
numbers
of
fingers.
*Ties
shoelaces.
*Rides a
bicycle with
training
wheels.

All the different stages and milestones can be explained as parts of a

brain house. If a part of the house is not solid it might affect the rest of
the house.

1.2.5 The brain house

In this module, several different theories addressing different aspects of child

development will be explored. However, integrating all of these theories
into practise may be an overwhelming task. De Jager’s (2013)
conceptualisation of child development as the building of a “brain house,”

23 CDE3701/1
serves as a holistic model of development, which will enable you to unify
all of the theories that you will come across into a single model. All the
different stages and milestones can be explained as parts of a brain
house. If a part of the house is not solid it might affect the rest of the
house.

De Jager (2013) coined the idea that the different stages of developing
are similar to building a house. Although the “house” is built already when
the child is born, each part of the house has a specific time and route to
receive the ultimate attention for optimal development.

Figure 1.4: Illustration of the model “brain house”. (De Jager, 2013)

24 CDE3701/1
[Link] Physical development symbolises the foundation of the house

The foundation represents regulating sensory input and motor output to

provide a stable neurological base for all other skills to build on.

Physical development includes everything a child needs to survive:

• Active senses: the inside senses (body) and the outside senses
(environment);

• Responsive reflex brain: The primitive brain can do only what is

needed to survive – heart beating, lungs breathing, temperature
adjustment, eating, digesting (e.g. weeing, pooing) and sleeping.
Sensing and breathing are not, in themselves, enough to survive, so
the brain uses primitive reflexes to activate the muscles into action.
Each primitive reflex guides the body to move in a different way, using
different muscles. When a child can move his or her own muscles, the
primitive reflexes go to rest and he/she starts to reach each motor
milestone in a specific sequence (see the milestones chart above).

• The prime time, during which the brain and body develop the most, is
between conception and 14 months of age. The brain and body
continue to develop and change
throughout life, but not at the same rapid pace as it does in this period.

• Strong muscles. (See LU 2, Physical development).

[Link] Emotional development represents the walls of the house

• The walls are the emotional part of the brain. Early in life, touch, familiar
smells, rocking, sucking and moving are the main actions that keep the
emotional brain happy. The wall also includes energy levels, immunity,
health, memory, self-worth, and confidence.

• As the child develops, the walls turn into the selfish and demanding part
25 CDE3701/1
 of the house when everything is about me: MY needs. MY wants. NOW.
There is no concept of sharing, waiting or understanding. The walls are
ME-MYSELF-AND-I. If it is not about ME and what I am interested in, I
do not pay attention. This is the transition and maturation phase in child
development from dependent to independent. This stage, although it
sounds selfish and negative, forms an important building block for
integrated and personality development.

• Emotional development starts before birth, continues during bonding

with mother, father and extended family, and peaks between 14
months and three years. At age two, emotional development peaks
with temper tantrums. This is why babies and toddlers need physical,
but appropriate affection (e.g. hugs, kisses, and love) the most when
their behaviour is deserving thereof. The best emotional booster is to be
loved for who you are, not what you do: unconditional love and
acceptance, regardless of whether the child has physical or
psychological challenges.

[Link] Social development symbolises the windows and doors

The windows and doors represent shifting from ME to WE and with it

comes a sense of belonging.

26 CDE3701/1
• If the child had enough opportunities to position him/herself in the world,
with enough “ME time” and security, the windows and doors can be
added. This will enable the child to “invite” others into the house; to reach
out and connect spontaneously with friends.

• The time when the brain is ready for social development happens
around the third birthday. Often children enter play school at this age. The
windows and doors symbolize a shift from ME to WE. The children show
a readiness to engage socially with others (e.g. talk, to wait, to share)
and to play with friends of the same age. As you will come to learn
there are different types of play for different aged children, but
nonetheless social interaction and play is crucial for development. The
ideal ratio for emotional development is one adult to one baby, but in
South Africa, the ratio is one adult to six babies. This ratio flips the
natural development of ME (emotional) before WE (social), to the
unnatural WE first and ME second.

[Link] Cognitive development symbolises the roof of the house

Represents reasoning – spatial reasoning, non-verbal and verbal

reasoning.

• The different levels of the brain house are connected by a lift that can
only reach the roof if the foundation and walls are solid. The lift
symbolises the spine and “needs to be straight” if the lift is to reach the
roof. The roof symbolises the “clever part” of the
brain or neo-cortex that has a STOP button to control movement and
emotions and represents cognitive development. It coincides with
language development because only the “roof” holds words and the
ability to reason and name things.

• While the lower levels of the brain house tend to need multi or

27 CDE3701/1
 integrated sensory
experiences and real or concrete objects in order to learn, the roof brain
is more comfortable with thinking and numerous concepts. These would
include the following: colours, shapes, numbers, days of the week,
names for positions in space (such as “in front” or “in between”),
mathematical concepts such as “more” or “less”, “first” or “last”,
perceptions, and the names given to all the sensations that the skin, nose,
mouth, ears and eyes send the brain and enable him to say: “The yellow
lemon is sour.”

• The thinking brain is present long before birth, but it goes through an
intense growth spurt between the 4th and 11th birthdays. Children wire
their “lift” and thinking brain
while engaging in motor development and integrating all their senses –
like hopping on one leg, running, and skipping with a rope. In so doing,
the gross motor movement prepares them to have more control over
their fine motor movement, making them ready for more accurate
drawings and paintings, stringing beads, picking up small objects and
various creative expressions. The before mentioned happens before
learning to write and read. Cognitive development grows rapidly once
a child has learnt to regulate sensory input, to STOP moving and
concentrate for an age-related time, and to speak clearly.

Just like building a house, brain development is a process that takes time,
follows a sequence and needs to consolidate to stand the test of time.
Brain development cannot be rushed (De Jager, 2014).

With the brain house in mind, the following table depicts warning signs that
we will refer to as SOS signals that may point to building blocks in the brain
house that need support:

28 CDE3701/1
Table 1.2: SOS signals that point to brain house building blocks (De
Jager, 2008).

Physical Emotional Social SOS Cognitive

SOS SOS SOS
Clumsy Overly emotional Cannot wait or Poor language
share development
Low muscle tone Clingy Battles to Avoids school
make friends of and school
own age work – would
rather play or
watch TV
Poor Thumb- Bully or is the Problems with
coordination sucking be- victim perception
yond 3 years
Cannot sit still Bite nails The clown in the Letter
class recognition
and formation
Battle to Chew clothes or Emotional Poor spelling
concentrate hair outburst
Dislike physical Bedwetting Throw tantrums Reading
games and beyond 5 be- yond 2 years
sport years
Hyper- or Constantly need Poor self- Mathematics
hypoactive reassurance regulation and
impulse control
Cannot tell left Poor impulse Memory
from right control

29 CDE3701/1
Problem with Wants to Concentration
balance play not and ask
work completion
Eye- Does not accept
hand NO
coordinat
ion
Crossing midline
Pencil grip
Ball skills
Cutting
Writing
Task completion
and often
complains of a
sore tummy
before school

Activity 1.1

Now that you are aware of the basic concept of child

development, reflect on how knowledge of child development in
the different domains – physical, social, emotional and cognitive
– can benefit your practice as a foundation phase teacher.

30 CDE3701/1
Activity 1.1: A case study

You are a foundation phase teacher and observe from four children in your class
the following SOS signs of developmental milestones that were not reached
prior to foundation phase.
Anna: starts crying easily
Bongani: tends to be a bully victim
Peter: does not like to take part in sport activities
Thato: struggles to concentrate and complete tasks.
To what part of the brain house would you link each of the SOS signs?

Enrichment:

Watch the YouTube video clip on child development

[Link]
[Link]

Feedback on Activity 1.1

When answering the questions, see how you can integrate the
following objectives in your writing:

 What are the stages of development of a young child?

 Why is cognitive development important and can you think of
contextual examples and case studies?

 Explain how teachers can recognise what children are

capable of according to their level of development.

 How can knowledge of what to expect from differently aged

children help with planning activities, and predict what
children may struggle with?

 How does understanding “average” development lead to key

aspects in identifying delays or problems with development
31 CDE3701/1
 that may affect their learning abilities?
 Reflect on how the development in one domain affects
development in other domains.
 Think of how teachers can support children’s development in
all domains by, for example, creating a positive classroom
climate that supports emotional development, which will,
in turn, positively influence other developmental domains.

 How can teachers’ understanding of children’s behaviour

make classroom management easier?

1.3 GENERAL FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

The theories and developmental milestones that will be discussed in this

module are mostly based on what is considered as average, typical, age
appropriate and “normal” development. However, there are several
internal and external factors that may have significant influences on
children’s development. Staying informed of the factors that are affecting
the health and development of children will enable teachers to adjust their

32 CDE3701/1
teaching-learning approach (e.g. content, differentiation, pedagogy)
according to each individual child’s reality and experiences (Conkbayir &
Pascal, 2014).

Since child development is both situated in, and influenced by cultural

context, teachers need to be able to understand and be sensitive to the
unique abilities and needs of children from various cultures. This is
especially crucial in a culturally diverse country such as South Africa. The
cultural context a child grows up in has a complex array of influences,
which can be either positive or negative, on his/her development. In this
section, the cultural context will therefore be described first and separately
from risk and protective factors. Despite proven cultural differences, Louw,
Louw, and Kail (2014) caution that differences within one culture can often
divide that specific culture more than only general differences between
cultures. This is due to various individual and contextual risk and
protective factors.

Unfortunately, a large number of children all over the world experience

various factors that may significantly hamper their development (Louw &
Louw, 2014). According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
“more than half of the world’s children are suffering extreme deprivation
that effectively denies them a childhood” (Louw & Louw, 2014, p.392).
Exposure to hardship can have severely detrimental effects on all domains
of children’s development, especially during early childhood, when they
are extremely vulnerable to biological, social, and environmental risk
factors (Department of Social Development, 2015). Fortunately, not all the
factors influencing children’s development are harmful, and may even
protect children from developmental difficulties. In addition, challenges are
an important part of life as they offer children the opportunity to acquire
coping skills, become adaptive and demonstrate resilience.

33 CDE3701/1
In this section, we will look at the importance of the cultural context of child
development, as well as risk and protective factors that influence it.

1.3.1 Cultural Context

For many years, child development was believed to follow the same
pattern in children of all countries and cultures. This is most probably
because the Western countries where developmental psychology
originated focused only on the Western culture when formulating their
developmental theories. However, it is now commonly recognised that
the cultural context in which human development takes place cannot be
discarded, as cultural factors have been proven to play an important role
in a child’s development. Culture refers to “the beliefs, norms, customs,
and general way of life of a specific group of people, which are passed on
from generation to generation” (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014, p.13).

Different cultures often have different expectations of their children

(Brewer, 2014), and aspects such as personal characteristics and
cognitive styles of different cultural groups therefore tend to differ greatly
(Prinsloo, 2011). Culture influences development by ensuring that children
acquire the appropriate cognitive, communicative, motivational, socio-
emotional and spiritual attributes, as well as practical skills, which will
make them competent adults that can contribute to their own survival and
progress, as well as that of their people and society (Nsamenang, 2014).
This means that human development

34 CDE3701/1
can be seen as a “cultural process” (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014, p.14).
Therefore, it should be taken into account that paths or patterns of
development in one culture may differ from that of other cultures.

In collectivistic cultures, which includes African cultures, children grow up

in environments where the needs of the group are valued above the needs
of the individual. Children may be expected to assume responsibilities
such as performing general domestic chores, running errands, and caring
for their younger siblings (Brewer, 2014). These expectations can have
significant influences on their cognitive, social and emotional
development. Running errands, for example, may provide cognitive
stimulation that children would not have been likely to experience otherwise.
It has also been found that children responsible for taking care of younger
siblings tend to show more nurturing behaviour than children who spend
more time with peers (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014).

Children of individualistic cultures (usually referring to Western

cultures) grow up in environments where people are more concerned with
their own needs (Louw, Louw & Kail, 2014). In comparison to the
expectations that parents of African children may have, children of
individualistic cultures may be expected to only play and perform simpler
chores such as cleaning up after themselves (Brewer, 2014). These
children also display more competitive and attention seeking behaviour,
which may influence their cognitive and social development (Smith, Cowie
& Blades, 2014).

When teachers are aware of cultural differences and expectations in their

children's development, they will be able to plan culturally sensitive
learning environments that accommodate different characteristics and
cognitive styles.

35 CDE3701/1
Activity 1.2: Article

Read the article titled “Child development in cultural contexts:

Implications of cultural psychology for early childhood teacher
education”, which may be found under e-reserves on myUnisa
under CDE3701. Refer to the section, “Implications of cultural
developmentalism for early childhood teachers”, to answer the
following questions:

(1) Describe the terms “folk psychologies” and “folk pedagogies”.

(2) Explain why it is important for teachers to be aware of their
own “folk theories” (including both folk psychologies and folk
pedagogies).
(3) Evaluate your own folk theories and reflect on how they may
influence you in the classroom when working with
multicultural children.

Feedback on Activity 1.2

(1) Both of these terms refer to cultural beliefs held by an

individual about how the world works according to that
individual. A teacher’s “folk psychologies” are ideas about
how children learn and develop, that flow into their “folk
pedagogies”. These are their ideas about how to help
children learn, which steer their teaching activities. Folk
pedagogies are seen as activities that are “deeply embedded
in cultural beliefs about how children learn and how teachers
should teach”.
(2) A teacher’s folk theories create cultural contexts in the
classroom, which can either sup- port or hinder children's
learning, depending on their own cultures.

36 CDE3701/1
 When teachers are aware of the differences between cultural
contexts, they can adapt their methods and provide better
support to children. It can help them identify the differences in
goals of child development held by different cultures, which
can broaden their perspectives of child development and
education.
(3) The response will depend on the student’s own culture. A
possible example: their belief that children are social beings,
and learn the best through working with others, may cause
even children from primarily individualistic cultures to be
expected to work together in groups, which they may not be
used to. This could result in competition and even conflict
between children that the teacher had not expected.

1.3.2 Risk factors

Various factors are commonly agreed upon by researchers to be risk

factors in children’s development such as poverty, poor nutrition, lack of
health and sanitation resources, gender-based violence, unemployment,
period poverty, substance abuse amongst others. This means that these
contextual situations, experiences, and individual characteristics
increase the likelihood of developmental delays or difficulties. Although
these factors are described separately, it is important to keep the
influences that they have on each other in mind. These risk factors include
disruptions in family functioning, poverty, malnutrition, health problems,
abuse, violence in the community, disabilities, and stress. The risk factors
include the following:

Disruptions in family functioning: The role of the family in a child’s social,

emotional and cognitive development is essential (Louw & Louw, 2014). A
37 CDE3701/1
stable, emotionally supportive family is linked to positive developmental
outcomes such as better achievement in school, higher levels of self-esteem
and self-confidence, lower levels of stress, fewer psychological difficulties,
and increased social competence. Disruptions in family life can thus have
detrimental effects on children’s overall development.

General family influences that are experienced by children all over the
world, which may have significant effects on their development, are
divorce, single parent families, child- headed households, and
homelessness. These disruptions of family life may lead to a lack of love,
acceptance, interpersonal communication and relationships, and sense
of belonging, which may then negatively influence their physical, cognitive,
as well as social and emotional development (Prinsloo, 2011).

An example of a disruption in family life, which is especially relevant in the

South African context, is urbanisation. It is taking place at an
“unprecedented rate” (Louw & Louw, 2014, p.394), and “escalating out of
control in and around all major cities” (Prinsloo, 2011, p.31). Urbanisation
refers to people moving to cities in search of employment opportunities.
This can affect children in various ways, depending on whether the whole
family moves to an urban location together; or the household is broken
up when only one parent moves, leaving behind a single parent
household; or when both parents move, often leaving children with
grandparents or other family members.

Urbanisation can result in poor quality living conditions in informal

settlements near cities, unstable family relationships, as well as dissolution
of social networks, all of which can, in turn, result in various health problems
and social and emotional difficulties (Louw & Louw, 2014). High-density
living threatens people’s health, as diseases may spread quickly and

38 CDE3701/1
there is often a lack of proper sanitation. Nearby health services and
education facilities are also often placed under great strain by a large
number of people requiring their services.

Poverty will be described next, as unplanned urbanisation and poverty go

hand in hand (Prinsloo, 2011).

Poverty: According to South Africa’s Department of Social Development

(2015), poverty is commonly referred to as a “root cause of poor child
development” (p.19). Poverty affects children in all aspects of their life. It
affects their health, nutrition, housing, access to various services, their
education, their exposure to language and developmental stimulation,
and also their self-esteem and mental health (Louw & Louw, 2014).
Poverty can therefore also have adverse effects on all domains of children’s
development. Limited access to basic resources such as nutritious food
and sanitation, in addition to limited access to basic health care, affects
children’s health and physical development. It has also been suggested that
persistent poverty can cause lower levels of cognitive functioning in infants,
especially regarding their verbal and communicative skills (Department of
Social Development, 2015). Children’s social and emotional development
can also be affected, as children who experience poverty are more likely
to develop social and emotional problems, such as low self-esteem and
self-confidence, drug abuse, and mental disorders such as depression
(Louw & Louw, 2014).

Malnutrition: Is a broad term, including both undernutrition, which is

characterised by nutritional deficiencies and is commonly associated with
poverty, and obesity, a form of overnutrition where the person is
excessively overweight (Shetty, 2003). When mothers are malnourished
during their pregnancy, significant structural damages may occur in the
development of the fetus. Malnutrition of infants and children can also lead
to permanent stunting and developmental delays (Department of Social
39 CDE3701/1
Development, 2015). Stunting, a form of chronic malnutrition, refers to
children being short for their age, as well as delays in brain development.
Some malnourished children, especially those who are obese, are also
subject to emotional and social challenges and restriction to gross motor
activities.

Health problems: Diseases such as tuberculosis, malaria, diabetes,

hypertension, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and acquired
immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) may negatively affect the physical
and cognitive development of young children (Department of Social
Development, 2015). When their families are affected by diseases,
however, the effects may be experienced in all domains of development.

South Africa has one of the highest percentages of people with HIV/AIDS
in the world. In 2018, more than 7 million South Africans were HIV
positive, which is approximately 13% of the total population according to
Stats SA (2018). In 2014, it was estimated that about 450 000 South
African children were living with HIV, making South Africa the country
with the highest number of children with HIV in the world (Louw & Louw,
2014; Prinsloo, 2011). A third of all deaths of South African children under
the age of five, is caused by HIV/ AIDS-related illnesses (UNICEF, 2019).
HIV is a virus that damages the immune system. It causes AIDS, which is
the final stage of the HIV virus, characterised by different illnesses and
symptoms that are contracted because of a severely compromised
immune system (Louw & Louw, 2014).

40 CDE3701/1
HIV/AIDS has an extensive impact on children’s overall development,
whether it is a family member or they themselves who are living with it
(Louw & Louw, 2014). The death of parents, bereavement process,
relocation, and financial hardship as a result of HIV can cause changes
in family composition. This can cause significant stress for children, which
can affect their physical and emotional development. Exposure to
stigmatisation can cause children living with HIV to stay away from school
and avoid social interactions that are crucial to their social development.
Children who are orphaned due to AIDS tend to suffer from emotional
difficulties such as depression, anxiety disorders, and suicidal behaviour
(Louw & Louw, 2014).

Abuse: The maltreatment of children is commonly divided into the

categories of neglect, physical abuse, sexual abuse, and emotional abuse,
although other forms of maltreatment that do not fit clearly into these
categories, such as racism, also exist (Louw & Louw, 2014). Typical effects
of abuse include low self-image, self-blame, violent behaviour, physical
damage including brain damage, and also emotional difficulties (Prinsloo,
2011).

Neglect refers to the failure to provide children’s basic physical, emotional,

and educational needs. Children who suffer neglect experience serious
negative consequences in the areas of cognitive development, academic
achievement, and socialising.

Physical abuse refers to acts of physical aggression, and the emotional

wounds left behind are often worse than the physical ones (Louw & Louw,
2014). Childhood abuse is associated with delays in cognitive
development, academic problems, difficulties with moral reasoning,
aggressive behaviour, and poor social functioning, to name but a few of
the adverse effects.

41 CDE3701/1
Sexual abuse refers to any illegal sexual acts committed against a child.
The effects of sexual abuse on children, which could affect them in
various developmental domains, include fatigue, anxiety, depression,
passivity, difficulty concentrating, and withdrawal from their usual activities
(Louw & Louw, 2014). In middle childhood, low self-esteem, feelings of
guilt, self-blame, eating disorders, and antisocial behaviour (such as drug
abuse and criminal behaviour) can also be experienced as a result of
sexual abuse.

Emotional abuse includes verbal put-downs and humiliation, rejection,

and lack of the provision of children’s emotional needs of love, affection,
and support. Emotional abuse is usually also present during all other
types of abuse and is the most common form of child abuse (Louw &
Louw, 2014). Many parents who would never harm their children
physically or sexually are emotionally abusive towards their children
(Louw & Louw, 2014). They may be overly aggressive, by shouting and
threatening, or more subtle, by manipulating their children’s emotions or
ignoring them. Emotionally abusive parents often engage with their
children to satisfy their own emotional needs, rather than realising their
responsibility to meet their children’s emotional needs. This also extends to
teachers who use verbal aggression as a means of discipline, by shouting,
insulting, and humiliating children. Emotional abuse may have significant
negative effects on cognitive, emotional, and social development, similar to
that of physical and sexual abuse (Louw & Louw, 2014).

Racism refers to the discrimination against people because they belong

to a certain racial group, and is inherently a form of emotional abuse
(Louw & Louw, 2014). Many

42 CDE3701/1
South African children, especially those of colour, are still exposed to
racial abuse on a frequent basis, despite their right to protection against
discrimination. Racism can cause serious psychological harm, such as
internalising negative messages that others inflict on them. Children who
have been subjected to racial abuse are susceptible to experiencing
emotional and behavioural difficulties, such as depression, hyperactivity
and a lack of concentration, hostility, and defiant behaviour towards
others (Coker et al, as cited in Louw & Louw, 2014).

Exposure to violence in the community: Apart from the obvious

possible negative effects of violence on children’s physical health and
safety, being exposed to violent situations in their families and
communities can also be extremely detrimental to their social-emotional
development. It can lead to poor interpersonal relationships, low levels of
prosocial behaviour, increased aggressiveness, difficulties with regulating
their emotions and behaviour, depression, and anxiety disorders such as
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Department of Social
Development, 2015). Community violence is also associated with
scholastic underachievement (Louw & Louw, 2014).

Disability is a broad term referring to impairments in functioning, which

children are born with, or that develop due to illness or trauma. It includes
physical impairments, visual and hearing impairments, and cognitive
impairments. Disabilities can have major impacts on all domains of
children’s development, family interactions, and socialisation.

Physical impairments include spina bifida (an abnormality of the spinal

column), paraplegia and quadriplegia (inability to move, and absence of
sensation in the lower limbs and all four limbs respectively), brain injury,
cerebral palsy (disorder of movement and posture due to brain damage),
and skeletal and muscular damage/impairments (Kruger & Smith, 2011).

43 CDE3701/1
General characteristics of children with physical impairments include
experiencing challenges with mobility, as well as challenges regarding their
self-concept, as others may react strongly to visible impairments. The
inability to control their bodies as they would wish also leads to emotional
and social challenges, as they often have limited autonomy and need to
rely heavily on others for physical support.

Children with visual impairments range from those who are completely blind
to those who have less severe challenges with vision, such as farsightedness
or near-sightedness (Kruger & Smith, 2011). Visually impaired children may
experience delays in motor development since they are not visually
stimulated to move their body parts. For example, babies move around to
discover their environment, and most of their actions are results of
sensory stimuli, mostly visual stimuli. When a baby cannot see objects, they
will not be motivated to crawl towards these objects, affecting their gross
motor development. They will not pick up and manipulate objects with their
hands, resulting in underdeveloped fine motor muscles. Visually impaired
children’s cognitive development may be negatively influenced due to a lack
of stimulation, and insufficient concrete experiences (Brenner, 2011).
Their social experiences and development will also be affected,
depending on the degree of impairment (Kruger & Smith, 2011).

Children with hearing impairments will not experience the same degree
of impairment in motor development as those who are visually impaired,
as they can still rely on their vision. However, deaf and hard-of-hearing
children may experience especially detrimental

44 CDE3701/1
effects in their cognitive and socio-emotional development, due to the
profound impact on their ability to communicate with others (Kruger &
Smith, 2011).

Cognitive impairments, also referred to as intellectual impairment or

intellectual disability is a disability characterised by significant limitations in
cognitive and adaptive functioning, and includes disorders such as
Down’s syndrome. Cognitively impaired children not only experience
challenges in their cognitive development, but also in social development,
as they may have poor interpersonal skills and may be dependent on others
for their care (Jooste & Jooste, 2011).

Stress: When children experience adverse situations such as those

described above, in the result is often toxic levels of emotional stress. A fair
amount of stress is considered to be a “normal” factor in the development
of any child, and may even serve as a driving force for development (e.g.
a child experiences a degree of stress when they are confronted with
unfamiliar concepts, but this leads to learning). However, frequently
experiencing high levels of stress can lead to the production of “stress
hormones” (known as cortisol) in the body, which can be harmful to
children’s health and development. Toxic stress can cause damage in
cognitive functioning, and make children vulnerable to physical illnesses
such as cardiovascular (heart) diseases, weight irregularities (e.g. obesity
or emaciated), sleep irregularities and diabetes, as well as mental health
difficulties such as depression, anxiety disorders, and substance abuse.

Furthermore, maternal depression (mothers with depression) – in

particular – is a significant risk to all domains of the development of infants
and children, as it may result in “unresponsive caregiving” (Department of
Social Development, 2015, p.20).

45 CDE3701/1
Activity 1.3: A case study

Kagiso is a nine-year-old boy who is in grade 3. He attends the primary school

close to the informal settlement, where he lives with his mother, his aunt, and
his two older brothers. His father passed away when he was young, and his
aunt has been living with them ever since. There is often not enough food for
everyone at home, and although Kagiso gets one meal from the feeding scheme
at his school every day, he often feels hungry during most of the day and
struggles to concentrate. In addition to this, he is also quite lonely at school, as
he is very shy and struggles to make friends. When his teacher arranges a
meeting with his mother to discuss his poor marks, his aunt comes along. After
a short discussion between the teacher and his family members, Kagiso’s aunt
calls him into the office, tells him to remove his belt, and starts beating him with
it. She only stops when he is on the ground crying, and the teacher is begging
her to stop. All the while, the mother sits passively, ignoring the scene in front
of her.

After reading the case study, identify and name the primary risk
factors in Kagiso’s life, and critically discuss how these factors
may have influenced his overall development.

46 CDE3701/1
Feedback on Activity 3

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Identify factors influencing child development

 Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s lives
and their varying abilities

Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

Risk factors:

 Disruptions in family functioning: Kagiso is living in a single

parent household that seems to lack love and acceptance, as
his aunt behaves aggressively, and his mother does not
intervene. This could be a possible cause for Kagiso’s poor
achievement in school, as well as his low self-esteem and
difficulties with socialisation, since all of these effects are linked
to unsupportive family environments.

 The fact that they live in an informal settlement points to the

fact that they have been affected by urbanisation, and probably
also poverty. This could mean that they have limited
access to health services, which could affect Kagiso’s
physical development, although it is not yet evident. His poor
academic performance could be due to cognitive delays, and
cognitive delays are often associated with poverty. This may
be because of aspects such as lack of stimulation.
 Malnutrition: Kagiso may be undernourished. This affects his
concentration, which may further impede his academic
performance and cognitive development.

 Abuse: The behaviour of his aunt towards him may be

47 CDE3701/1
 classified as physical abuse, which is also associated with
delays in cognitive development, academic issues, and
problems
with social functioning. As she has been living with them for
some time, one can assume that he has been exposed to this
abuse for years, so it is very likely that it has significantly
influenced his development in the areas that have been
described.

 Stress: All of the factors mentioned are also likely to have

caused toxic levels of stress for Kagiso, which may further
have impeded his cognitive functioning.

1.3.3 Protective factors

Despite being exposed to various adverse situations and experiences,

many children have the ability to recover from extremely difficult
experiences, outperforming even those who have grown up in much more
favourable environments. This phenomenon of overcoming the difficulty
is referred to as resilience.

The South African Department of Social Development (2015) identifies the

following basic protective factors that support the healthy development of
children, thus increasing their ability to overcome difficulties:

• Good health and nutrition (of both mother and child)

• A clean environment free of pollutants, or hazardous material or

surroundings

• Strong protective and stimulating relationships with parents or other

primary caregivers
48 CDE3701/1
• Access to safe care and quality early learning opportunities

49 CDE3701/1
 Specific protective factors that strengthen the resilience of children may
be organised into three broad categories, namely personal
characteristics, family characteristics, and community characteristics:

Table 1.3: Protective factors that strengthen the resilience of

children (Masten et al, 2011).

Personal Family characteristics Community

characteristics characteristics

• Good cognitive abilities • Parents involved in the • High neighbourhood

and problem-solving child’s education quality:
skills
• Socioeconomic
− Safe neighbourhood

• A positive outlook on life advantages

− Low level of
community violence
• Easy temperament • Faith and religious
− Affordable housing
infancy; adaptable affiliations
− Access to
personality later in
• Stable and recreational centers
development
supportive home − Clean air and water
• Faith and a sense environment,
• Effective schools:
of meaning in life especially:
− Well-trained and
• Talents valued by self
− Positive family
well-compensated
climate with low levels
and teachers
of pa- rental conflict
society − After-school
− A close relation-
• Good sense of humour
ship with parents/
programmes
− School recreation
• General appeal or caregivers
re- sources (sports,
attractiveness to others − Positive
music, art…)
• Sense of self-efficacy
parenting style
• Employment
(high in
and positive self-
opportunities for
warmth, structure,
50 CDE3701/1
 esteem and expectations) parents and

• Sense of control over

− Good sibling teenagers

one’s own life

relationships
• Good public health care
− Supportive
• Achievement orientated
connections with
• Access to emergency

• Ability to experience and extended family

ser-
vices (police, fire,
express a wide range of members
medical)
emotions in a regulated
manner • Exposure to adult

• Ability to emphasise and

role models and rule-
abiding
consider situations from
peers
another’s perspective
• Protective child
policies (regarding
child labour,
health care, and
welfare)

• Value and resources

directed at
education

• Prevention and
protection
from political
oppression
and violence

• Low acceptance of
physical violence

According to Louw and Louw (2014), protective factors are often rooted in

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culture. Cultural traditions, religious practices, and support services unique
to culture may serve protective functions. Cultural variations in child
rearing may also affect children’s resilience. For example, cultures that
value positive affirmation and emotional support of children may promote
resilience and protection against developmental difficulties.

52 CDE3701/1
Activity 1.4

Think of a few ways in which you as a foundation phase teacher

can act as a protective factor in the children's development,
especially in social and emotional domains.

Feedback on Activity 1.4

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Explain the concept of child development.

 Identify factors influencing child development.
 Critically discuss different contexts that influence children’s lives
and their varying abilities.

Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

Foundation phase teachers can do this by doing the following:

 Providing plenty of opportunities to improve their problem-

solving skills
 Creating a positive classroom atmosphere
 Helping children experience a sense of meaning
 Actively setting tasks that will improve their self-efficacy and
self-esteem
 Fostering their autonomy
 Helping children set personal goals
 Helping them learn to regulate their emotions
 Teaching them to empathise with others and consider
perspectives different from their own

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 Self-evaluation questions

Think of the environment in which you teach or live and list

the risk factors that might influence child development.

Reflect on how you will intervene as a teacher to support

learners who are exposed to those risk factors.

CAPS integration

Use the CAPS web link below to familiarise yourself with the
life skills and reflect on how you will integrate the awareness
of risk factors in your daily class activities

[Link]
s/Foundation%20 Phase%20CAPS%[Link]

Before we address the theories that explain how child

development takes place, we will first have a look at
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, which
emphasises the crucial role of the context in which a child
develops.

1.3.4 Theory on the importance of context in child development

Bronfenbrenner’s theory is based on the influence of the different

interactions the child has with everyone crossing his/her path. The
interactions are both inside and outside of the classroom between
systems and individuals. An important aspect of the theory is

54 CDE3701/1
that what happens in one context has an influence on what will happen
or what goes on in the next context.

The following illustration points to the different layers or systems in

society and how individuals and their environments are interrelated with
one another. As indicated in the picture, see the micro-, meso-, exo-, and
macrosystems in a society. The chronosystem or time system cannot be
visually displayed.

Figure 1.5: Influence of the different interactions the child has with
everyone crossing his/her path.

Source: [Link]
[Link]

[Link] The interaction depends strongly on two aspects

55 CDE3701/1
• Personal characteristics of all involved: the child’s self, teacher,
friends, peers, and parents;

• The context in which the interactions take place include home,

childcare, parent’s
house, grandparents’ house, church and park.

To illustrate: a child who arrives hungry at school from the

parent/grandparent/caregivers’ house will act and react differently towards
their friends and teacher than a child who arrives at school after having
a balanced breakfast.

A child arriving at a school from a violent environment will act and react
differently towards their peers and teacher than a child who arrives at
school from a safe and secure environment.

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Children arriving at school from a house and community where parents
or caregivers invest time, interest, and energy in the child and his/her
education, will be better prepared than the child who does not have that
privilege.

Children who speak the same language and share the same racial, ethnic
and culture at home and in school will find interaction much simpler than
those for whom this is not the case (Kail, Cavanaugh & Muller, 2019).

The above points to the importance of the interaction between the person
and the context. Bronfenbrenner refers to the proximal process that is
process-person-context- time (PPCT).

[Link] Process-person-context-time (PPCT)

PPCT points to the argument that child development is inseparable from the
environmental context in which the child develops and grows up.

The proximal processes are the everyday activities and interactions in

which people engage. To Bronfenbrenner, this is the core of development
and he calls it “engines of development” (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006,
p. 798).

• The proximal processes can have a positive or negative effect

Positive: One child comes from a stable home (person in the context)
and develops (school) in a stable learning and socialising environment
during a specific time in his/ her life (time/chronosystem).

The parent, peers, and teachers (persons) expect the child (person) to do
well (context = home and school). This means that the child will become
competent (time/chronosystem) in school activities and activities at home.

Negative: The second child comes from an unstable home (person in

context), BUT the teacher (person) in the class addresses the child
57 CDE3701/1
(person) with respect. Therefore, she sees that the child engages in positive
school activities, for example, athletics and friendships (context and
time/chronosystem).

This means that the proximal process will protect and support the second
child from negative consequences that he/she might have experienced
because of the environment the child comes from.

• Person characteristics

Bronfenbrenner referred to the three characteristics of the person as

demand, resource and force.

Personal demand includes what the teacher and the child see, for
example, on the first day of school.

The teacher stands at the door, welcoming the children.

• She sees: diverse children, for example boys, girls, short, tall, fat,
skinny, she hears different languages, and she becomes aware of
different cultures.

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• She sees: different personalities of children, for example, a child takes
a book and pages through it while another has an angry face.

• The initial impressions have an influence on the first interaction

between the teacher
and the children. It might be positive or negative.

On the same account, each child has a personal demand of the teacher.

• They observe the teacher and think: Is she kind; does she remind me of
my mom; will I understand her? Will she understand me since I speak
a different language or come from a different background than she
does?

Resource characteristics: points to the resources that the child and the
teacher have on prior learning experiences.

The child may enter the class negatively because of previous learning
experiences. Alternatively, the child may think that she will have a
negative experience since the teacher does not understand her culture
or language. The teacher might surprise the child by not being prejudiced
towards culture or language and have a calming way to put children at
ease.

The proximal processes that might initially have been difficult, because
of the child’s wariness, become warm-hearted and open because of the
teacher’s resource characteristics.

Force characteristics: temperament, motivation and persistence.

The child who is, for example, struggling in school, but wants to pass and
make a success of her life, will affect the proximal processes in which she
will engage. She will take action and involve friends, parents, and teachers
to support her in the challenge. She will have motivation, persistence, and
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a driven temperament. The child who is good in all subjects does not have
to put in much effort and will therefore not have much persistence because
school is not a challenge.

The above points to different degrees of motivation and persistence that

have different influences on the relevant proximal processes in which
people are engaged.

The teachers’ force characteristics can also affect proximal processes.

Motivated and persistent teachers’ children will achieve better than those
of the teacher who does not face a challenge every day.

• Context

Based on the above it is evident that the proximal processes are influenced
by a person’s characteristics or motivation, but also by others who interact
with the person. The context where the proximal process takes place can
also be influenced in the process.

The context consists of four elements: micro-, meso-, exo- and

macrosystem. (The fifth system – chrono or time – will follow later).

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• The microsystem is the immediate environment. It can be the house or
the classroom. It is in this context that the child has face-to-face
interaction with others (teachers and friends), and can be activated with
objects or symbols for a specific period of time, for
example, the teaching and learning to happen in the classroom.

In the play center, preschool or foundation phase, the microsystem is

very important. Different aspects will have an impact on the child. For
example, the attitude of the teacher; is it a structured classroom?; is it a
calm environment? This will all influence the way in which the children
engage in activities and interact with both their friends and the teacher.
Thus, the microenvironment will influence proximal processes.

The microsystem can also be a safe place for a child. If the child comes
from an unstable home, the classroom can be a place of comfort.

Think of the atmosphere in the classroom – a teacher-centered

classroom will feel strict and inaccessible, where a child-centered
classroom will have a relaxed atmosphere where the children and the
teacher can be themselves.

We all develop in more than one system.

• The term, mesosystem, describes the relations between two or more

microsystems.

As indicated above, the home or the classroom can be the microsystem

since the child spends a good deal of time in both of these contexts. If
the emotional experience of the child in the very first experience of
school is positive, the transition to the following classes will be easy.

Children coming from a strict household, where the parents are

authoritarian, will struggle to adjust in a classroom where the
atmosphere is authoritative or democratic and vice versa. The systems
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 of Bronfenbrenner will thus help the fact that teachers and children are
aware that different environments require different types of behaviour
and afford the learning of new roles and new ways of acting and
interacting.

• The exosystem is a setting in which the child is not directly situated,

but the specific system has an influence on the child. For example, the
teacher in the class is young and studies further. She does not sleep
well. The lack of sleep will influence her proximal
processes in the classroom. The following sentence summarises the
PPCT. The process (lack of sleep)-person (teacher and the children)-
context (home and classroom) -time (night and school hours).

This scenario has two sides:

If the focus is on the teacher as the developing individual, the focus is
on the mesosystem. If the focus is on the children as the developing
individual, the focus is on the exosystem.

• The final aspect of the context is the macrosystem, which is the level
of context in which people share values, beliefs, practices, access to
resources and a sense of com- mon identity within a culture. These
include race, ethnic, regional or socioeconomic

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 groups within a society. The macrosystem exercises its influence only
within the microsystem via proximal processes.

A macrosystem undergoes change continually.

In South Africa, the 11 different ethnic groups can be differentiated in

terms of values, beliefs, practices, and a sense of identity. This all counts
under different macrosystems gathered in one microsystem.

It is thus important that a teacher understands the home experiences of

children coming from the various ethnic or racial groups different from her
own. This will make the transition between house and school, the
mesosystem, easy, since the teacher can plan activities and interactions
in such a way that no child will feel excluded.

The “things” the teacher sees when children enter the play areas, like
different skin colour, hairstyles or clothes (demand characteristics),
influence the proximal processes.

The resource characteristics, (part of the proximal process, including

experience, knowledge and skills) help the teacher to respect the values,
beliefs, practices, and sense of identity held by different racial or ethnic
backgrounds.

The force characteristic, (motivation of the proximal process) will set

the atmosphere of the classroom.

One play area can accommodate numerous family structures, parenting

styles, temperaments of children, diverse cultures and contexts. It is
therefore imperative that the teacher equips herself with knowledge of the
children and the context they derive from. This will help her to plan her
classroom activities.

Thus, the teacher can control the play area as a microsystem in which

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the proximal processes occur.

As all children and the teacher are exposed to variations in the

microsystem, they might start seeing issues such as different values,
beliefs or practices from different perspectives, and might adjust their own
identity. The adjustments of the differences in the microsystem reflect in the
macrosystem.

Microsystem Macrosystem

Figure 1.6: Shows that the micro and macrosystems influence one
another.

In this sense, the parent’s choice of the child’s care center will stem from
values and beliefs shared by the cultural group of which the parent is a part,
but also from the macrosystem, meaning what kind of care they can afford.

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Thus, the macrosystem influences proximal processes in more than one
way.

Teacher

Parent Child

Peers

Figure 1.7: Shows how the parent interacts with the child. Different
choices are made with regard to the school the parents can
afford and is suitable. The child interacts with the teacher and
peers and all have an influence on the macrosystem.

• Time or chronosystem

The fourth aspect of the PPCT model, consists of two parts:

Cultural values, beliefs and changeable practices over time. Think of how
the schooling system in South Africa has changed over the past few
years: the age that children go to school (the year in which the child turns
seven); how long they need to attend school (grade 1 – grade 9, 15 years
old); what the schooling system and society expect from a child care
center (protect children’s rights to an education and develop their
emotional, social and physical potential); and how children are treated at
school (with respect, to protect and fulfil the child’s rights). All these
aspects have an influence on the proximal process (SA School Act, 1996;
SAHRC, 2012).

The quality of teacher interaction during a proximal process includes: how

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children spend their time being actively involved in learning and
development with both the teacher and their peers; and how the teacher
plans her daily activities to interact and develop the children and if she
“pushes” them to the next level of development to support them to make
activities more complex.

Although we will discuss the theory of Vygotsky later in the unit, I want to
make you aware of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) that links
with the previous paragraph.

ZPD is about the gap between what children can currently accomplish on
their own and what they are not yet ready to do by themselves. When the
teacher challenges and helps them with new activities or learning, they
will be able to accomplish that activity. The ZPD goes hand in hand with
Bruner’s term, scaffolding, where the teacher gives support to the child in
learning the new activity. Scaffolding means that when learning
something new, the teacher at first gives a lot of support, and in time
withdraws support to enable the child to become more independent and
to accomplish the new activities all by themselves. For example, the child
builds a tower of blocks that keep falling down. The teacher can show how
different objects can support the blocks until the child thinks of alternative
ways to make the block tower stay upright (Schaller & Crandall, 2014).

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Activity 1.5: Article

Watch the YouTube video clips that follow: the bioecological

model that links with the different layers or systems in society
and how individuals and their environments are interrelated with
one another. These videos will give you a visual overview of what
we addressed above. After watching the videos, answer the
questions.

[Link]
[Link]
Read the article titled “Children’s Development from a Cultural-
Historical Approach: Children’s Activity in Everyday Local Settings
as Foundation for Their Development”, which can be found under
e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701 to help you understand
the theory of the ecological system when completing the activity.

 Using figure 1.5 and write up a summary of a fictional child’s

• demographics including the micro, meso, exo and
macrosystems in a society and the chronosystem.
After creating the summary, write 150-200 words (font: Arial,
letter size: 12), under each of the four aspects of the PPCT
model in the discussion of your fictional child and what possible
impacts the original context of the child may have in his/her
development.

By now, you are aware that child development has a long and
rich history, as indicated above, beginning with John Lock in
1632. In the following section, we will focus on different theories
of child development.

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1.4 THEORIES OF CHILD DEVELOPMENT

It is essential for early childcare practitioners and teachers to be able to

interpret theories of child development, and put them into practise in ways
that are meaningful to their children (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). A single
theory does not address all aspects of child development, and different
theories may view the same aspects of development from different
perspectives. Therefore, the ability to integrate and apply these theories
can be invaluable to understand each child’s unique qualities and needs,
and to support them to reach their full potential. In order to provide quality
care and learning experiences, educational practitioners need to stay
informed about theories and their application in recent research
(Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014). An overview will now be given of the essential
aspects of the theories of physical, cognitive, and socio-emotional
development that will be explored further in the upcoming learning units.

1.4.1 Dimensions of physical development

Children’s physical and movement development can be studied empirically,

as this domain of development does not have the same number of
theories as, for example, those of cognitive and social-emotional
development. The following theories by Bailey (2006), Baltes (1987),
Curtis (1982), and Datar and Sturm (2004) regarding physical
development has determined a few agreed upon dimensions/milestones
of physical development:

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Table 1.4: Physical and movement development (Pienaar, 2002; Du
Toit, 2015).

Dimension Descript
ion
The sequence of • At first, the development of gross motor skills
physical requires control of
development large groups of muscles in the body, arms, and
legs.

• Then, fine motor skills develop, which depend on

the development of small muscle coordination.

• As children progress, coordination of gross and

fine motor movements improve.
Body growth • Growth refers to the increase in height, weight,
muscle mass, and
general size.

• Patterns of growth are determined by genetic

factors, a maturing brain and nervous system,
and adequate nutrition.

• Exercise is essential for the healthy

development of bones and
muscles.

• The average 6-year-old (foundation phase) child

weighs about 20 kg and has an approximate
height of 1,1m.

• Most children gain about 3,5kg and 5-8cm per

69 CDE3701/1
 year.

Body form • There are three main body types that may
influence physical growth
and development:

• Endomorphs: have more muscle and bone

tissue, as well as a higher percentage of body
fat. They tend to struggle with activities such
as running.

• Mesomorphs: are well proportioned and

muscular, and have low body fat. They perform
well in activities that require strength, speed,
and agility.

• Ectomorphs: are thin and tall, with little muscle

development. They tend to be late developers
and experience growth spurts. They
perform well in endurance activities such as
running.

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Development of Phases of motor development:
motor skills
• Reflective movement phase (before birth-4
months): Baby has a natural drive to move
around, referred to as reflexes. Primitive
reflexes form the basis of later learning.
Develops simultaneously with the first phase of
movement.

• Rudimentary movement phase (birth-2

years): Development of
locomotor skills, such as crawling and walking,
manipulation skills,
including reaching and grasping, and stability
skills, such as control over the neck, head and
trunk while sitting or standing.

• Fundamental movement phase (2-7 years):

important advances in
gross and fine motor development. Locomotor
and manipulation
skills that have emerged during the previous
phase are refined. Divided into three sub-stages:

• Initial stage (2-3 years): Characterised by

crude, uncoordinated
movements.

• Elementary stage (4-5 years): Movements are

more coordinated and controlled, but lack
fluidity.

• Mature stage (6-7 years): Gross and fine motor

71 CDE3701/1
 movements are coordinated and efficient.

• As soon as the fundament movement skills –

locomotor skills, stability skills and manipulation
skills – are mature, children are ready to
engage in specialised physical activities such as
sports and dance.

Dimension Descript
ion
Gross • Gross motor skills refer to the ability to engage
motor the large muscles of
developm the body in a coordinated and controlled way.
ent
• These muscles include the arm muscles, the legs
and the trunk.

• Gross motor activities involve the whole body,

such as sitting up,
walking, running, climbing and catching a ball.

• Gross motor skills are the foundation of school

readiness skills, such as handwriting,
concentrating and following instructions.

• Important for children to engage in activities

72 CDE3701/1
 where they can move
freely so that they can develop these skills.

Fine • Fine motor development is the ability to

motor coordinate the smaller
developm muscles in the arms, hands and fingers that are
ent necessary for drawing, writing, cutting with
scissors, etc.

• Develops more slowly than gross motor skills.

Activity 1.6

Apart from the clear implications that the physical development

of foundation phase children have for their participation in
physical education activities, in which other ways can their
physical development affect them in the classroom?

Feedback on Activity 1.6

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives of

the learning unit:

 Explain the concept of child development.

 Identify and explain theories underpinning child development.
Keep the following in mind when answering the questions:

 The most significant effect that gross motor development has

on academic success is the importance of fine motor skills
73 CDE3701/1
 for handwriting, which includes pencil grip.

 Children with underdeveloped gross motor muscles, may, for

example, have difficulties sitting upright for a long time in
class, hampering their concentration and involvement
in activities.

 Also, children who have physical disabilities will need certain

degrees of adaptations to their physical environments, for
example, children in wheelchairs.

The following section summarises the theories of cognitive development.

The summary might be overwhelming, but as you are exposed to the
different modules, you will understand the position of each theory in child
development.

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1.4.2 Theoretical perspectives of cognitive development

Table 1.5: Cognitive development theories (Conkbayir & Pascal, 2014)

Theo Key aspects of

ry the theory
Piaget’s • Children are naturally curious and learn by actively
constructivism discovering their environment.
theory
• Four stages of cognitive development that show
progression towards logical thought:

− sensorimotor stage (0-2 years), where

children learn via their senses and movement,
and object permanence emerges
− the preoperational stage (2-6 years), where
language and symbols begin to be used to
represent concepts
− the concrete operational stage (7-11 years),
where logical thought emerges, but is limited to
concrete objects
− the formal operational stage (12 years to
adulthood), where children are able to think
abstractly

• New information gained from the environment,

organised in schemas
(cognitive categories of relationships between
concepts).

• When new information seems to be in conflict with

existing schemas, the process of adaptation
takes place.
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 • Adaptation can be divided into the sub-processes,
assimilation (fit-
ting new information into existing schemas,
whether accurate or
not), and accommodation (changing existing
schemas, or creating new schemas).

Vygotsky’s • Importance of social and cultural context in

sociocultural child development.
theory
• “Cultural tools” provided by their cultures, such as
language, memory
strategies, writing and numerical systems are
essential for cognitive
development.

• Zone of proximal development: Area between a

child’s actual level of development and skills, and
the level of achievement they are able
to attain with the guidance and support of another.

• Differentiation can be made between lower

mental functions, which is similar to Piaget’s
sensorimotor reasoning, dependent on senses
and movement, and higher mental functions,
such as language and logical thinking, which
develop out of lower mental functions.

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• During critical periods, which occur around the
ages of 1, 3, and 6
years, children’s entire systems of mental
functions undergo major
changes.

• Concerning language development, Vygotsky

believed social interaction is essential to language
acquisition and development.

• Language initially develops as a separate process

from thought, and
they only later start mutually influencing each
other.

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 Theo Key aspects of
ry the theory
Bruner’s • Also focused on social and cultural context.
constructivist
• Described the concept of scaffolding: when others
theory of
support children’s
learning
thinking in accordance with their level of
development, by motivating them, providing
models, simplifying tasks or ideas, or identifying
important elements of a task, and then gradually
decreasing the sup- port as the children become
more capable.

• The spiral curriculum refers to aligning learning

content with children’s
existing knowledge and providing opportunities to
revisit previously
learnt topics in more depth to consolidate
understanding.

• Three modes of representation may be

identified. These explain different ways in which
children can store and process new information,
which emerges at various ages:

− Enactive representation (0-1 year):

information is stored through hands-on
experiences and experiences the real-life object
or 3D object
− Iconic representation (1-6 years): information is

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 categorised as cognitive images and children
can relate to a 2D representation
− Symbolic representation (from 7 years): child
can think abstractly and information can now be
stored as symbols (e.g. language/ numbers)

• Language Acquisition Support System (LASS),

consisting of meaningful interaction with adults
and peers, is crucial for language development.

Information • Likens human cognition to the functioning of a

processing computer, with hard-
theory ware and software; an explanation of how people
process and store
new information.

• Mental hardware consists of components of

varying capacity that acquire, store and retrieve
information

• These components include the sensory memory,

where information
is quickly recognised, the short-term memory,
where information is
held for a limited time, and the long-term memory,

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 where information can be stored semi-permanently
and even permanently.

• Long-term memory is divided into episodic

memory (memory of
events), semantic memory (memory of facts),
procedural memory
(memory of how to perform certain tasks), implicit
memory (habits and routines one is largely
unaware of), and explicit memory (knowledge
actively acquired).

• Mental software includes the following cognitive

processes:
− Memory strategies, which are deliberate
cognitive activities in- tended to improve the
processing and storage of information,
including rehearsal, the conscious repetition of
information the individual wants to remember,
and retrieval, the process of accessing
information that has previously been cognitively
represented
− Metacognition refers to the knowledge about
and control over one’s own cognitive processes
− Executive functioning refers to consciously
controlling thoughts, emotions, and behaviour
to achieve a specific goal

Theory Key aspects of

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 the theory
Gardner’s This represents different intellectual abilities and
multiple goes along with different learning styles. The
intelligence theory following are the different criteria for multiple
intelligence:

• Logical/mathematical: The highly logical

mathematical children will be interested in
problem-solving and hypothesis-testing
strategies

• Verbal/linguistic: Children with strong oral

language abilities like to
read and to think out loud

• Spatial: Children who are visually/spatially

strong learn best from information that they
see or read

• Bodily/kinesthetic: Children who are highly

bodily/kinesthetic
enjoy learning while moving about freely and
touching

• Interpersonal: Children enjoy engaging in

learning experiences in a social setting

• Intrapersonal (emotional): Children who are

highly emotional, sensitive, enjoy solitude, like
thinking and are happy to work alone

• Naturalistic: children who have the ability to

recognize, understand, and interact with the
natural world, including plants, animals, and

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 natural phenomena.

• Musical: children who have the capacity to

perceive, create, and understand musical
patterns, tones, and rhythms. Children with
high musical intelligence have a strong
sensitivity to pitch, melody, and timbre.

• Existential: sometimes referred to as spiritual or

philosophical intelligence, relates to children
who have the ability to ponder and explore
fundamental questions about human existence,
life, death, and the meaning of existence.

Activity 1.7: Article

Reflect on the possible implications each of the above-mentioned

theories of cognitive development may have for your practice as
a foundation phase teacher.

Read the article titled “Piaget, Vygotsky and the cultural

development of the notions of possibility and necessity:
Experimental study among rural South African learners” under
e-reserves on myUnisa under CDE3701 to Enrich your
understanding on the theories of cognitive development.

Enrichment activity:

Watch the following YouTube video clips for more background on

the different theories:

• Erikson
[Link]
psychosocial-develop- [Link]

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• Jean Piaget
[Link]
[Link] [Link]
[Link]

• Lev Vygotsky
[Link]
[Link]

[Link]
development-and-scaffolding-in- [Link]

• Jerome Bruner
[Link]
and-constructivism-the- [Link]

• Howard Gardner
Howard Gardner's Nine Types of Intelligence | Practical
Psychology ([Link])

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• Uri Bronfenbrenner

[Link]
systems-theory-of-de- [Link]

Feedback on Activity 1.7

When answering the questions, think of the following objectives

of the learning unit:

 Identify and explain theories underpinning

child development. Keep the following in mind
when answering the questions:

Piaget:

 Learning activities should be child-centered and allow

children to engage in the active discovery of concepts.

 Foundation phase children will likely be in the concrete

operational stage of development, which means that plenty of
concrete materials should be provided to support learning.

 When relationships between concepts are conveyed, or

organised into categories, it will be easier for children to
adapt to new information.
Vygotsky:

 Important to consider the cultural context of the child to plan

appropriate learning experiences.
 Children will benefit from group work and learn from each
other.
 Essential to determine what children are currently able to
do, so as to support them to move to higher levels of
achievement, within their ZPD.
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  Focus on the importance of
language development. Bruner:

 Children’s learning may be “scaffolded” by providing

motivation, models, simplifying ideas or tasks, etc.

 As children may be on different levels of development, they

may benefit from working in groups with similar needs, and
who receive similar amounts of scaffolding.

 To incorporate the spiral curriculum, teachers need to plan

teaching experiences that will revisit concepts, rather than
dealing with a topic only once.

 Foundation phase children will have developed all three

modes of representation, there- fore learning experiences
can include a variety of experiences where children can
process
information through actions, visual resources, and more
abstractly via language and numbers.

Information processing theory:

 Activities that enhance the development of memory can be

incorporated into the class- room daily.

 Children can be supported to develop their memory

strategies, metacognition, and executive functioning.

The following section will summarise the theories of social-emotional

development. The summary might be overwhelming, but as you are
exposed to the different modules, you will understand the position of each
theory in child development.

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 1.4.3 Theories of socio-emotional development

Table 1.6: Social-emotional development theories (Conkbayir &

Pascal, 2014)

Theory Key aspects

of the theory
Erikson’s psychosocial • Identified eight stages of socio-emotional
theory development, characterised
by various developmental challenges that need to
be overcome, in order
to reach the next stage.

• The first four of these stages are applicable to

children of birth to 9 years:
(1) Basic trust vs mistrust (birth-1 year): to
develop a sense that the world is a safe and
good place
(2) Autonomy vs shame and doubt (1-3 years):
To realise that they are independent and
can make own decisions
(3) Initiative vs guilt (3-6 years): To develop a
willingness to try new things and to cope
with failure
(4) Industry vs inferiority (6 years to
adolescence): To learn basic skills and to
work with others

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Kohlberg’s theory of • Believed that moral development is based on
moral reasoning cognitive development
and relevant social experiences.

• Perspective taking is essential.

• Identified three levels of moral development:

pre-conventional, conventional, and post-
conventional.

• The pre-conventional level applies to children

up to middle childhood, and is further divided
into two stages:

− Stage 1–Punishment and obedience

orientation:

The child decides what is right based on

whether the action will be punished or
rewarded, and is still unable to consider the
perspectives and interests of others.
− Stage 2 – Individualism, instrumental
purpose, and exchange:

The child follows rules when they serve their

own needs or interests. The child is now
aware of the interests of others, and that these
may conflict with their own.

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Bowlby's theory of Advocates that children are born into the world
attachment biologically pre-programmed to form attachments
with others. The following four attachments helps
a child to survive:

• Safe haven: the child can rely on his

caregiver for comfort at times
whenever he feels threatened, frightened or in
danger.

• Secure base serves as a good and reliable

foundation to the child as he goes on learning
and sorting out things by himself.

• Proximity maintenance indicates that the

child aims to explore the
world, but still tries to stay close to his
caregiver.

• Separation distress indicates that the child

becomes unhappy and sorrowful when he
becomes separated from his caregiver.
Bandura’s theory of Advocates that people learn from one another via
social learning observation, imitation, and modelling. The theory
has often been called a bridge between
behaviourist and cognitive learning theories
because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.

Theory Key aspects of

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 the theory
Goleman's theory The following are the five key elements of emotional
of emotional intelligence:
intelligence
• Self-awareness: The child understands his/her
emotions and they do not let their feelings rule them.
They know their strengths and weaknesses, and
they work on these areas so they can perform
better.

• Self-regulation: The child has the ability to control

his/her emotions
and impulses. They do not allow themselves to
become too angry or
jealous, and they do not make impulsive or careless
decisions, thus they think before they act.

• Motivation: Points to children who are willing to

accept immediate
results for long-term success. They are highly
productive, love a challenge, and are effective in
whatever they do.

• Empathy: Points to children who have the ability to

identify with and understand the wants, needs, and
viewpoints of those around you.
Empathetic children avoid stereotyping and judging
too quickly, and they live their lives in an open,
honest way.

• Social skills: Points to children with strong social

skills who are team players. Rather than focusing on
their own success, these children help others

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 to develop and shine. They can manage disputes,
are excellent communicators, and are masters at
building and maintaining relationships.

Activity 1.8: Article

Self-reflection activity:

Being a teacher is an enormous responsibility with an enormous

impact on the lives of children. You will shape children’s lives and
therefore you need to provide the children with a joyful
experience.

Read through the socio-emotional and cognitive development

theories, and analyse yourself in an essay of 350 words. Use all
the different key elements of all the different theories when
describing yourself.

After analysing yourself, rationalise action that you plan on doing

or did in the classroom. Emphasise the importance of what you
did against the theories so that you can analyse the reasons
behind your actions.

1.5 CONCLUSION

In this learning unit, you examined various theories of child development,

and examined personal and contextual factors that influence child
development.

1.6 REFERENCES

Arnet , J. L. & Jensen, A. J., 2018. Child Development Worldwide: A cultural

approach.
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 New York : Pearson
Brewer, J. (2014). Introduction to early childhood education: Preschool
through primary grades
(6th ed.). Essex: Pearson.
Conkbayir, M. & Pascal, C. (2014). Early Childhood theories and
contemporary issues: An introduction. London: Bloomsbury.

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De Jager, M. (2013). Brain development milestones and learning.
Cape Town: Metz Press Publishing.
Department of Basic Education. (2015). The South African National
Curriculum
Framework for children from Birth to Four. Pretoria: Department
of
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Department of Social Development. (2015). National Integrated Child
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African perspective (2nd ed., pp. 288–303). Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Louw, D.A. & Louw, A.E. (2014). Child and Adolescent Development
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Louw, D., Louw, A. & Kail, R. (2014). Basic Concepts of Child and
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Motilal, G. B., Fleisch, B., Motilal, G., Motilal, G. B., & Fleisch, B. (2020).
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engagement.
Oppong K.A. (2011). What is Successful Development? An Overview
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Oppong, S., K. Oppong Asante & S.K. Kumaku, (2014). History,
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and C.C. Mate-Kole, 1–17. Accra: Digibooks Ghana Ltd.
Prinsloo, E. (2011). Socio-economic barriers to learning in
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Ramokgopa, I.M. (2001). Developmental stages of an African child and
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Stats SA. (2018). Mid-year population estimates.
Shetty, P. (2003). Malnutrition and undernutrition. Retrieved from
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[Link]/science/article/pii/S1357303906004786 Accessed: 16
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Smith, P.K., Cowie, H. & Blades, M. (2011). Understanding children’s
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