2

PRINCIPLES
OF ENTOMOLOGY
AUTHOR: DARWIN M. CACAL, [Link].

1. DEFINITION OF ENTOMOLOGY

Entomology, a biological science, is the specialized study of life, with a primary focus on insects. It is considered a divis ion of zoology,
exclusively centered on the comprehensive exploration of insects and their role in the natural world.

Derived from the Greek words "entomon" (meaning insect) and "logos" (meaning study or science), entomology delves into the
intricate world of insects, unveiling their remarkable biology, behavior, ecology, and interactions with the natural environment.

Insects, with their astonishing adaptability, have conquered nearly every habitat on the planet, from the icy Arctic to scorching
deserts, and from dense rainforests to bustling urban landscapes. They play crucial roles in the balance of ecosystems, often acting as pollinators,
decomposers, and vital components of food chains. Their immense diversity, with over a million identified species and many mo re yet to be
discovered, makes them an essential subject of scientific exploration and conservation efforts.

2. HISTORY OF ENTOMOLOGY

Arthropods made their first appearance in the fossil records more than 500 million years ago, during the Cambrian period at the
beginning of the Palaeozoic era, which marks the initial phase of the four major geological time periods. The oldest known insect fossils date
back to the Devonian period, around 400 million years ago. However, evidence of various insect orders extends up to about 75 million years ago,
during the Cretaceous period, towards the end of the Mesozoic era. Notably, silverfish fossils have been traced back to the Devonian period,
while caterpillar fossils have been identified in the Cretaceous period.

Entomology as a scientific field started to thrive during the 17th century, with significant developments and contributions. In 1697 and
1680, Redi conducted experiments using insects to test the spontaneous generation theory. In 1698, Malphigi published anatomical studies on
silkworms, providing valuable insights into their structure and physiology. Swammerdam also published his pioneering insect studies during this
period, advancing our understanding of insect anatomy. The 17th century marked a turning point in the history of entomology, with scholars
producing the first accurate and in-depth studies on various aspects of insect life.

Dr. Bernardo P. Gabriel, a distinguished professor from the Department of Entomology at the College of Agriculture, University of the
Philippines at Los Baños, left a significant mark on the development of Philippine Entomology. In 1981, he meticulously documented the
historical progress of the field in his publication "Philippine Entomologist vol. 4(6): 495-501," providing valuable insights into the evolution of
entomological studies in the country.

Dr. Gabriel's comprehensive accounts spanned from the earliest recognizable written records of Philippine insects to the 1970s. To
provide a structured overview of this extensive timeline, he divided it into five distinct periods:

a. Spanish Period (1521 – 1899: 16th–19th Century) - arrival of the Spanish explorers in the 16th century until the end of the 19th century,
there were early accounts of the entomological aspects of the Philippines.

YEAR MILESTONE
1521 Antonio Pigafetta's account revealed the existence of Palawan leaf insects, providing the earliest written
record of a Philippine insect.
1569 first recorded account of a locust swarm in the Philippines emerged, specifically on Panay Island, highlighting
the ecological significance of such events.
1593 Spanish Priest Padre Antonio Sedeno played a crucial role in introducing sericulture in the Philippines by
planting mulberry, an essential plant for silk production.
1616 Philip III of Spain promulgated the laws of the Indies, which included measures for the extermination of
locusts, initiating the official recognition of the threat posed by these insects.
1642 Governor-General Don Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera's Ordinances of Good Government were revised by
Governor General Don Fausto Cruzat y Gongora in 1696.
1744-1888 several decrees were issued, reinforcing the obligation of churchmen, secular individuals, and the Royal
Treasury to combat locusts, emphasizing the ongoing efforts to address this issue.
1780 Augustinian Missionary Father Manuel Galliana reintroduced sericulture in the Philippines, promoting the
cultivation of silkworms for silk production once again.
1781 Economic Society of Friends of the Country, also known as Sociedad Economico de los Amigos del Pais, was
established under the leadership of Governor Jose Vasco y Vargas.
1816 a significant event occurred in Philippine entomology when Johann Friedrich Eschscholtz, a Russian
entomologist, became the first entomological investigator to visit the Philippines aboard the Russian Ship
Rurik.
1826 the introduction of the cochineal insect was attempted, and another attempt was made in 1861.
Unfortunately, these endeavors did not succeed.
1830 The port of Manila was opened to the world's commerce, allowing foreigners, other than Spaniards, to enter
the country, including foreign explorers interested in scientific pursuits like entomology.

1831 Hugh Cuming, an English conchologist, conducted extensive collecting activities in many parts of Luzon,
leading to the publication of significant findings, such as Promecotheca cumingii (Baly) in 1858.
 1837 J. O. Westwood published the characteristics of new insects from Manila, collected by Mr. Cuming, in the
Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London (vol. 5, p. 30)

1848 Hans Herman Behr, a German savant, spent two years in the Philippines focusing on collecting insects,
particularly Lepidoptera.
1849 The first successful introduction of a starling, known locally as "Martinez" (Aetheopsar cristatellus Linn.),
from Southern China took place.
1851 The earliest known species of Philippines Hemiptera was published by W. S. Dallas, derived from materials
collected by Cuming, which made its way into the British Museum.

1856-1862 Pierre Joseph Michael Lorquin, a renowned French entomologist, visited the Philippines, conducting
research on Lepidoptera.
1859-1865 the German entomologist Carl Semper collected insects from various locations in the Philippines, leading to
several publications on Philippine insects, especially by his brother, George Semper.

1868 Friedrich Moritz Brauer described Philippine Neuroptera and Libellulidae (Odonata).
1870 saw the publication of Hemiptera Insularum Philippinarum by Carl Stal, a prominent Swedish entomologist
considered the "Father of Modern Hemipterology." The publication was based on materials collected by Carl
Semper.
1870-1871 F. Smith provided the earliest report on Philippine Hymenoptera.
1875 the Belgian entomologist Ernest Candeze provided the first description of Philippine Elaterids (Coleoptera).

1877 Stal published "Orthoptera Nova ex Insulis Philippines," which marked the first report on Philippine
Orthoptera, based on materials from Semper's collection.
1891 French baron Edmond de Selys Longchamps made the first report on Odonata in the Philippines and further
expanded on Odonata
1882 C. R. Osten-Sacken reported on Diptera from the Philippine Islands, which were brought home by Dr. Carl
Semper.
1885 saw the publication of Ramon Jordana's "Bosquejo geografica e historico-natural del archipelago Filipino" in
Madrid. It was a comprehensive work on Zoology, including insects, and was the first of its kind by a resident
worker.
1886-1892 George Semper, brother of Carl Semper, a German entomologist, published "Die Schmitterlings der
Philippinischen der inseln; Rhopalocera," the first extensive publication on Philippine Lepidoptera.

1890 Domingo Sanchez y Sanchez, an assistant zoologist in the Government Forestry Service, published a paper on
the coffee longhorn borer, marking the first published biological study of the insect pest.

1891 witnessed the publication of "Odonates des Philippines" by French Baron de Selys-Longchamps.

1894-1896 the "Boletin Oficial Agricola de Filipinas" featured monthly issues on the Agronomical Service, containing
general articles on insects of economic importance.
1894 Jose Sanchez conducted the first study on the white grub, Leucopholis irrorata, published in the monthly
issue of the Agronomical Service.
1895 Francisco Alvarez presented a comprehensive description of the ecology and control of migratory locusts

1895-1896 Dominican Father Castro de Elera published the extensive work "Catalogo sistematico de toda la fauna de
Filipinas conocida hasta el presente" in three volumes.
1896 Baer published the "Catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera" from the Semper Collection.
1896-1902 George Semper made two significant publications on Philippine Lepidoptera: "Heterocera," both serving as
milestones in Philippine entomology

1899 Otto Staudinger contributed to the field with "Lepidopteran der Inseln Palawan." He sent collectors to the
Philippines for materials used in this publication.
Towards 19th Century resident collectors like Alexander Schadenberg, Regino Garcia, Francisco Sanchez, S. J., and Ateneo
professors Jose Rizal and Drs. Leon and Luis Guerrero appeared. Although they did not publish their findings,
they entrusted their collections to foreign specialists, further enriching the knowledge of Philippine
entomology.

b. Early American Occupation (1900 – 1920) - Following the Spanish-American War, the United States took control of the Philippines at the
turn of the 20th century.

YEAR MILESTONE
1902 the Bureau of Agriculture was established in the Philippines, and it took on the responsibility of controlling
migratory locusts.
Charles S. Banks, an American entomologist, became the first government entomologist in the Philippines. He
made significant contributions to economic entomology, including medical entomology and systematics.
Banks also played a crucial role in organizing the entomology section in the Bureau of Government
Laboratories, which later transformed into the Bureau of Science and, more recently, the National Institute of
Science and Technology. Later, he became the head of the Entomology Department at the University of the
Philippines College of Agriculture (UPCA).
During this time, a groundbreaking milestone occurred in the field of entomology when a microbial agent,
specifically a fungus, was utilized for the first time to control migratory locust populations.
 1903-1905 Father William A. Stanton and Father Robert E. Brown, while performing their regular duties at the Manila
Observatory, published various notes on insects in the monthly bulletin of the Weather Bureau.

1904 Charles S. Banks published a work titled "Pests of Cacao," which addressed the insect pests affecting cacao
cultivation.
1906 marked the founding of the Philippine Journal of Science, which served as a significant platform for
taxonomic research on Philippine insects, particularly during the early American period.

1907 the Philippine Agricultural Review (later renamed the Philippine Journal of Agriculture in 1930 and the Journal
of Plant Industry in 1963) was founded. This journal became a prominent outlet for applied entomological
research conducted by the Bureau of Agriculture.

1908 C. Ludlow published the first extensive work on mosquitoes of the Philippines, contributing to our
understanding of these disease-carrying insects.
1909 the Department of Entomology was established at the U.P. College of Agriculture, with E. M. Ledyard as its
first head.
D. D. Mackie served as the Chief entomologist of the Plant Pest Section of the Bureau of Agriculture and
conducted tests on arsenical sprays for plant pest control.
1910 the Entomology section of the Bureau of Agriculture was organized, with the Plant Industry Division headed
first by C. R. Jones and later succeeded by D. B. Mackie.
1911 the publication "Philippine Agriculturist and Forester" was founded, providing a platform for the
dissemination of entomological findings by the staff of the Department of Entomology at UPCA.

F. O. Cevallos presented one of the earliest works on the use of chemicals for pest control in the country,
testing insecticides such as kerosene emulsion, Resin wash, Bordeaux mixture, white arsenic, and carbon
bisulphide.
1912 the Second Philippine Legislature passed Act No. 2145, which ended the first Plant Quarantine Law.

Charles F. Baker arrived in the Philippines and later became the Dean of the College of Agriculture at UP in
1917. He significantly contributed to the knowledge of Philippine insect fauna by collaborating with 115
world authorities and publishing 400 papers on Philippines insects, often aided by the Cuban collector Julian
Valdez.
1913 M. S. Mitzmain discovered that surra, a disease of carabao, is transmitted by the common housefly, Tabanus
stratus Fabricius, establishing veterinary entomology in the country. Additionally, beekeeping using imported
Italian bees was first attempted in the Philippines by C. H. Schultz.

1915 The Locust Act No. 2472 was enacted, conferring on the Bureau of Agriculture the power to direct and
supervise locust campaigns throughout the country.
Leopoldo B. Uichanco became the first Filipino instructor in entomology.
1916-1917 W. Schultz published the "Catalogue of Philippine Coleoptera."
1917 Mackie developed a process of fumigating cigars in a partial vacuum to destroy beetles

Scolia manilae was introduced into Hawaii by Muir

1918 L.B. Uichanco became the first Filipino to earn an M.S. degree in entomology from the University of the
Philippines College of Agriculture (UPCA).
The research efforts of Otanes in studying the biology of the beanfly, a persistent pest of legumes, yielded
valuable insights into its behavior and impact on crops.
1919 the Plant Pest Section emerged as a distinct division within the Bureau of Agriculture, led by Gonzalo Merino
as its inaugural chief. Subsequently, this division underwent reorganization in 1924, resulting in three
sections: Plant Quarantine, Entomology, and Plant Pathology.

1921 A significant development in the advancement of entomological work took place when the Hawaii Sugar
Planter's Association generously donated PhP4,000.00 to the University of the Philippines.

This financial contribution was allocated for the establishment of an insectary in Los Baños, dedicated to
furthering entomological research in the Philippines. Notably, it marked the first instance of a private source
donating funds to the University for this purpose.

1921-1922 H. E. Woodworth published a pioneering work – the first comprehensive host-index of insects harmful to
Philippine crops. This index played a vital role in identifying and understanding the impact of insects on
agricultural productivity.

c. Rise of the Filipino Entomologists (1922 – 1940) - In the 1920s, there was a significant rise in local entomologists who actively pursued
studies on Philippine insects. This period marked the emergence of Filipino researchers who made worthy contributions to the field.

YEAR MILESTONE
1922 Leopoldo B. Uichanco achieved a significant milestone as the first Filipino to obtain a doctoral degree in
entomology, marking a momentous advancement in the field of Philippine entomology.

Uichanco described new species of Psyllids, becoming the first Filipino to record and characterize Philippine
insects, further enriching our understanding of the country's insect biodiversity.
 Cendana's work on the biology of the banana weevil, a major pest of bananas in the Philippines, shed light on
crucial insights for pest management and agricultural practices.

1923 an innovative solution to control migratory locusts was discovered, where the use of soap, particularly soft
yellow laundry soap, proved to be an effective contact insecticide. This finding represented a practical
approach to combat locust infestations.

Opius humilis, an insect parasitoid, was introduced to control the melon fly, providing a natural and
sustainable means of pest control.
1924 The Philippine Legislature passed the Locust Scouting Act (Act 3163), allocating PhP100,000.00 to detect and
combat locusts. This legislation paved the way for future acts that addressed other pest-related issues in the
country (March 18).
1925 first-ever use of an airplane for controlling migratory locusts showcased technological progress and efficiency
in pest control efforts.
1926 G. O. Ocfemia reported on the transmission of the bunchy top of abaca virus by an aphid species called
Pentalonia nigronervosa.
1927 Castillo conducted research on the insecticidal properties of Derris in the Philippines, exploring its potential as
an effective insecticide.
1928 Saw two important developments:

Manalang's study on the use of Paris green as a larvicide for mosquitoes, aiming to control mosquito-borne
diseases, and the introduction of biocontrol agents by the University of the Philippines College of Agriculture
(UPCA) and the Department of Entomology, promoting sustainable pest management practices.

Rickerson et al. conducted a comprehensive study on the distribution of life in the Philippines, providing
valuable data on the number of insects found in the country at that time.

1929 C. Bulligan conducted significant research on the biology of the corn borer, Ostrinia furnacalis, which
remained a serious pest of corn in the Philippines. Meanwhile, E. M. Paller investigated the effect of dry heat
on weevils in corn and corn seed.
1931 De Mesa published the first report on forest insects, specifically wood borers and their impact on the lumber
industry.
The white grub Leucopholis irrorata received extensive biological studies separately conducted by Uichanco
and Otanes.
1932 Clemente carried out mutation studies on Philippine wild Drosophila, contributing to our understanding of
genetic variability in local fly populations.
1933 witnessed J. N. Samson's pioneering study on pesticide residue, measuring the amount of residual arsenic on
vegetable crops dusted and sprayed with arsenicals.
1934-1935 De Mesa published studies on host plants of injurious forest insects in the Philippines
Russel and Baisas published the first illustrated key to the Philippine Anopheles, essential for the identification
of these mosquitoes and their roles as vectors of diseases.

1936 Uichanco proposed a theory on locust outbreaks in relation to the sunspot cycle, offering insights into the
ecological factors influencing locust population dynamics.
1939 conducted research on the ecology of a probable outbreak center of migratory locust, furthering our
understanding of locust behavior and distribution.
1941 Viado became the first insecticide toxicologist in the Philippines, focusing on the safety and efficacy of
insecticides in pest control.

d. War Setback and Rebuilding (1941 – 1960) - The outbreak of World War II in the Philippines caused setbacks in entomological research and
development. However, in the post-war years, the discipline gradually regained momentum as researchers and institutions worked to
rebuild and advance their studies.

YEAR MILESTONE
1946 Introduction of organic insecticides in the Philippines with the use of DDT against houseflies and migratory
locust.
1947 Cendana and Baltazar reported on the cotton leafhopper, Empoasca bigutulla, which became the first
published report on entomology after World War II.
C. R. Baltazar became the first Filipina with a college degree majoring in entomology.
Dr. S.M. Cendana was formed to explore the postwar activities of Philippine entomology.
1949 The publication of Phil. Agriculture Vol. 1 by Uichanco and Sacay, containing valuable information on
Philippine insect pests of crops, contributing to the understanding of agricultural challenges.

1951 Chapman and Capco compiled the Checklist of ants of Asia, which provided important insights into ant
biodiversity in the region.
1952 The U.P. Los Baños - Cornell contract began, with three American visiting professors (J. G. Mathyssee, R. W.
Dean, and B. V. Travis) working in succession from 1954 to 1959 at the Department of Entomology. Their
focus was primarily on economic entomology, particularly chemical control methods. This collaboration
facilitated knowledge exchange and further research opportunities.

1954 S. M. Cendana conducted the first studies on plant resistance to insects using corn hybrid and inbred strains
against corn earworm and corn borer.
1959 R. M. Ela compiled an extensive bibliography of Philippine entomology for the first time, contributing to the
accessibility of entomological knowledge in the country.
 S. R. Capco compiled a list of plant pests of the Philippines, with a special focus on field crops, fruit trees, and
vegetables.

e. Developments and Directions in the Sixties and Seventies (1961 – 1979) - The 1960s and 1970s witnessed remarkable progress in
Philippine Entomology. Research expanded, institutions were strengthened, and collaborations with international entomologists flourished,
leading to a deeper understanding of local insects and their ecological roles.

YEAR MILESTONE
1960 entomological research, particularly focused on insects affecting rice, received a significant boost with the
establishment of the International Rice Research Institute
1961 L. C. Rimando, the first Filipino acarologist, spearheaded research on mites in the Philippines, contributing
to a deeper understanding of these tiny arachnids and their impact.

1962 July 22, with the founding of the Philippine Entomological Society, now known as the Philippine Association
of Entomologists, Inc. This marked the establishment of the first entomological organization in the
Philippines, with S. M. Cendaña serving as its inaugural President.

1964 B. P. Gabriel became the first Filipino insect pathologist,

International Rice Research Institute organized an International Symposium on the major insect pests of rice

1966 Delfinado's publication, the first monographic treatment of Philippine mosquitoes, except Aedes.

C. R. Baltazar published the Catalogue of Philippine Hymenoptera, making it the first comprehensive
catalogue of a major insect order undertaken by a Filipino researcher.
1967 first National Meeting of the Philippine Association of Entomologists at the U.P. College of Agriculture
(August 12).
First National Symposium in Philippine Entomology (November 25).
1968 witnessed the founding of the Philippine Entomologist, the country's first journal of entomology, which was
established by the Association of Philippine Entomologists, with L. C. Rimando serving as the first editor.

1970 Cagampang and Darsie published Illustrated Keys to the Anopheles Mosquitoes of the Philippine Islands,
offering comprehensive identification keys for this medically important group of insects.

1971 R. G. Basio's Mosquito Fauna of the Philippines provided an extensive treatment on all mosquito species
reported in the Philippines, including crucial information on their bionomics and vector status.

1976 saw the establishment of the National Crop Protection Center, with Dr. F. F. Sanchez serving as the first
Director.
1978 the first Regional Meeting of the Philippine Association of Entomologists was held in Davao City on February
17.

3. THE IMPORTANCE OF INSECT TO MAN AND AGRICULTURE

Insects play a crucial role in the existence of humanity, with less than 2% of all known insects being harmful. Remarkably, the most
destructive ones often belong to groups that also contain numerous beneficial species.

• Product of Insects
• Raw Silk- It is produced by the silkworm (Bombix mori) during its pupal stage.
• Honeys- Made by pollination of the bees.
• Beeswax- produced by the hypodermal glands of honeybees, finds diverse applications.
• Shellac- secreted by the lac insect (Laccifer lacca) on its back, has numerous uses.
• Certain tropical fireflies' light-producing secretions have potential for minor illumination and might lead to advancements in efficient,
low-heat lighting.
• Cochineal dye- made from dried bodies of the cactus scale insect (Dactylopius coccus), serves as a natural coloring agent.
• The Dobson- a type of insect, is widely used as fish bait, aiding fishing practices.

• Importance of Insects
a. Insect as Pollinator - Many plants, including numerous agricultural crops, depend on insects for pollination.
• Bees, butterflies, flies, and other pollinators transfer pollen from one flower to another, leading to fertilization and the
production of fruits and seeds.
• The pollination of most of our common fruits heavily relies on insects. Insects play a critical role in pollinating fruits like peas,
beans, tomatoes, melons, squash, and numerous other vegetables. Insect visits are essential for the successful "setting" of the
fruits.
• Insects also serve as vital pollinators for many ornamental plants, whether in greenhouses or outdoor environments. Plants like
chrysanthemums, irises, orchids, and others benefit from insect pollination, facilitating their reproduction and ensuring their
beauty thrives.
b. Insect as Biological Control- Insects can act as natural pest controllers by preying on or parasitizing harmful insects that damage crops.
• Insects can act as parasites, living on or inside the bodies of hosts, including their eggs.
• Some insects serve as predators, capturing and consuming other insects.
• Certain insects contribute to weed control; for example, Parenchaetes pseudoinsulata (a Lepidoptera) helps control
Chromolaena odorata (devil weed or hagonoy).

Insects are crucial for scientific investigations due to their unique qualities:

• They are easy to handle, multiply rapidly, exhibit significant variability, and can be kept and reared at a low cost, making them
ideal experimental animals for studying physiology, biochemistry, and ecology.
 • The Pomace fly (Drosophila) has provided valuable insights into heredity and genetics.
c. Insect as Decomposer- Insects, such as dung beetles and carrion beetles, play a critical role in the decomposition process by breaking
down organic matter. They recycle nutrients back into the ecosystem, enriching the soil and supporting plant growth.
d. Insect as source of Food - In many cultures worldwide, insects are consumed as food. Insect consumption, known as entomophagy,
provides a sustainable and nutritious protein source that is less resource-intensive compared to conventional livestock farming. Insects
can be an essential part of addressing global food security challenges.
e. Aesthetic Value- Insects like butterflies, with their captivating features, are often preserved and mounted for decorative purposes,
adding to their aesthetic appeal.
f. Medicinal Value- Certain insects provide substances derived from their physiological actions and behavioral reactions, which are
utilized for medicinal purposes to treat various illnesses and human diseases.
• Bee venom is used to alleviate arthritis symptoms.
• Cantharidin, obtained from the dried bodies of European blister beetles, serves as a remedy for urogenital problems.
• Chitin or its derivatives act as anticoagulants or haemostatic agents for tissue repair in humans, facilitating wound and burn
healing.

• Causes of Insects
Insects can be highly detrimental, causing significant losses each year in agricultural crops, stored products, and the health of humans
and other animals.
a. Insects function as pests of crops and valuable plants through various means:
• Chewing leaves, buds, stems, bark, or fruits.
• Sucking sap from leaves, buds, stems, or fruits.
• Boring or tunneling in bark, stems, or twigs (borers); fruits, nuts, or seeds (worms or weevils); or between leaf surfaces
(leafminers).
• Inducing cancerous growths on plants, within which they live and feed (gall insects).
• Attacking roots and underground stems through the aforementioned methods (subterranean or soil insects).
• Laying their eggs in some part of the plant.
• Utilizing parts of the plant for constructing nests or shelters.
• Introducing and establishing other insects on the plant.
b. Insects also act as pests of humans and other animals, causing issues both in households and veterinary settings.
c. Insects can damage stored products and various possessions belonging to humans.
d. Certain insects serve as vectors of plant pathogens that cause plant diseases:
• Disseminating agents of plant diseases, such as fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and viruses, by injecting them into the plant while
feeding or by creating wounds for disease organisms to enter.
• Facilitating the cross-fertilization of specific rusts, which subsequently cause diseases in plants.
• Significance of Insects
a. Insects hold the position of the dominant group of animals on our planet.
b. They surpass all others in terms of sheer numbers, being the most numerous living creatures.
c. The vastness of their species diversity is astounding, with about three times as many described species compared to the rest of the
animal kingdom.
d. Their remarkable adaptability allows them to thrive in practically every corner of the Earth.
e. From the hottest deserts to the coldest regions, insects demonstrate their ability to inhabit and thrive in diverse environments
worldwide.
f. Insects have been inhabitants of the Earth for approximately 350 million years, a remarkable tenure compared to humans' mere 2 million
years.
g. Maintaining the balance of the global ecosystem, particularly within terrestrial food chains, where insects play crucial roles.
h. Insects serve as essential pollinators for the vast majority of the world's flowering plant species, a critical process that supports the
reproduction and diversity of flora worldwide.
4. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS

Insects, belonging to the class Insecta, derive their name from the Latin word "insectum," which translates to "cut into" or
"segmented." This term aptly describes their segmented body structure. Insects are fascinating creatures and form a substantial portion of the
animal kingdom. They are classified under the Phylum Arthropoda, which stems from the combination of two Greek words: "arthro ," meaning
joint/segment, and "poda," meaning foot/appendage.

Insects, as a diverse group, exhibit a wide range of fascinating characteristics. They possess one pair of antennae, each with unique
shapes, sizes, and segments, which serve as crucial sensory organs for detecting chemical cues and environmental signals. Additionally, insects
have one pair of compound eyes, providing them with a comprehensive view of their surroundings. One of the most distinctive features of
insects is their wings, with some species having one pair while others exhibit two pairs of wings, which act as an addition to their legs. This
ability to fly has enabled insects to explore various habitats and ecological niches.

In terms of respiration, insects rely on tiny holes called spiracles in their body walls. Unlike mammals, they lack lungs; instead,
oxygen is transported directly to their tissues through a system of intricate branching tubes called tracheae. Remarkably, insects do not heavily
rely on a heart or blood for the transport of oxygen, making their circulatory system quite different from vertebrates.

The senses of insects are also remarkable. They can detect smells using their antennae, which are sensitive to chemical cues in the
environment. Moreover, some insects can taste with their feet, allowing them to assess the suitability of their food sources. In terms of
hearing, certain species possess special organs located in their abdomen, antennae, or legs, granting them the ability to perceive auditory
signals and communicate through various sounds and vibrations.

One peculiar characteristic of insects is their exoskeleton, which provides support and protection. However, this outer skeleton also
limits their size, and as a result, some of the larger insect species appear remarkably slender. Despite these limitations, insects have
successfully adapted to an array of ecosystems, becoming one of the most numerous and diverse animal groups on Earth, playing vital roles in
various ecological processes and serving as essential components of many food chains.
Physiology and Behavior of Insects
• Cold-blooded animals have body temperatures closely tied to the outside temperature, enabling them to withstand adverse climatic
conditions.
• Insects possess remarkable reproductive abilities, which depend on factors such as the number of eggs laid by the female, the
generation's length, and the proportion of females per generation.
• Drosophila, for instance, exhibits 25 generations per year, with each generation producing 100 eggs and 50% being females. Over the
course of a year, this can lead to a staggering number of approximately 10^41 individuals. If densely packed, these insects could form a
ball with a diameter of 96 million miles, nearly extending from the Earth to the Sun.
• Insects exhibit complex and fascinating social behaviors, such as the intricate dances of bees.
• Insects have developed diverse defense mechanisms against enemies, including playing dead, camouflage, resembling other animals or
dead twigs, having eye-spots on the wings (seen in butterflies), using chemical warfare (as in stink bugs), possessing mildly toxic body
fluids (like ladybird beetles), and employing biting, stinging, hairs, and other adaptations.
• Insects display unusual strength, capable of lifting up to 50 times their own weight, with some species even able to lift up to 800 times
their weight.

Inventions of Arthropods
• Creating nets to capture prey, as seen in spiders.
• Hornets making paper from wood pulp for constructing their nests.
• Insects constructing elaborate buildings and tending gardens.
• Some insects possess cold light and use chemical warfare as defense mechanisms.
• Insects have solved problems related to aerodynamics and celestial navigation.
• Many insects have intricate navigation systems involving chemicals (pheromones - fruit flies), sound (cicadas, beetles), behavior (honey
bee dance), and light (fireflies).
• Certain insects utilize jet propulsion by taking in and expelling water to aerate their gills in the rectum, as seen in dragonfly nymphs.
• Honey bees engage in "air-conditioning" their hives for temperature regulation.
• Ants are known to farm other animals, such as aphids.

Insects can be distinguished from other arthropods by several distinct features:

• They have three distinct body regions: the head, thorax, and abdomen.
• Insects have three pairs of legs, setting them apart from other arthropods that may have a different number of legs.
• They possess one pair of antennae, which is a unique sensory feature.
• While not always present, insects often have one or two pairs of wings, facilitating flight in many species.
• Insects have two types of eyes, typically compound eyes with numerous lenses and simple eyes (ocelli) that detect light levels and aid
in navigation.

What makes insects a successful group among arthropods?

• Their small size.
• Insects exhibit various habitats and diverse dietary preferences. The extensive development of complete metamorphosis allows
immature and adult insects to specialize in different food sources, enabling them to exploit ephemeral resources with minimal
competition within their own species. Furthermore, insects possess different types of mouthparts, which determine the specific
type of food they can consume.
• Insects display a wide range of developmental stages and types of development.
• Their success is driven by a high rate of reproduction, facilitated by their short developmental period, high fecundity, part henogenesis,
and polyembryony. Additionally, rapid life cycles lead to frequent mutations that can be swiftly selected for and integrated into the
population's gene pool.
• Insects possess great adaptability, allowing them to thrive in various environments and conditions.
• The possession of wings is another crucial factor contributing to their success.
• Insects exhibit highly diverse habits and behaviors, further enhancing their ability to exploit various ecological niches.
• They have the ability to deposit eggs in a wide range of locations.
• An essential aspect of their success is their hard exoskeleton, providing both protection and structural support.

Classes of Arthropod

a. Class Arachnida- comprises adults without antennae and possessing 4 pairs of legs. Examples include Mites, Ticks, Spiders, and
Scorpions.

Spider
b. Class Chilopoda- characterized by a flattened body and one pair of legs per body segment, (Example: Centipedes a.k.a. “alupihan”,
Centi implies 100 legs).

Centipedes
 c. Class Diplopoda- consists of cylindrical worms with 2 pairs of legs per segment and a coiling habit resembling a ring. (Example: Millipedes
or “singsing-ita”).

Millipedes

d. Class Crustacea- includes adults with two pairs of antennae and varying numbers of legs. (Example: Crayfish, Shrimps, Crabs, Sowbug-
babuy-babuyan, and Copepod water flea/dapiya).

Sowbug

[Link] Insecta- characterized by adults bearing 3 pairs of legs, a pair of antennae, and simple and compound eyes. These insects exhibit
diverse mouth types and have bodies composed of 3 distinct regions. (Example: Butterfly/Moth, Dragonfly, Earwigs, Praying man tis,
Beetles, Bugs etc.

Coconut Rhinoceros Beetle

5. GENERAL STRUCTURE OF INSECT

The insect body is divided into three distinct regions or tagmata (HEAD, THORAX AND ABDOMEN), each serving specific functions:

External Features of the Grasshopper

THE MAIN BODY REGIONS OF INSECT

A. INSECT HEAD – is the foremost region of the insect's body, where the eyes, antennae, and mouthparts are attached. The eyes allow the
insect to perceive its environment, while the antennae function as sensory organs, detecting chemical cues and other stimuli. The
mouthparts are adapted for various feeding behaviors, depending on the insect's species.
 Types of Insect Head
1. Hypognathous- head vertical and mouthparts directed downward, and the cranium corresponds to the body segments
(Example: grasshopper, cockroach, mantids, larvae of moths and butterflies)

2. Prognathous- head horizontal and the jaws directed forward. The cranium is turned upward on the neck so that the
mouthparts are directed forward (Example: carabid beetle, termites and ground beetle)

3. Opisthognathous/Opisthorrynchus- posterior ventral position of the mouthparts resulting from a deflection of the facial
region (Example: Cicada, Plant hoppers, leaf hoppers and bugs).

Parts of Insect Head

1. Insect Eyes
• This visual organ, found in arthropods such as insects and crustaceans, is known for its remarkable capabilities.
• Composed of thousands of tiny light detectors closely packed together, it enables arthropods to perceive their
surroundings with exceptional clarity and sensitivity.
• This sophisticated visual system plays a crucial role in helping these creatures avoid sudden attacks from hungry
predators, giving them a significant survival advantage in their respective environments.

Types of Eyes
a. Simple Eye- refers to an eye structure comprising a single ocellus. This type of eye is commonly found in adult
insects and the larvae of hemimetabolous insects. Simple eyes are primarily used as light intensity monitors and
are not believed to play a role in forming detailed images.
b. Compound Eye- is a large eye located on the head of adult insects. It is composed of several thousand individual
eye units known as ommatidia, which typically perceive light and dark areas rather than detailed images. Each
ommatidium is capable of capturing visual information, and the combination of multiple ommatidia allows
insects to have a comprehensive visual perception of their surroundings.
2. Insect Antennae
• Paired, segmented appendages situated on the head, commonly found between or below the compound eyes in
many insects.
• These sensory organs serve multiple functions, including the detection of odor molecules in the air, acting as
humidity detectors, sensing sounds (as in the case of mosquitoes), and even gauging airspeed during flight (as seen
in flies).

Function of Antennae
• In fleas and Collembola, antennae play a vital role in mating.
• Antennae serve as sensory organs, enabling insects to perceive their environment and sense various stimuli.
• In certain species like male Lepidoptera and male mosquitoes, antennae function as secondary sexual
characteristics, playing a role in attracting potential mates.
• Antennae aid insects in finding their way and detecting potential dangers in their surroundings.
• They are instrumental in locating sources of food and identifying the presence of the opposite sex for mating
purposes.
• Ants use their antennae for communication with one another.
• In insects like the housefly, antennae bear olfactory organs, allowing them to detect scents and smells.
• Some insects, such as male mosquitoes, possess chordotonal organs in their antennae, enabling them to hear
sounds.
• Antennae can detect humidity levels in the environment.
• During mating, insects may use their antennae to grasp and hold onto the opposite sex.
 • Mantids employ their antennae to help capture prey effectively.

Parts of Antennae
• Scape - is the basal segment of the antenna, articulating with the head capsule. It is typically noticeably longer
than the other segments.
• Pedicel- which is the second segment of the antenna, houses a specialized sensory organ known as Johnson's
organ. This enables the insect to hear sounds.
• Flagellum- refers collectively to all the remaining "segments" of the antenna, each of which is individually
called a flagellomere.
The flagellum can be divided into three distinct parts:
• Ring joints- These are small, ring-like segments located at the base of the flagellum.
• Club- The club refers to the swollen or enlarged distal segments of the antenna.
• Funicle- The funicle consists of segments positioned between the ring joints and the club

Structure of Insect Antenna

Types of Antennae

Type Description Insect Appearance

Capitate abrupt clubbed end Lepidoptera- Butterflies

Geniculate hinged or bent like an elbow Hymenoptera - Bees, Carpenter Ants

Clavate gradually clubbed at the end Coleoptera - Carrion Beetles

Filiform thread-like shape Coleoptera - Ground Beetles,

Orthoptera - Grasshoppers

Lamellate last three segments extend on Coleoptera- Scarab Beetles

one side, forming a leaf-like or
plate-like structure

Pectinate comb-like shape Coleoptera - Fireflies

Setaceous bristle-like shape Odonata - Dragonflies, Damselflies

Moniliform bead-like shape resembling a Isoptera – Termites

necklace
 Serrate saw-toothed shape Coleoptera- Click Beetles

Plumose feather-like shape Mosquitoes

Aristate pouch-like with a lateral Houseflies

bristle

Stylate with 3 segments, the tip Leafhopper

featuring a long bristle known
as a style

3. Insect Mouth
• is a crucial adaptation that enables insects to exploit various food resources and occupy diverse ecological niches.

Mouthparts of Insect
• Labrum (Upper lip) - Positioned below the clypeus on the front side of the head, the labrum is situated in
front of the other mouthpart structures. It acts as the insect's upper lip.
• Mandibles - These are paired, heavily sclerotized, un-segmented jaws located immediately behind the labrum.
Depending on the insect's feeding habits, mandibles can serve different purposes. They may bear both cutting
and grinding ridges, functioning as chewing mouthparts, or they can be elongate and stylet-like for piercing
and sucking, as seen in insects with sucking mouthparts.
• Maxillae - Positioned behind the mandibles, the maxillae are paired structures that bear feeler-like organs
called palps. These palps aid in sensing and manipulating food during feeding.
• Labium (Lower lip) - The labium is a single structure lying behind the maxillae and is divided into several
segments. Similar to the maxillae, it also bears feeler-like structures (palps) that assist in the insect's feeding
process.
• Hypopharynx - Assisting in the manipulation and processing of food, work in coordination with other
mouthparts, Helps guiding the food towards the esophagus.

Insect mouthparts

Primary types of insect mouthparts

Type Description Insect Appearance

Mandibulate (feeding mainly on solid food)
Chewing - ideal for biting and grinding solid food grasshoppers, dragonflies, and
items. beetles
- heavily sclerotized mandibles that move
sideways,
 Chewing-Lapping - maxilla and labium are modified into Honeybees
flattened elongate structures
- used to probe deep into blossoms for
nectar collection.

Mandibulosuctorial - Combine characteristics of both Antlions

mandibulate and suctorial mouthparts

- allow them to grasp and pierce their prey

with their mandibles while also sucking out
the body fluids for feeding.

Haustellate (feeding mainly on liquid food)

Piercing-sucking - presence of a tubular, usually jointed beak Hemipterous (Bugs)
that encloses several needle-like stylets. Dipterous (Mosquitoes and cicadas)

Rasping-Sucking - short, stout, and asymmetrical conical Thrips

structure located ventrally at the rear of the
head, along with three stylets.

Sponging - distinguished by the end of the labium Houseflies

being specialized into a sponge-like organ
known as the labellum.

Siphoning - involve the galea of the maxillae being Butterflies

greatly elongated and joined to form a
slender hollow tube, commonly known as
the proboscis.

- tube is coiled up under the insect's head.

b. INSECT THORAX- is the middle region of the insect's body and is responsible for bearing the wings (if present) and three pairs of legs. Insects
use their wings for flight in winged species, facilitating their movement through the air. The legs play a crucial role in locomotion and are
adapted to the insect's specific lifestyle, such as walking, jumping, or swimming.

Segments of the Thorax

1. Prothorax
• The foremost segment of the thorax and is associated with the insect's first pair of segmented legs.
• It is responsible for supporting and facilitating the movement of the front legs, allowing the insect to walk and manipulate
objects in its environment.
2. Mesothorax
• The middle segment of the thorax and is characterized by the presence of the insect's second pair of segmented legs.
 • Houses the first pair of spiracles, which serve as openings for the respiratory system.
• One of the most significant features of the mesothorax is that it bears the forewings, which are responsible for generating lift
during flight.
3. Metathorax
• The hindmost segment of the thorax and hosts the insect's third pair of segmented legs.
• Contains the second pair of spiracles, providing further respiratory functionality.
• Bears the hindwings, the second pair of wings that, in most winged insects, play a crucial role in flight stabilization and
maneuvering.

Parts of the Insect Thorax

Appendages in Insect Thorax
1. Wings - In insects, wings serve various purposes, functioning as organs of flight, protective covers in certain species (e.g.,
coleopterans, dermapterans), thermal collectors in others (e.g., Lepidopterans), gyroscopic stabilizers (e.g., Dipterans), sound
producers (e.g., Orthopterans), and visual cues for species recognition and sexual contact.

Types of Wing Development

• Apterous - refers to insects that lack wings entirely.
• Brachypterous - describes insects with reduced or shortened wings.
• Macropterous - indicates insects with well-developed and fully functional wings.
• Wing Pads - found in nymphs of Exopterygota, wing pads are early developmental structures that will later mature into
fully formed wings.

Cells of Wings
• Open Cells- These areas extend to the margin of the wing and are not completely surrounded by veins.
• Closed Cells- These areas are completely surrounded by veins, creating a closed structure on the wing.

Types of Insect Wings

Type Description Insect Appearance

Elytra - are hard, sclerotized front wings. Beetles (Coleoptera)
- serve as protective covers for the
membranous hindwings, providing defense
and shielding.

Fringed wings - maxilla and labium are modified into Thrips (Thysanoptera)
flattened elongate structures
- used to probe deep into blossoms for
nectar collection.

Hemelytra - front wings that exhibit a unique True bugs (Hemiptera)

combination of leathery or parchment-like
texture at the base and a membranous
structure at the tip

- wings allow for both protection and

efficient flying.

Membranous with Scales - possess wings covered with a powder-like Butterflies, moths, and skippers
substance known as scales. (Lepidoptera)
 Haltere - small, knob-like structures known as Flies (Diptera)
halteres, which serve as gyroscopic organs,
aiding in their flight stability and
maneuverability.

Hamuli/ - possess soft, flexible, and translucent or Bees (Hymenoptera), dragonflies,

Membranous Wings transparent wings with prominent wing damselflies (Odonata), and
veins. lacewings (Neuroptera)

-lightweight and enable agile flight.

Tegmina - Have front wings called tegmina, which are Grasshoppers and mantises
completely leathery or parchment-like in (Orthoptera)
texture

-providing protection and support during

flight.

- tube is coiled up under the insect's head.

Hairy Wings exhibit hairy wings, with both front and Caddisflies (Trichoptera)
hind wings covered in setae.

- fine hair-like structures that aid in

aerodynamics and sensory perception

Frenulum bristle known as a frenulum near the base Lepidopterans (butterflies and
of the hindwing, which holds the front and moths)
hind wings together during flight, ensuring
synchronization and efficiency in their wing
movement.

2. Legs- most insects possess three pairs of walking legs, one pair on each thoracic segment.
The term "pretarsus" encompasses the tarsus's terminal segment and any additional structures attached to it,
including:
• Ungues- A pair of claws
• Arolium- A lobe or adhesive pad situated between the claws
• Empodium- A sizable bristle or lobe positioned between the claws
• Pulvilli- A pair of adhesive pads located at the claws' base

Typically, all three pairs of legs are employed for running and walking. While the middle legs tend to maintain a
relatively straightforward structure, the fore and hind legs can become significantly modified and specialized to align with the
insect's specific way of life.

Each leg comprises five structural components (segments) that articulate with hinge joints:
a. Coxa - 1st basal segment, Large, elongated and attached with body by coxal corium membrane.
b. Trochanter - Small, Triangular segment, Fixed with femur
c. Femur - Long and thick segment, fishbone provided muscles on it, narrows towards apex, Femasulcus and Brunners
organ on it.
d. Tibia - Long, slender, spines over it and strong spurs at apex
e. Tarsus - 3 segmented, 1st segment longer than 2nd, 3rd segment largest, Plantulae present, Claws present and
Arolium.
 The Insect Leg

Types of Insect Legs

Type Description Insect Appearance

Cursorial/Gressorial - with slender and long tibiae Cockroach, ground beetles
(Running/Walking)

Raptorial (Grasping) - Forelegs armed with opposing spines and Praying Mantis
spurs

Natatorial (Swimming legs) - Segments of forelegs flattened and with long Diving Beetles, water beetles
hairs

Pollen Gathering - Hind tibiae clothed with hairs Bees

Fossorial - Forelegs with scraper-like parts Mole Cricket

(Digging legs)
 Saltatorial -Enlarged hind femur Grasshoppers
(Jumping legs)

Stridulatorial leg - Series of pegs on femur of hind legs (rubbed Field cricket
against edge of wing covers to produce
sound)
- tube is coiled up under the insect's head.

Scansorial - End of tarsus of prothoracic leg is a hook-like Human louse, Hog louse
(Clinging legs) structure used for clinging to host

c. INSECT ABDOMEN - is the hindmost region of the insect's body. In this region, the genitalia are located, essential for the insect's reproductive
functions. Additionally, other appendages, such as cerci, may be associated with the abdomen. Cerci are sensory structures that help the insect
detect changes in its surroundings.

Abdomen of an Insect

The insect's abdomen constitutes the third functional region (tagma) of its body, positioned immediately behind the thorax. The
connection between the thorax and abdomen is generally broad in most insects, yet in certain groups, it becomes narrow, creating a
"wasp-waist" appearance. It's widely believed that insects evolved from primitive arthropod ancestors with abdomens consisting of eleven
segments. While some present-day insects, such as silverfish and mayflies, still retain all these segments or their remnants, natural
selection in more advanced or specialized groups has led to a reduction in segment number, sometimes as few as six or seven, seen in
beetles and flies.

Each abdominal segment comprises a dorsal sclerite called the tergum and a ventral sclerite named the sternum. These are
connected laterally through a pleural membrane. The anterior margins of each segment can often "telescope" inside the sclerites of the
preceding segment, allowing the abdomen to expand and contract through the actions of skeletal muscles.

In many adult insects, the first eight abdominal segments on each side typically possess a spiracle, which is an opening to the
respiratory system. Some spiracles might be permanently closed but still marked by a dimple in the sclerite.

Towards the rear of the abdomen, the anus, the rear opening of the digestive system, is situated between three protective
sclerites: a dorsal epiproct and a pair of lateral paraprocts. Close to the anterior margin of the paraprocts, a pair of sensory organs known
as cerci may be found. These cerci function as tactile receptors, perceiving touch. They're often considered a "primitive" trait due to their
absence in hemipteroid and holometabolous orders.
Functions of Abdomen
a. Reproduction - One of the primary functions of the abdomen is reproduction. In female insects, it houses the reproductive organs,
including ovaries where eggs are produced and stored. Male insects often possess specialized structures on their abdomen for
transferring sperm during copulation. The abdomen's role in reproduction extends to the oviposition process, where females lay eggs
in suitable environments for the next generation.
b. Protection - The abdomen plays a role in protecting vital internal organs and delicate structures. In certain insects, the abdomen might
be equipped with specialized plates, such as elytra in beetles, which act as shields guarding against physical damage and environmental
stresses. The arrangement of abdominal segments can also contribute to the overall body's protection, ensuring internal organs remain
safeguarded.
c. Digestion - Although the primary digestive processes occur in the insect's midgut located in the thorax, the abdomen can also
contribute to digestion. In some insects, the abdominal segments house digestive glands that produce enzymes to aid in food
breakdown. Additionally, the abdomen provides a space for food storage before it's passed through the digestive system, ensuring a
continuous supply of nutrients for energy and growth.

Abdominal Structure of Insects

a. Pincers: In earwigs (Dermaptera), the cerci are robustly sclerotized and resemble forceps. They primarily serve in defense but also play
a role in courtship behaviors and sometimes assist in folding the wings.
.

b. Median Caudal Filament: This thread-like projection emerges from the center of the last abdominal segment, positioned between the
cerci. This feature is exclusive to "primitive" insect orders such as Diplura, Thysanura, and Ephemeroptera.

c. Cornicles: These paired secretory structures are located dorsally on aphid abdomens. Cornicles produce substances that repel
predators or induce protective behavior from symbiotic ants.
 d. Abdominal Prolegs: Locomotory appendages resembling fleshy legs are found only in the larvae of specific orders like Lepidoptera, as
well as in Mecoptera and some Hymenoptera.

e. Sting: Exclusive to the females of aculeate Hymenoptera, such as bees, ants, and predatory wasps, the sting is a modified ovipositor
that functions primarily in defense and prey capture.

f. Abdominal Gills: Aquatic insect nymphs (naiads) have abdominal gills serving as respiratory organs. Mayfly (Ephemeroptera) nymphs
possess paired gills along the sides of each abdominal segment, while damselfly (Odonata) nymphs' gills are located at the end of the
abdomen.

g. Furcula: Found in Collembola, commonly known as springtails, the furcula is a specialized jumping organ located on the ventral side of
the fifth abdominal segment. A clasp known as the tenaculum, situated on the third abdominal segment, holds the furcula in a
"cocked" position, facilitating their characteristic jumping motion.

h. Collophore: A peg-like structure on the ventral side of the first abdominal segment in Collembola, the collophore seems to regulate
water absorption from the environment, contributing to their water balance and homeostasis.

Types of Insect Larva

Type Description Common Name Appearance

Eruciform - body shape is cylindrical, featuring short Caterpillar
thoracic legs and possessing 2 to 10 pairs (Ex. moths and butterflies)
of fleshy abdominal prolegs.

Campodeiform - elongated and flattened body form, Crawler (Lady beetle, lace wings)
accompanied by noticeable antennae
and/or cerci.
- thoracic legs are specialized for efficient
running

Scarabaeiform body is sturdy and takes on a "C" shape, White grub (June beetle, dung
characterized by the absence of beetle)
abdominal prolegs and the presence of
short thoracic legs.
 Elateriform body is elongated, sleek, and cylindrical, Wireworm
characterized by a sturdy exoskeleton and (Ex. Click beetle, Flour beetle)
extremely abbreviated thoracic legs.

Vermiform body is soft and worm-like in appearance, Maggot

lacking a distinct head capsule and walking (Ex. Housefly, flesh fly)
legs.

Categories of Insect Pupa

Type Description Common Name Appearance

Obtect - closely pressed against the body and Chrysalis
shielded by a protective shell-like covering. (Butterflies and moths)
This arrangement is frequently observed
enclosed within a silken cocoon.

Exarate - All growing appendages are unattached None

and observable from the outside. (Beetles, Lacewings)

Coarctate - body is enveloped by the tough Puparium

exoskeleton during the penultimate larval (Flies)
stage.

6. INSECT METAMORPHOSIS

Metamorphosis refers to the transformation of an organism's body shape or characteristics as it undergoes growth and maturation.

Certain animals, particularly insects, exhibit a distinct form of metamorphosis, wherein they possess one type of body during their early stages
of life and then undergo a significant change to develop a completely different body structure when they reach adulthood.

Terms to Remember:
• Ecdysis- also known as molting, is the biological process through which insects shed their old exoskeleton (cuticle) to create
enough room for growth.
• Exuviae refer to the remains of the old skin (cuticle) that are left behind after molting.
• Stadium- represents the entire period between two consecutive molts.
• Instar- Is the actual insect during a stadium (stages between molts of the exoskeleton).

Types of Metamorphosis
a. Incomplete Metamorphosis- Has 3 stages of Development (Egg-Nymph-Adult), with the adult looks much the same in the
appearance of the insect during the nymph stage.

Life cycle of the Grasshopper

Kinds of Incomplete Metamorphosis

• Paurometabola- gradual metamorphosis, the immature stages of the insects is nymphs, they live in the same habitat
and taking the same food as adults (Example: Grasshopper, Cockroaches, Termites, Mole cricket etc.).
• Ametabola- No metamorphosis, they lack of genitalia and its immature stages appear very similar to the adults
(Example: Silverfish and springtails).
 • Hemimetabola- The immature stage is called naiad (aquatic larva). They have a gills at the accessory glands (Example:
dragonfly, damselfly and mayfly).

b. Complete Metamorphosis- It involves a significant transformation through four distinct stages namely Egg-Larva-Pupa-Adult.

Life cycle of the Beetle

• Holometabolous- type of development observed in certain insects and other arthropods, such as butterflies, moths,
beetles, flies, and bees.

O. CLASSIFICATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF INSECTS

Taxonomy serves as a foundational aspect of entomology, encompassing the precise naming and identification of species. When we
ascertain the specific species under consideration, we gain access to comprehensive information about it. For example, upon identifying a particular
fruit fly infesting a crop, we can acquire knowledge about its life cycle, host plants, distribution, and other aspects of its biology, facilitating effective
management strategies.

Systematics refers to the scientific examination of the various organisms and their diversity, along with the exploration of
interrelationships among them (Mayr and Ashlock, 1991). The term originates from the Greek word "systema," applied to classification systems. This
field involves the arrangement and hierarchy of taxa. Insects are generally classified into orders, families, genera, and species. Described insects are
assigned both common and scientific names. Illustrated by the classification of the corn aphid, the major categories are as follows:

Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Homoptera
Family: Aphididae
Genus: Rhopalosiphum
Species: maidis

It's worth noting that each category comprises a single word, except for the species category. The scientific name of a species is binomial,
composed of two names – a genus and a specific name or epithet. Unlike other categories, the specific name cannot stand alone and must be used in
conjunction with the genus name.

The framework of binomial nomenclature employed in modern classification was pioneered by the Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus.
Linnaeus introduced this system in 1758. Scientific names are typically rendered in a Latinized form. The scientific name assigned to a species is
consistently presented in italics when printed, or underlined if handwritten, signifying italics. Capital letters initiate the names of genera and higher
taxonomic categories, whereas the names of species and subspecies consistently commence with lowercase letters.

Different Orders of the Class Insecta (After Mackerras, 1970)

1. Subclass Apterygota- primitive wingless insect

a. Protura (Silvestri, 1907)

Protura, deriving from the Greek words "proto-" (meaning first or original) and "ura" (meaning tail), are unique arthropods
characterized by the absence of antennae and compound eyes. Their front legs are directed forward, likely serving a sensory function.
The abdomen consists of 9-12 complete segments, and they lack cerci and abdominal filaments. Notably, they possess a telson-like
structure at the posterior end, emphasizing their distinctive morphology.

b. Collembola (Silvestri 1907)

Collembola, whose name originates from the Greek "coll" (meaning glue) and "embol" (meaning a wedge), are commonly known as
springtails. These arthropods lack both compound and simple eyes and possess filliform antennae. Their six-segmented abdomen is
frequently covered with scales, contributing to their appearance. Springtails are characterized by their ability to leap using a specialized
structure called a furcula, making them ecologically intriguing.

c. Diplura (Boerner 1904)

Diplura, coined from the Greek "diplo-" (meaning two) and "ura" (meaning tails), are small, eyeless arthropods. They feature a pair of
long beaded antennae (moniliform) on the head and segmented sensory structures known as cerci. Diplura exhibit a long and slender
or forceps-like appearance, with one-segmented tarsi. Their distinct morphology sets them apart in the arthropod world.

d. Thysanura (Latreille 1976)

Thysanura, named based on the Greek "thysano-" (meaning fringed) and "ura" (meaning tail), encompass arthropods like silverfish and
bristletails. These creatures possess a relatively flat and tapered body covered with scales. Their long, thread-like, and multi-segmented
antennae are a notable feature. The abdomen consists of ten complete segments, contributing to their characteristic look.

e. Zoraptera (Silvestri 1913)

 Zoraptera, deriving from the Greek "zor" (meaning pure) and "aptera" (meaning wingless), are intriguing insects. They feature
moniliform antennae with nine segments and often lack wings or have reduced venation when present. Zorapterans have distinctive
long stylus and short unsegmented cerci, making them stand out within the insect world.
f. Phthiaraptera or Lice Insect
The taxonomic category of Order Phthiraptera, commonly referred to as lice, encompasses diminutive, flattened insects devoid of wings,
functioning as ectoparasites on a wide range of birds and mammals, including humans. These insects possess mouthparts adapted either
for chewing or for sucking, depending on their specific ecological niches. Notable examples of lice that infest humans are Ph thirus pubis,
known as the crab louse, and Pediculus humanus, which comprises both body and head lice.
Suborders of Phthiaraptera
• Mallophaga (Nitzsch 1818)
Commonly known as chewing/biting lice, exhibit a biting type of mouthparts. They possess a broad head, short filiform
antennae with 3-5 segments, and clinging legs. These lice typically have reduced or absent eyes and 1- or 2-segmented tarsi
with two small claws. They are often associated with various bird and mammal hosts.
• Anoplura (Leach 1815)
Characterized by their piercing-sucking mouthparts, narrower head compared to the thorax, and their status as external
parasites of mammals. They have one-segmented tarsi with a single large claw, which helps them cling to their hosts. These
parasites are well-known for their association with mammals, including humans.
g. Siphonaptera (Latreille 1825)
Siphonaptera, known as fleas, derive their name from the Greek "siphon" (meaning a tube or pipe) and "aptera" (meaning wingless).
They have short setaceous antennae and a bilaterally flattened body. Their mouthparts are adapted for piercing and sucking, and they
often possess large bristles (ctenidia) on the head or thorax. Fleas are renowned for their jumping ability, facilitated by their enlarged
hind femur.
2. Subclass Pterygota- Winged insect
a. Ephemeroptera (Haeckel 1896)
Ephemeroptera, commonly known as mayflies, derive their name from the Greek words "ephemera," meaning short-lived, and
"ptera," meaning wings. Their antennae are short and setaceous, and they possess four to nine pairs of leaf-like or fan-like gills along
the sides of the abdomen. Mayflies have large triangular front wings and smaller, fan-shaped hind wings. Notably, three long
filaments extend from the rear of their abdomen. Despite their brief adult lifespan, mayflies play a crucial role in aquatic ecosystems.

Adult Mayflies
b. Odonata (Fabricius 1793)
The term Odonata stems from the Greek word "odonto," referring to the strong teeth found on the mandibles of most adult
dragonflies and damselflies. They have short, setaceous antennae, large compound eyes, and four membranous wings. Their
mouthparts are adapted for chewing. Odonata are known for their remarkable flight agility and often use their legs as either a basket
for catching prey or as grappling tools to cling to emergent vegetation (Example: Dragonflies and Damselflies)

Adult Dragonfly
c. Plecoptera (Burmeister 1839)
They named after the Greek words "pleco," meaning folded, and "ptera," meaning wing, which alludes to their pleated hind wings.
They have long, filiform antennae, and their front wings are long and narrow. With flattened bodies, stoneflies are adapted to life in
aquatic environments and play roles as indicators of water quality.

Adult stonefly
d. Grylloblatodea
Grylloblatodea, including rock crawlers and icebugs, combine "gryll," referring to crickets, and "blatta," meaning cockroach, in their
name. They feature slender, filiform antennae, chewing mouthparts, and cylindrical bodies. These insects are secondarily wingless and
have distinctive 5-segmented tarsi. They inhabit cold, rocky habitats, exhibiting adaptations to survive in harsh environments (Example:
Rock Crawlers and Icebugs).

Nymph of Ice bug

e. Orthoptera (Olivier 1789)
Grasshoppers, Locusts, Crickets, Katydids Orthoptera originates from the Greek words "ortho," meaning straight, and "ptera," meaning
wing. They have filiform antennae and possess slender, thickened front wings that fold back over the abdomen to protect their
membranous hind wings. Their chewing mouthparts and powerful hind legs adapted for jumping are characteristic features.
Grasshoppers, locusts, crickets, and katydids are well-known examples of Orthoptera.

Nymph of Grasshopper

f. Phasmatodea (Jacobi and Bianchi 1905)

They are commonly known as stick insects or leaf insects, derive their name from the Greek word "phasm," meaning phantom. They
have short filiform antennae and chewing mouthparts. These insects have long, cylindrical bodies, and species like stick insects have
elongated meso and meta thoraxes, while leaf insects possess broader ones. Their appearance often resembles plant parts, aiding in
camouflage. (Example: Walkingsticks , Stick Insects, Leaf Insects).

The walking stick insect

g. Dermaptera (Leach 1815)
They have a name rooted in the Greek words "derma," meaning skin, and "ptera," meaning wings. Active at night, earwigs possess
chewing mouthparts and slender, long filiform antennae. Their forewings are short, thick, and veinless, while their hind wings are
membranous and fold under the forewings. They exhibit diverse behaviors and often have a pair of prominent cerci at the end of their
abdomen.

Adult earwig

h. Embioptera (Shipley 1904)

From the Greek words "embio," meaning lively, and "ptera," meaning wings. They feature slender, filiform antennae, chewing
mouthparts, and 3-segmented tarsi bearing silk glands. Asymmetrical circi, paired appendages, are characteristic of embiids (Example:
Webspinners and Embiids).

Adult Webspinner

i. Dictyoptera/Blattodea (Brunner 1882)

The term Dictyoptera is derived from "blattodea," the Greek word for cockroach. They have slender, filiform antennae and possess a
large plate of exoskeleton (the pronotum) covering much of the head and thorax. Their legs are adapted for running, and front wings
are thickened, while hind wings are membranous and pleated. A stylus is present at the 9th abdominal segment.

Adult of Cockroach
j. Isoptera (Brulle 1832)
Combines "iso," meaning equal, and "ptera," meaning wings. Termites have large, cylindrical or small round heads, long moniliform
antennae, and compound eyes. They exhibit two pairs of membranous wings during their reproductive stages.
 Termite
k. Mantodea (Burmeister 1838)
Commonly known as praying mantises, are intriguing insects characterized by their distinctive features. Their head boasts a triangular
shape, hosting robust chewing mouthparts that define their predatory nature. Their keen compound eyes provide them with acute
visual perception, aiding in hunting. The prothorax, elongated and graceful, supports their remarkable flexibility and swift movements.
However, it is their formidable front legs that steal the spotlight – large and spiny, perfectly adapted for capturing prey with a raptorial
strike. These legs, resembling delicate yet powerful weapons, highlight the mantids' adeptness at ambush and stealth.

Adult Praying Mantis

l. Psocoptera (Shipley 1904)

Derive their name from the Greek words "psokos," meaning rubbed, and "ptera," meaning wings. They possess prominent heads, long
filiform antennae, and 2- or 3-segmented tarsi. Some species are wingless (Example: Psocids , Barklice and Booklice

Psocid

m. Hemiptera (Linnaeus 1758)

In the world of insects, all members classified as bugs exhibit a notable adaptation where their mouthparts have evolved into a
distinctive beak or rostrum. Among adult bugs, a common characteristic is the presence of two pairs of wings, although exceptions
include certain wingless and sessile species like scale insects. This group of insects plays a significant role in agricultur e, as many of
them employ their specialized piercing and sucking mouthparts to feed on plant fluids, often causing damage to crops. Moreover,
some bugs serve as vectors for plant virus diseases, posing additional challenges for agricultural management. Nevertheless, there are
also beneficial aspects within this group. A subset of bugs acts as predators, preying upon pests that harm crops, while others serve as
effective control agents, aiding in the management of alien invasive weeds.

Sub orders of Hemiptera

• Heteroptera (Latreille 1810)
Commonly known as true bugs, belong to the order Hemiptera and are distinguished by their intriguing characteristics. The
name "Heteroptera" originates from the Greek words "hetero-" meaning different and "ptera" meaning wings, reflecting their
distinct wing structure. These insects possess long and slender antennae, typically composed of 4 to 5 segments, contributing
to their sensory perception. Their proboscis, consisting of 3 to 4 segments, emerges from the front of the head and serves
various feeding functions. Notably, their tarsi – the end segments of their legs – are either 2- or 3-segmented, emphasizing
their diverse leg morphology. Remarkably, Heteroptera lack cerci, which are tail-like appendages found in other insects.

True bug

• Homoptera
a diverse group of insects encompassing plant hoppers, whiteflies, aphids, and jasids, cicadas, treehoppers, leafhoppers,
spittlebugs, lanternflies, jumping plant lice, whiteflies, mealybugs and scales showcases a range of distinctive characteristics
that set them apart. These insects share common traits, including short setaceous antennae that adorn their heads. Their
feeding habits are marked by piercing-sucking mouthparts, enabling them to extract nutrients from plants.

Aphid

n. Thysanoptera (Haliday 1836)

 Originate from the Greek words "thysanos," meaning fringe, and "ptera," meaning wings. They have short moniliform antennae,
cylindrical or spindle-shaped bodies, and rod-like front and hind wings with fringes of long hairs.

Thrip

o. Neuroptera (Linnaeus 1758)

A diverse insect order that includes lacewings, antlions, dobsonflies, alderflies, and snakeflies, derives its name from the Greek words
"neuron," meaning sinew, and "ptera," meaning wings. These insects are characterized by their long setaceous antennae and chewing
mouthparts. The front and hind wings are membranous and similar in size, showcasing intricate venation patterns.

Antlion Insect
p. Coleoptera (Linnaeus 1758)
Also known as beetles and weevils, this largest order within Insecta draws its name from the Greek "koleos," meaning sheath, and
"ptera," meaning wings. Most beetles possess a hard exoskeleton, and their front wings, known as elytra, are tough and serve as
protective covers for the membranous hind wings.

Adult Asiatic Rhinoceros beetle

q. Mecoptera (Packard 1886, Comstock 1895)

Boast elongated heads with slender chewing mouthparts and narrow, elongated wings of similar size. Strepsiptera, the twisted-wing
parasites or stylopids, have large fan-shaped hind wings, small club-like front wings, and unique haltere-like forewings (Example:
Scorpionflies and Hangingflies).

Adult Scorpion fly

r. Diptera (Linnaeus 1758)

The true flies including mosquitoes and midges, feature antennae of varying types and suctorial mouthparts. They possess a single pair
of large front wings and reduced hind wings called halteres (Example: True Flies / Mosquitoes / Gnats / Midges).

Adult of Mosquito insect

s. Lepidoptera (Linnaeus 1758)

Encompassing butterflies and moths, gets its name from the Greek "lepido," meaning scale, and "ptera," meaning wings. Their
mouthparts form a coiled tube beneath the head, and they exhibit distinct antennal type (Example: Butterflies / Moths)
 Adult Butterfly
t. Trichoptera (Kirby 1813
Originates from the fusion of the Greek words "trichos," signifying hair, and "ptera," denoting wings. These insects are characterized by
distinct features, such as their setaceous antennae, and the reduction or vestigial nature of their mouthparts. The Trichoptera exhibit a
unique wing structure, with two pairs of wings adorned with lengthy hairs. These wings are held in a tent-like manner over the insect's
abdomen, contributing to their distinctive appearance and behavior.

Adult Caddisfly

u. Hymenoptera (Linnaeus 1758)

An order of insects encompassing diverse species such as ants, wasps, bees, sawflies, and horntails, derives its name from the Greek
"hymen" denoting membrane and "ptera" signifying wings. These insects feature well-developed compound eyes, typically possess
five-segmented tarsi, and sport a distinctive triangular stigma on their front wings. Notably, their hind wings are generally smaller than
their front wings. Hymenopterans are characterized by geniculate antennae and display varied mouthpart adaptations for sucking,
licking, or chewing, shaping their feeding behaviors and ecological roles (Example: Ants / Wasps / Bees / Sawflies / Horntails).

Young Ant

P. INSECT PESTS OF MAJOR CROPS AND STORED PRODUCTS

1. The Concept of a Pest

The concept of pests and the various kinds of pests is a perspective that revolves around human interests. A pest is an organism that interacts with
limited resources like food, shelter, or fiber in a way that diminishes their availability, quality, or value for humans. These organisms can span
across different classes or phyla; they include insects, mites, nematodes, mollusks, other invertebrates, vertebrates like rodents and birds,
pathogenic microorganisms affecting important plants and animals, as well as weeds. The undesirable traits of these organisms stem from their
diverse behaviors.

Pest-related issues often arise when the population of a particular species remains unusually dense for a specific reason. The cha racterization of a
pest is subjective and is based on its capacity to cause harm to humans, their crops, livestock, or property. In the field of agronomy, an insect
qualifies as a pest if the damage it inflicts on crops or livestock leads to a reduction in both yield and quality of the harvested product. This
reduction is significant enough to be considered unacceptable to the farmer.

2. Kinds of Strategist in Insect Pest

a. r-strategists
Insect pests as r-strategists exhibit high reproductive rates coupled with low survival rates. These pests inundate their environments with
a constant influx of new individuals, which can lead to overwhelming population growth. As a result, they have the potential to cause
significant losses. One prime example of an r-strategist is the aphid, which reproduces prolifically but faces challenges in terms of
individual survival.

b. k-strategists
Insect pests display lower reproductive rates but boast high survival rates. These species are often challenging to manage du e to their
resilience in the face of environmental hazards. They have evolved to effectively compete for limited environmental resources, resulting
in their ability to establish themselves even in challenging conditions. A prominent exemplar of a k-strategist is the coddling moth, which
exhibits a slower reproductive pace but excels in terms of individual survival and resource competition.

3. Types of Pests (Based on Status)

a. Sub-economic/non economic - The population of pests falls below the Economic Injury Level (EIL) while General Equilibrium Position
(GEP) signifies the average density of the pest population over the long term.

• GEP (General Equilibrium Position) refers to the sustained average density of a population over the long term.
 • EIL (Economic Injury Level) signifies the minimal quantity of insects that triggers economic damage.

• Economic Damage pertains to the level of injury that rationalizes the expenditure on pest control measures.

Graph representing a non-economic or sub economic pest

b. Occasional Pest - display a GEP typically below the EIL, although there might be instances where it surpasses this threshold. These pests
are consistently present throughout the year, yet they do not inflict economic damage. In such cases, a "wait and see" approa ch is often
adopted, meaning proactive measures are not immediately taken. Instead, strategies are initiated only when the Economic Threshold
Level (ETL) is attained. Employing pesticides is a rarity in managing these pests, reserved for specific situations when necessary.

Graph representing occasional pest

c. Perennial pests- often referred to as key pests, exhibit a General Equilibrium Position (GEP) that typically remains below the Economic
Injury Level (EIL) but remains very close to it. These pests maintain a high population density, resulting in economic damage occurring in
most years. The extent of this damage is deemed unacceptable to consumers. To address this issue, the primary approach is to lower the
GEP of the pest population. This involves implementing strategies to curtail the pest's numbers and impact, aiming to create a more
sustainable balance and minimize economic losses.

Graph representing a perennial pest

d. Severe pest- the GEP surpasses the EIL, indicating a significant threat. This pest consistently poses a substantial challenge, persistently
affecting the situation. To manage this situation, the primary approach is to frequently apply pesticide spraying in order to lower the GEP of
the pest population. This tactic aims to actively control the pest's numbers and impact, striving to restore a more balanced and
manageable state.

Graph representing a severe pest

4. What is an Insect pest

An insect pest can be defined as any insect that causes annoyance, injury, or damage to humans directly or indirectly. This harm can manifest as a
reduction in crop yield and quality, bites, stings, psychological distress (entomophobia), transmission of disease-causing agents (as vectors), and
even damage to human possessions. Insects are deemed pests when their population reaches high levels and conflicts with human well-being and
interests arise.

The extent of injury or damage an insect pest inflicts on its host is often determined by the type of mouthparts it possesses. As a result, insects can
employ various methods to harm plants or animals. Depending on their mouthparts, insects may chew, bore into, or suck sap fro m different plant
parts such as leaves, buds, stems, roots, bark, or fruits. Additionally, sucking insects can also play a role in transmitting organisms that cause
diseases in plants.

The threshold at which insects become pests is linked to the point at which their population density becomes substantial enough to disrupt human
activities or interests. This disruption can encompass a wide range of areas, from agriculture and forestry to public health and personal well-being.
Effective pest management strategies often involve a combination of approaches, including biological controls, chemical treatments, cultural
practices, and the modification of habitats, to mitigate the negative impact of insect pests on human society and the environment.

5. Categories of Pests

There are distinct categories of pests that play different roles within agroecosystems.

• Key Pests - These are significant, consistently occurring species that demand regular control measures. Without intervention, they tend to
exceed economic injury levels or thresholds frequently. Usually limited to a few species, often just 1 or 2, in a given agroecosystem, they hold
the central focus in pest management systems.

• Occasional or Secondary Pests - These pests are of lesser concern and only reach economically damaging levels periodically or in specific
locations. Implementing an integrated pest control approach can effectively curb these occasional outbreaks. Prediction technology is
especially valuable for managing these sporadic pests.

• Potential Pests - Currently, these pests cause minimal damage in the prevailing agroecosystem conditions. However, during the management
of key pests, it's crucial to maintain these conditions to prevent potential pests from developing into severe pest problems.

• Migrant Pests - These non-resident pests periodically enter agroecosystems and can cause significant economic harm. Examples include
migratory locusts and armyworms. The ecological approach to managing such pests remains valid, but the perspective must encompass a
broader geographic area due to their migratory nature.

• Others - Numerous phytophagous forms coexist in the agroecosystem but aren't considered pests. They don't pose substantial threats to
crops or ecosystems.

6. Economics Injury and Economic Threshold Level

The field of scientific inquiry focused on pests and strategies to control them is commonly referred to as economic entomology. This designation
acknowledges the financial repercussions that insects impose on industries, agriculture, and society at large. It's important to note that while
economically significant insects aren't always pests, their roles as pollinators, natural predators, silk and honey producers, and more, underscore
their value. Nevertheless, in cases where pest populations proliferate, their impact inevitably leads to monetary setbacks, whether directly or
indirectly. The financial losses incurred due to insect pests generally align with the density of the pest population; higher densities magnify the
extent and severity of damage, thereby elevating the necessity for control measures.

In the realm of pest management, "damage" and "injury" are terms frequently used interchangeably, though entomologists tend to dra w a key
distinction between them. Specifically, "injury" denotes the physical harm or deterioration inflicted on a valuable commodity by the presence or
activities of a pest. This includes actions like consuming leaves, tunneling in wood, or feeding on blood. On the other hand, "damage" quantifies
the monetary value that the commodity loses due to injury by the pest. This might encompass spoilage, reduced yields, diminished quality, and
similar financial consequences.

The presence of pests at any level initiates some form of injury, although not all degrees of injury translate into damage. Plants frequently exhibit
the ability to withstand minor injuries without evident harm, and occasionally, they might even respond by directing additional energy or resources
toward growth points or fruit-bearing structures. In instances of minimal injury, the resulting damage might not be significant enough to warrant
the allocation of time or resources towards pest control measures. These lesser losses that fall short of economic impact are considered an
inherent aspect of engaging in business activities.

7. Classification of Insect Based on Feeding Habits.

a. Saprophagous – feeding on dead organic matter

• General scavengers –cockroaches
• Humus feeder – springtails
• Dung feeder – dung beetle
• Restricted to dead plant tissue – termites
• Restricted to dead animal tissue – Larder beetles
• Carrion feeders – flesh flies
 b. Zoophagous – feeding on living animals
• Parasites – they live on other animals
• Living on warm blooded vertebrates – chewing and sucking louse
• Blood sucker – mosquitos
c. Phytophagous/Herbivorous – feeding on living plants
• Leaf feeders – Examples: butterfly larvae, grasshoppers
• Leaf miners – Example: flies
• Stem and root borer –Examples: beetles, butterfly larvae
• Root feeders – Examples: white grubs, cricket
• Juice sucker – Examples: leafhoppers, aphids, thrips
• Gall maker – Example: gall wasps
• Fruit feeder – Example: Tephritid flies
d. Entomophagous/Omnivorous – feeding on other living insects
• Parasites – Examples: wasps, flies
• Predators – Examples: dragonflies, spiders, coccinilid beetles, longhorned grasshoppers, praying mantis, etc.

8. Terms describing insect feeding

There are various terms used to describe the feeding habits and preferred food sources of insects:

1. Polyphagous – insects have a broad spectrum of host options to choose from. They can feed on a wide range of different plant species.
2. Monophagous – Monophagous insects specialize in feeding on a single type of host plant.
3. Oligophagous – insects feed on a limited range of closely related host species.

Insect feeding can be categorized into various terms based on the feeding behaviors and feeding strategies employed by different insect species.
Here are some terms that describe insect feeding:

a. Herbivory: The consumption of plant material by insects. Herbivorous insects can feed on leaves, stems, flowers, fruits, and other parts of
plants.
[Link]: Insects that are carnivorous feed on other insects or small animals. They may actively hunt and capture their prey.
c. Omnivory: Insects with omnivorous feeding habits consume a varied diet, including both plant and animal matter.
[Link]: Detritivores feed on decaying organic matter, such as dead plants and animals. They play a crucial role in breaking down and
recycling organic material.
e. Sap Feeding: Some insects, like aphids, feed on plant sap. They use specialized mouthparts to pierce plant tissues and extract the sugary
sap.
f. Xylem Feeders: These insects feed on the watery sap found in the xylem vessels of plants. They often have specialized mouthparts for
piercing and sucking.
g. Phloem Feeders: Insects that feed on the sugary phloem sap of plants, such as aphids, whiteflies, and leafhoppers, use specialized
mouthparts to access this nutrient-rich fluid.
[Link]-Inducing: Certain insects induce the formation of galls on plants by injecting chemicals into plant tissues. They then feed on the tissues
within the gall structure.
i. Leaf Mining: Larvae of certain insects feed on the internal tissues of leaves, creating characteristic trails or tunnels known as leaf mines.
j. Boring: Insects that bore into plant stems, trunks, or other plant parts feed on the inner tissues. Wood-boring insects are a notable
example.
k. Scavenging: Insects that scavenge feed on dead and decaying matter, such as carrion or organic debris.
l. Predation: Predatory insects actively hunt and consume other insects or small organisms. They may ambush or actively pursue their prey.
m. Parasitism: Parasitic insects lay eggs on or in other insects, and the developing larvae feed on their host's tissues, often leading to the
host's death.
[Link] Feeding: Insects like mosquitoes and ticks feed on the blood of vertebrate hosts. They have specialized mouthparts for piercing the
skin and accessing blood vessels.
[Link] Feeding: Insects like bees, butterflies, and moths feed on nectar from flowers. This mutualistic relationship benefits both insects
and plants through pollination.
9. Ways how insects damage or destroy crops and other plants

In terms of how insects can damage or destroy crops and other plants, there are several methods:

a. Chewing- Insects consume plant parts like leaves, buds, stems, bark, or fruits by chewing them.
b. Sucking- Some insects extract sap from leaves, buds, stems, bark, or fruits by piercing and sucking.
c. Boring- Insects bore into plant tissues such as leaves, buds, stems, or fruits, causing damage.
d. Galls- Certain insects induce the formation of cancerous growths (galls) on leaves and stems as part of their feeding behavior.
e. Root and Underground Stem Damage- Insects may attack plant roots and underground stems, impairing the plant's ability to absorb
nutrients and water.
f. Disease Transmission- Insects can spread or transmit pathogens or agents that cause plant diseases.
g. Insect Carriers- Some insects carry other insects and establish them in specific locations, potentially leading to further pest problems.
10. Some insect pests of major crops and the characteristics of damage inflicted on crops

English Name Tagalog Name Scientific Name Characteristics of damage

A. RICE
1. Yellow Stem Borer Dilaw na aksip/ Dilaw na Scirpophaga incertulas • larvae bore at the base of the plants
bagumbong • bore through the upper nodes
• pest of deepwater rice.
• Whiteheads during Reproductive Stage
• Deadhearts or Dead Tillers
• Small perforations on stems and tillers
• Presence of frass inside stems

2. White Stem Borer Puting na aksip/ Puting na Scirpophaga innonata • epidemic pest
bagumbong • chronic pest levels in Koronadal, southern Mindanao,
Philippines
3. Striped Stem Guhitang Aksip Chilo suppressalis • Prevalent in temperate countries and non-flooded areas.
borer/Pale Headed • One of the most significant pests in Asia.
striped borer • Can cause extensive damage, with potential for up to 100%
crop loss in severe cases.

4. Pink Stem borer Aksip na mala-rosas, Sesamia inferens • caterpillars bores into the stem and feed upon the tissues of
the central shoot.

5. Brown Planthopper Kayumangging Nilaparvata lugens • transmit Rice Ragged Stunt and Rice Grassy Stunt diseases.
Hanip/Kayumangging
ngusong kabayo
6. White-Backed Putting ngusong kabayo, Sogatella furcifera • abundant during the early stage
Planthopper Putting-likod na ngusong • caused through feeding and oviposition.
kabayo • females cause ovipositional punctures in leaf sheaths.

7. Green Leaf hopper Berdeng ngusong kabayo Nephotettix virescens • Growth inhibited, plants smaller than expected.
• Fewer stems producing grain
• Plants show signs of wilting or dying
• Eggs appear pale, potentially white or yellow
• Immature insects, often in yellow or pale green hues.
• Mature insects with pale green bodies

8. Rice bug/Seed Atangya Leptocorisa oratorius • sucking out the contents of developing grains from pre-
bug/Paddy bug flowering spikelets to soft dough stage
9. Leaf folder/Leaf roller Mambibilot, maniniklop Cnaphalocrocis • longitudinal and transparent whitish streaks on damaged
medinalis leaves
• tubular folded leaves
• leaf tips sometimes fastened to the basal part of leaf
• heavily infested fields appear scorched with many folded
leaves
10. Caseworm/Case Uod na nasa supot Nymphula depunctalis • Leaf cases floating on water
bearer • Leaves cut at right angles as with a pair of scissors
• Leaves with papery upper epidermis that were fed on
• Skeletonized leaf tissues usually appear ladder-like
11. Whorl Maggot Langaw-palay, Langaw Hydrellia philippina • white or transparent patches
bukid • pinholes
• damaged leaves easily break from the wind
• somewhat distorted leaves
• clear or yellow spots on inner margins of emerging leaves
• stunting
• few tillers
12 Short-horned Balang, Lukton Oxya hyla intricate • moist and swampy areas
grasshopper • nocturnal insect pests
• concentrated in rainfed areas
Locust Locusta migratoria • feeding marks on leaves and shoots,
manilensis Meyen • large portions of leaf edges consumed,
• cut-off panicles.
13. Mole Cricket Susuhong Gryllotalpa orientalis • Cut Seedlings at Base
• Seedlings exhibit stunted or underdeveloped growth.
• Complete mortality of young seedlings
• Roots of plants are injured or compromised
• Missing Plants
14. Army Worm Arabas Mythimna unipunctata • feeds on rice by cutting off leaves and young seedlings.
• cut off rice panicles from base
15. Cutworm Harabas Spodoptera litura • cut seedlings at bases
• skeletonized leaf surfaces
• consumed whole rice plants
• presence of cut seedlings and eaten leaves.
16. Rice Skipper Paruparo Pelopidas mathias • Removal of Leaf Tissues and Veins
• Rolling Down of Leaf Tip or Folding
• Tying with Silken Threads
17. Zigzag leafhopper Guhitang ngusong kabayo Recilia dorsalis • Drying of Leaf Tips
• Entire leaves transition to an orange hue
• Marginal Curling and Orange Discoloration
• Look for individual white eggs placed in sheath areas.
• Sap-Sucking Nymphs and Adults
18. Rice Black Bug Itim na atangya Scotinophara coarctata • Stunted Plant Growth
• presence of deadhearts in plants
• Decreased Tillering
• abnormal color changes
• reddish brown or yellowing of plants
B. CORN •
1. Asiatic Corn Borer Dalipog Ostrinia furnacalis • Feeding occurs within the cluster of leaves
• Feed on silk and kernels within the ear.
• Pupal stage lasts 7-9 days before moth emergence.
• Female moth lays up to 1500 eggs.
2. Corn Semi-Lopper Mandadangkal Chrysodeixis chalcites • caterpillars eat the silk of corn.
• damage the leaves and consume the soft tissue
• sparing the plant's roots.
3. Corn Earworm Tigre Helicoverpa armigera • As it grows, its color changes from pale green, yellow,
vibrant green, or brown.
• The newly hatched caterpillar is pale yellowish white.
• Parts of Corn Affected: Leaves, Male Flowers (Tassel),
Female Flowers (Corn Ear) and Corn Cob
4. White grub Leucopholis irrorata • Leaves show yellowing spots in the field, Plants are weak
and stunted.
• Corn plants are withering.
• Egg - white and 0.5 mm in length.
• white, while the larger caterpillar is pale yellow with a dark
rear end.
• Adult white grub - shiny, with a grayish-black color and a
hint of red.
5. Corn Seedling maggot Bangaw Delia platura • Leaf feeding lesions,
• Curling and breaking the young leaves
• Wilting, drying and rotting of central shoot
• Side tillers
C. STORED GRAINS
1. Rice Weevil Bukbok ng Bigas Sitophilus oryzae • Small beetle, about 2-3 mm in length.
• Reddish-brown to black in color.
• Elongated snout or rostrum on the head.
• Distinct longitudinal ridges on the wing covers.
• Flightless, as wings are not fully developed.
• Infamous for infesting stored grains like rice and other
cereals.
• Larvae feed inside the grain kernels, causing damage.
• Adults may bore small holes in grains for egg laying.
• Prefer warm and humid environments.
• Common pest in stored grain facilities and households.
2. Corn Weevil Bukbok ng Mais Sitophilus zeamais • Small insect, typically around 3-5 mm in length.
• Distinct snout-like projection from the head.
• Eggs laid within corn kernels or crevices.
• Contaminates stored grain with feces and debris.

3. Rice Moth Gamugamo ng bigas Corcyra cephalonica • Small-sized moth with a wingspan around 15-20 mm.
• Typically white or light gray with brown or gray markings.
• Larvae feed on stored grains, especially rice, and other
cereals. octurnal, active during the night.
D. SUGARCANE
1. Root grub Leucopholis irrorata • Found in the soil around sugar cane plants, particularly near
the roots.
• Typically small and white in color, with a cylindrical body
shape.
• Feed on the roots of sugar cane plants, causing damage to
the plant's root system.
2. Sugarcane dead heart Tetramoera • Adult moths are small, brownish-gray, and have a wingspan
borer schislaceana of about 25-30 mm.
 • Larvae bore into sugarcane stems, causing "dead hearts" or
withered central shoots.
• Wilting, drooping, and death of central shoot; entry holes on
stems.
• - Larvae tunnel inside stems, disrupting water and nutrient
flow.
3. Yellow Tip Borer Chilo infuscatellus • Adult yellow tip borers typically have a yellowish coloration.
• Approximately 10-12 mm in length.
• Wings are narrow and elongated, often with distinctive
markings.
• Larvae bore into sugar cane shoots, causing damage.
• Leaves show yellowing at the tips due to larval feeding.
E. VEGETABLE CROP
Crucifers
1. Diamond Backmoth Plutella xylostella • Larvae feed on leaves, creating irregular holes.
• Heavy infestations lead to skeletonized leaves.
• Approximate wingspan of 15-20 mm.
2. Cabbage Worm Crocidolomia binotalis • Greenish or pale caterpillars.
• Smooth body with fine hair
• Velvety appearance.
• Feed on leaves, causing irregular holes.
• Active feeders during day.
3. Cutworm Spodoptera litura • Active primarily during the night.
• Target young plants, especially seedlings.
• Leaves behind irregular feeding marks.
• Burrow into soil during the day to hide.
• Color varies; can be gray, brown, or green.
• About 1 to 2 inches in length.
Cucurbits •
1. Yellow Squash Beetle Aulocophora similis • Typically bright yellow or orange.
• Around 6-8 mm in length.
• Oval and slightly flattened.
• Feeds on leaves, flowers, and fruits of squash plants.
• Leaves behind irregular holes and damage to plant tissues.
• - May release defensive chemicals when disturbed.
2. Melon Fruitfly Bactrocera cucurbitae • Small insect, about 2-3 mm in length.
• Lays eggs in melon fruits.
• Causes premature fruit drop and decay.
Solanaceous
1. Tomato Fruitworm Helicoverpa armigera • Variable coloration, ranging from green to brown or pink.
• Can grow up to 1.5 inches (38 mm) in length.
• Stripes or patterns along the body.
• Feeds on tomato fruits, causing damage to the flesh and
seeds.
• Pupates in soil or on the plant, forming a brown cocoon.
• Adult moths have a wingspan of about 1.5 to 2 inches.
• Moth exhibits mottled brown and gray coloration.
2. Tomato Lady beetle Epilachna • Small, rounded beetle with distinctive red or orange color.
vigintioctopunctata • Typically around 5-8 mm in length.
• Variable number of black spots on its red or orange elytra
(wing covers).
• Found in gardens, fields, and areas with tomato plants.
• Spiky, black and orange larvae with an elongated body.
• Larvae pupate on the underside of leaves or nearby
surfaces.
3. Eggplant Fruit and Leucinoides orbonalis • Targets both fruit and shoot portions of the plant.
Shoot borer • Creamy-white caterpillar with a dark head.
• Bore into fruits and shoots, causing internal damage.
• Presence of small holes, frass (insect waste), and tunneling
inside fruits and shoots.
Malvaceous
1. Cotton Stainer Dysdercus cingulatus • Adults often brightly colored, with red, orange, or black
markings.
• Causes blemishes on cotton fibers, reducing quality and
market value.
2. Cotton Bollworm Helicoverpa armigera • Larvae feed on reproductive parts like buds, flowers, and
bolls.
• Egg to caterpillar (larval) stage to pupa to adult moth.
• Adult moths have a wingspan of around 32-40 mm.
• Variable coloration, from pale brown to darker shades.
• Adult moths are nocturnal, active during the night.
Legumes
1. Beanfly Ophiomyia phaseoli • Larvae hatch from eggs and bore into pods or seeds.
• Larvae pupate within pods or soil.
 • Small, grayish-brown flies with distinctive wing markings.
• Adults and larvae feed on plant tissues, causing wilting and
reduced yields.
2. Aphids Aphis craccivora • They have soft and delicate bodies, making them vulnerable
to predators and environmental conditions.
• They come in a range of colors including green, yellow,
black, brown, and pink, depending on the species and their
host plants.
• Known for their rapid reproduction
• Waxy or woolly coating that helps protect them from
predators and adverse weather.
3. Bean Pod borer Marucca testulalis • Larvae bore into pods, feeding on seeds.
• Larvae: Cream-colored with brown head capsules.
• Adult moths: Small, brownish gray with distinct patterns.
• Nocturnal behavior, active during the night.
• Females lay eggs on pods or leaves.

4. Leaf folders Homonia cofferia • Small caterpillar-like insects.

• Green or brown color, camouflaging with leaves.
• Distinct head capsules and body segments.
• Feed on leaf tissues from the edges.
• Fold or roll leaves to create protective shelters.
• Remain concealed within the folded leaves while feeding.
• Leaf margins are eaten, creating characteristic semi-circular
holes.

5. Leaf hopper Empoasca ricei • Small insects, typically around 2-3 mm in length.
• Varied colors, often green, brown, or yellow
• Found on the undersides of leaves.
• Tend to move rapidly and jump when disturbed.
• Sap removal weakens plants and reduces yield.
• Leaves show yellowing, curling, and wilting.
• Excreted honeydew may attract sooty mold.

6. Bean Lycaenid Euchrysops cnejus • Adults often exhibit vibrant colors and patterns on their
wings.
• Larvae secrete substances that attract and benefit ants.
• Larvae have distinct behaviors and appearances.
• Typically small to medium-sized butterflies with diverse
colors.

E. ROOT CROPS
1. Sweet potato weevil Cylas formicarius • Small, dark-colored beetles.
• About 6-10 mm in length.
• Elongated and slightly curved.
• Usually dark brown to black.
• Distinctive longitudinal ridges on wing covers.
• Larvae bore into roots, causing internal damage.
• Presence of exit holes, tunnels, and damaged roots.
F. FRUIT CROPS
Mango
1. Leaf hopper Idioscopus clypealis • They come in various colors, including green, yellow, and
brown.
• Have a distinctive wedge-shaped body.
• Possess long and strong hind legs adapted for jumping.
• Many leaf hoppers have wings, allowing them to fly short
distances.

2. Philippine Fruit Fly Bactrocera • Generally brown with distinct yellow spots on the abdomen.
philippinensis • Transparent with dark veins and a characteristic dark spot at
the tip.
• Females lay eggs under the skin of ripe or ripening mangoes.
Larvae feed inside the fruit, causing damage.
• Infested fruits develop tunnels and rot due to larval feeding.

3. Mango Twig Borer Niphoneciea albata • Small, usually around 5-8 mm in length.
• A type of moth.
• Varies, often brown or gray with distinct patterns.
• Caterpillars bore into mango twigs, shoots, and fruits.
• Larvae feed internally, causing damage to the plant.

Banana
1. Banana Leafroller Erionatha thrax • Small-sized moth.
• Typically brown or tan.
• Larvae feed on banana leaves.
• Roll and tie banana leaves together.
• Leaves show rolled appearance, affecting photosynthesis.

2. Banana Weevil Cosmopolitus sordidus • Adult weevils are relatively large in size.
• Body color varies from brown to black.
• Elongated snout-like mouthparts.
• Larvae bore into banana pseudostems.
• Damage can lead to plant weakening and death.
• Females lay eggs inside the plant tissue.
• Larvae feed on inner parts, causing structural damage.

3. Abaca Aphid Pentalonia • Tiny insects with soft bodies.

nigronervosa • Yellow-green or brown.
• Generally around 1-2 mm in length.
• Piercing-sucking mouthparts to extract plant sap.
• Leaves curl, turn yellow, and can become distorted.
• Aphids excrete honeydew, leading to sooty mold growth.
• High reproductive rates, resulting in quick population
growth.

Coconut
1. Coconut Rhinoceros Oryctes rhinocerus • Large, robust beetle.
Beetle • Can grow up to 3-5 centimeters in length.
• Pronounced horn-like structures on the head.
• Typically dark brown to black in color.
• Adults feed on the sap of young leaves and damaged tissues.
• Tunneling and feeding by larvae weaken palm trees.
Coffee
[Link] Berry Borer Hypothenemus hampei • Small beetle, around 2-3 mm in length.
• Dark brown or black color with a cylindrical shape.
• Larvae bore into coffee berries

Cacao
1. Pachyrrynchid Beetle Pachyrrhynchus • Feeds on cacao pods and beans.
moniliferus • Larvae bore into cacao pods, causing fruit damage.
• Nocturnal and secretive in nature.
• Small, oval-shaped beetle.
• Generally brown or black.
• Ranges from 2 to 5 mm in length.

2. Pink Mealybugs Planococcus lilacinus • Pinkish hue, distinct from other mealybugs.
• Small, typically around 3-4 mm in length.
• Oval and flattened, covered with powdery wax.
• Sucks sap from cacao plant tissues.
• Yellowing, wilting, and distortion of plant parts.

3. Cacao Pod Borer Conopomorpha • Adult moths have a small wingspan, often less than 1 inch,
cramerella with variable colors.
• Larvae feed on cacao pod contents, leaving web-like frass
(waste) trails.
• Larvae bore into cacao pods, feeding on the seeds, causing
quality and yield losses.

4. Mosquito Bugs Helopeltis collaris • Feeds on cacao tree sap.

• Thrives in the cacao tree environment.
• Larvae develop on cacao pods.
• Sap extraction can hinder tree growth and productivity.
• Mosquito-like appearance.
• Small size, about 1-2 mm in length.
• Typically black or dark-colored.
• Active during certain times of the day.

Q. METHODS OF INSECT PEST CONTROL

1. Cultural Control

Refers to the use of practices and techniques that manipulate the environment, cropping systems, and agricultural practices to reduce the
impact of insect pests. Instead of relying solely on chemical methods, cultural control focuses on creating unfavorable conditions for pest development
and promoting conditions that are more conducive to beneficial organisms and crop growth.

Examples
• Relay/Companion Cropping- Planting crops with different growth stages together in the same field.
Example: Growing a fast-maturing crop alongside a slower-growing one. The fast crop acts as a deterrent to pests and provides less time for
pests to establish.
• Crop Rotation- Planting different crops in successive seasons to interrupt pest life cycles.
Example: Alternating between a susceptible crop and a non-host crop. This disrupts the pest's ability to thrive continuously and reduces its
population.
• Trap Crop- Planting a preferred host crop to attract pests away from the main crop.
Example: Cultivating a crop that insects prefer over the primary crop. The trap crop lures pests away, protecting the main crop from heavy
damage.
• Use of Resistant Seeds- Planting crop varieties that are genetically resistant to specific pests.
Example: Choosing pest-resistant varieties of crops that have been bred to withstand attacks from certain insects. This reduces the need for
chemical control methods.
 • Synchronous Planting- Planting a crop all at once to minimize pest presence during vulnerable growth stages.
Example: Ensuring that all plants of a particular crop are planted simultaneously to avoid staggered growth stages that pests can exploit.
• Roguing- Removing and destroying infected or infested plants to prevent pest spread.
Example: Removing plants showing symptoms of disease or heavy pest infestation to prevent the spread of pests to healthy plants.
• Weeding- Removing weeds that can harbor and provide shelter to pests.
Example: Regularly removing weeds from the field to eliminate hiding spots and alternate hosts for pests.
• Time of Planting/Harvest- Timing planting and harvest to avoid peak periods of pest activity.
Example: Planting crops so that they mature and are harvested before the peak activity of a specific pest, reducing the risk of damage.

2. Mechanical Control

Mechanical control involves the physical manipulation of the pest's environment or the pest itself to reduce its population. It doesn't involve the
use of chemicals but relies on practical methods to manage pests.

Examples
• Exclusion with Fine Mesh Screens and Barriers- Placing fine mesh screens or barriers around plants to prevent pests from accessing them.
Example: Using Bug Block or Visqueen to cover plants and prevent insect infestation.
• Heat Treatment- Applying heat, like hot air, hot water, or soil sterilization, to kill pests at various life stages.
Example: Soil solarization to heat the soil and control soil-borne pests.
• Shaking to Remove Pests- Physically shaking plants to dislodge and remove pests.
Example: Shaking pigeon pea plants to remove Helicoverpa larvae using a manual shaker.
• Spraying with Water Hose- Using a strong water stream to knock off pests like aphids and mites from plants.
Example: Spraying plants with a water hose to dislodge and remove pests.
• Manual Removal using iron hook- Physically removing pests by hand or using tools.
Example: Using an iron hook to remove adult rhinoceros beetles from plants.
• Traps and Deterrents- Using traps or deterrents to capture or scare pests away.
Examples: Rat traps, scarecrows, sting slots, sound traps using cans.
• Insect Collection Net- Capturing flying insects using nets designed for collection.
Example: Using an insect collection net to catch and remove pests.
• Sun Drying and Cold Storage- Storing grains in conditions unfavorable for pest survival, like sun drying or cold storage.
Example: Using sun drying and cold storage to prevent pest infestation in stored grains.

a. Preventive Barriers (Mechanical Exclusion):

Mechanical barriers are used to prevent pests from accessing their host plants by physical means.
1. Fruit Wrapping:
• Covering fruits with polyethylene bags.
• Protect pomegranates from fruit borers.
2. Banding:
• Applying grease or polyethylene sheet bands on mango trunks.
• Prevent climbing of insect pests (e.g., mealy bugs) to treetops or descending to lay eggs.
3. Netting:
• Using nets in greenhouses.
• Controls mosquitoes and other vectors, preventing their entry.
4. Trenching:
• Digging trenches (30-60 cm wide, 50 cm deep).
• Trap and stop marching larvae of pests like red hairy caterpillars, locusts, and armyworms.
5. Tin Barrier:
• Fixing tin bands over coconut palms.
• Prevent damage by rats, which are deterred by the barrier.
6. Electric Fencing:
• Erecting fences charged with low voltage electricity.
• Keep away animal pests (e.g., rats, birds) from crop fields.

b. Types of Trapping

1. Light Trap:
• Attracts phototoxic nocturnal insects.
• Monitors infestation, seasonality, pest-weather relations.
• Provides pest survey data and intensity information.
• Traps and kills insects.
2. Sticky Trap:
• Utilizes yellow color, preferred by aphids, thrips, and whiteflies.
• Yellow-painted tin boxes with sticky substances.
• Insects attracted to yellow color and trapped on sticky surface.
3. Bait Trap:
• Attractants lure insects, followed by insecticide application.
4. Fish Meal Trap:
• Targets sorghum shoot fly.
• Utilizes fish meal to attract and trap pests.
5. Pitfall Trap:
• Catches soil-surface insects like ground beetles and collembolans.
6. Pheromone Trap:
• Uses synthetic sex pheromones to attract primarily male insects.
 7. Probe Trap:
• Inserted into stored grain.
• Effectively traps rice weevils, Rhizopertha, Tribolium.

3. Physical Control

It refers to the intentional alteration of environmental factors through manual intervention by humans to reduce or prevent p est-related issues.
This approach involves actively changing aspects of the surroundings to create conditions that deter or hinder pest proliferation and damage. It
encompasses methods where human effort directly manipulates the environment to manage pest populations and their impact.

Examples
• Shaking of Pigeon Pea Plants- To remove Helicoverpa larvae is a form of physical control. When the plants are shaken, the larvae are dislodged
from the plant and fall to the ground, making it harder for them to continue feeding on the plant. This disrupts their lifecycle and reduces their
numbers, helping to protect the pigeon pea crop.
• Hand Picking of Insect Pests- involves physically removing insect pests from plants by hand. This method is particularly effective for larger pests
that are easily visible, such as caterpillars or beetles. It's a simple and environmentally friendly method that can be used on small-scale farms or
gardens.
• Sound Energy (Shouting)- Using sound energy as a form of pest control is an unconventional method. Shouting or generating loud noises near
pest-infested areas can disrupt pests' behavior, communication, or feeding patterns. While it might have some limited effect, it's not a widely
recognized or scientifically proven method of pest control.

4. Host Plant Resistance

Host plant resistance refers to the ability of certain plants to withstand or reduce damage from pests through natural genetic tra its or
characteristics. These traits can deter pests, inhibit their development, or limit their reproduction, ultimately minimizing the impact of pests on the
plant.

Example is the Bt Cotton:

• Bt cotton is a well-known example of host plant resistance.
• It is genetically modified to express a protein from the bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt).
• This protein is toxic to certain insect pests, like cotton bollworm and pink bollworm.
• When these pests feed on Bt cotton, the protein disrupts their digestive system, leading to their death.
• Bt cotton reduces the need for chemical insecticides and provides built-in protection against specific pests.

5. Genetic Insect Control Method

It involves manipulating the genetics of insects to control their populations. This approach often utilizes genetic modification techniques to
introduce specific traits into the insect population, which can reduce their ability to reproduce, transmit diseases, or survive in certain environments.

Example
The Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) is a genetic insect control method used to suppress or eradicate insect populations, particularly pests that damage
crops or transmit diseases.

How SIT Works?

1. Mass Rearing: Insects are mass-reared in laboratories under controlled conditions. They are then sterilized using radiation.
2. Release: Sterile insects are released into the wild population. They mate with wild insects, but their sterile sperm does not result in viable
offspring.
3. Reproductive Suppression: Over time, repeated releases of sterile insects lead to fewer viable offspring in the wild population. This suppresses
the population's reproduction and reduces its overall numbers.
4. Population Reduction: With continued releases, the wild population dwindles to a level where it no longer poses a significant threat to crops or
other areas of concern.
Advantages
• Environmentally friendly, reducing the need for chemical pesticides.
• Targets specific species without harming non-target organisms.
• Reduces pesticide resistance development.
Challenges
• Requires precise knowledge of the target species' biology and behavior.
• Demands significant infrastructure for mass rearing and releasing insects.
• Effectiveness can be influenced by various ecological factors.

6. Biological Control

It involves the utilization of living organisms to reduce or regulate the population of a particular pest species, resulting in lower pest abundance
and reduced damage compared to natural levels.
The Laboratory of Regional/National Crop Protection Center (RCPC) produces various species of Trichogramma insects, which are utilized for
biological control by parasitizing the eggs of insect pests. The specific species include:
a. Trichogramma chilonis- Used to combat vegetable borers and corn earworm.
b. Trichogramma japonicum- Employed for parasitizing eggs of rice stem borers.
c. Trichogramma evanescens- Utilized to control eggs of corn borers.

Pathogen - Pathogens are microorganisms or agents that cause diseases in their host organisms, which can include plants, animals, and insects.

Example:
 a. Trichoderma- is an antagonistic fungus that parasitizes other pathogenic fungi. It's used as a biocontrol agent to combat plant diseases caused by
harmful fungi. Additionally, it can be used as a Compost Fungus Activator (CFA) to enhance composting processes.
b. Metarhizium- is a fungus that acts as a parasitoid to various insects. It infects insects and causes diseases, ultimately reducing pest populations.
It's utilized as a biocontrol agent for pest management.

Natural Enemies of Rice Production (Source: DA-Philrice)

English Name Tagalog Name Characteristics Food

1. Long jawed Spider Gagambang Pangahan • web-forming long-bodied • Adult nymphs of planthoppers,
• long legs leafhoppers
• Their egg masses are laid on the upper • adults of whorl maggots
• half of the rice plant • One spider kills 2-3 preys a day
• enclosed in a cottony silk
2. Dwarg/Space Web • 1.5-2.3 mm short • adult nymphs of planthoppers,
Spider • oval or globular abdomen • leafhoppers,
• oval to triangular dark spots running • nymphs,
lengthwise • whorl maggots
• springtails;
• consume 4-5 nymphs a day.
3. Orb Spider Gagambang pari; • Highly colorful • adult nymphs of planthoppers,
Gagambang gumagawa ng • Curved Legs • leafhoppers
sapot na bilog • Large and swollen abdomen • caseworms
• Hang head down • whorl maggots
• Rely on the webs to catch prey • stemborer adults
• large butterflies
• grasshoppers
4. Jump Spider Gagambang lumulundag • Measures 5-9mm in length • Planthoppers
• Compact body and powerful stout legs • Leafhoppers
• Enlarged eyes with large front legs • Adult flies and other small
• Not quick to move insects
• Do a cat-like way of catching prey • Consumes 2-8 preys a day
• Not constructed webs but spin cocoons

5. Ripple Bug • Dark brown to black • Planthoppers

• Broad shouldered and minute • Leafhopper nymphs
• Observed on the water surface • Newly hatched larvae of stem
• The also sting borer
• Consumes 4-7 hoppers per day
6. Lynx Spider Gagambang may Tinik • Long, spiny legs and oblong to oval • Planthoppers
abdomen • Leafhopper
• Do not make webs • Caseworms
• Wanderers • Leaf folders
• Male is much smaller and more slender • Stem borer moths
• Rice seed bugs
• Whorl maggot
• Consumes 2-3 moths a day
7. Tachinid Fly Langaw • Resemble a house fly • Larvae of leaf folders
• Adults are gray or black • Skippers
• Body is covered with spines • Armyworms
• Stemborers
8. Wolf Spider Gagambang Lobo • Oval- shaped abdomen • Planthoppers and its nymph
• Long and tapered legs • Leafhoppers and its nymph
• Dull with gray, brown and black color • Caseworms
• Not build webs • Leaf folders
• Catch prey directly • Whorl maggots
• Larvae and moths of stem borer
9. Long Horned Tipaklong sa Kaparangan • Antennae is longer than body • Egg masses of stemborers
Grasshoppers • Female egg layers are very long and curved • Leaf feeders
• Nymphs do not well-developed wings • Rice bugs
• Nymphs of planthoppers
• Nymphs of Leafhoppers
• Consumes 3-4 yellow stemborer
egg masses per day

10. Cricket Itim na Kagaykay, Kantitit, • Light to dark brown • Eggs of striped stem borers
Kuliglig • Antennae are longer than body • Dark headed stem borers
• Smaller than long horned grasshoppers. • Leaf folders
• Armyworms
• Whorl Maggot
• Nymphs of planthoppers
• Nymphs of Leafhoppers
 11. Small wasp Maliit na putakti • Very tiny and almost microscopic • Eggs
• Small ant like • Leaf folders
• Four well developed wings • Skippers
• Adults are black, brown, dark yellow brown, • Short horned grasshoppers
or metallic blue green • Armyworms
• Green semiloopers
• Whorl maggots
• Stem borers
• Plant hoppers
• Leaf hoppers
• Black bugs
• Seed Bugs
12/ Big wasp Malaking putakti • Very visible to the plain eye • Larvae and pupae
• Adults are red, black, brown, dark yellow • Leaf folders
brown or metallic green • Skippers
• Abdomen has long needle shaped • Armyworms
• Green semiloopers
• Whorl maggots
• Stemborers
13. Ground Beetle Tigreng Salagubang • Adults are guitar-shaped • Planthoppers
• Reddish brown with long thin necks • Leafhoppers
• Larvae are black and shiny • Hairy caterpillars
• Go into the soil before pupation • Semiloopers
• Larvae of stem borers
• Larvae of leaf folders
• Consume 3-5 larvae per day
14. Damselfly Tutubing Karayom • Visible during early morning • Adults and nymphs of plant
• Sitting on the leaf tip hoppers, Leafhoppers and Leaf
• Adults only fly short distances folder adults
• Nymphs is not fully developed wings
• Attach at lower part of rice tillers
15. Lady beetle Pagung-pagongan • Adults are oval in shape • Slow moving nymphs of
• Orange with or without spots on the wings planthoppers
• Larvae or the grubs are dark grey to brown, • Larvae of leaf folders and stem
wingless and resemble a crocodile borer
16. Dragofly Tutubi • Wings are bigger than damselfly • Adult nymphs of planthoppers,
• Can fly long distance leafhoppers and moths
• Attach on the lower part of the rice tillers
17. Mirid Bugs Berdeng Atangya • Long antennae • Eggs of brown planthoppers and
• Green color of adults and nymphs striped stem borers
• Long folded wings • Young nymphs of planthoppers
• Nymphs has short wings ang leafhoppers
• Black spot on the back • Consumes 7-10 eggs to 1-5
nymphs a day
18. Light Brownish Amag • They have protruding structures from the • Planthoppers
Fungus with infected harmful organisms • Leafhoppers
projections
19. Nuclear Bayrus • Larvae become sluggish • Armyworms
Polyhedrosis Viruses • Stop feeding at canopy • Leaf folders
(NPV • Brown fluid ooze out of the larvae • Hairy caterpillars
• Larvae hang with their head capsule upside
down from the canopy
20. White Mascurdine Amag • Fungus remains white • Planthoppers
Fungus • There are no projections • Leafhoppers
• Stem borers
• Leaf folders
• Skippers
• Earhead bugs
• Black bugs
21. Green Mascurdine Amag • Change color from white to green • Planthoppers
Fungus • Without projection on the dead harmful • Leafhoppers
organism • Earhead bugs
• Black bugs

7. Chemical Control

It involves the rapid response to combat pests and diseases by employing pesticides. This method entails the application of chemical substances
to manage the population of harmful organisms. However, it is advocated only when absolutely essential and all other alternatives have been exhausted.
Chemical control is considered a last resort within Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies due to its potential adverse effects. Pesticides, while
effective, can be toxic to both the environment and human beings. Therefore, their use requires careful consideration, proper application techniques,
and adherence to safety regulations to minimize collateral damage and prioritize overall ecosystem health and human well-being.

Different Pesticides:
 a. Herbicide- These are weedkillers used to control unwanted plant growth. Examples include paraquat, glyphosate, and propanil.
b. Insecticide- Designed to kill insects, this category includes compounds like organochlorines, organophosphates, and carbamates. It also
encompasses insect repellents like DEET and natural citronella.
c. Molluscicide- Specifically targets mollusks, such as the Golden Apple Snail.
d. Bactericide- Designed to eliminate bacteria, protecting crops from bacterial diseases.
e. Fungicide- Used to combat fungal infections by killing or inhibiting the growth of fungi.
f. Larvicide- Targets and eliminates larvae, often used to control mosquito populations by preventing larval development.
g. Rodenticide- Designed to poison rodents, commonly used by placing poisonous baits for mice, rats, and other rodents.
h. Avicide- Developed to control avian pests, these pesticides target problematic bird populations.
i. Acaricide- Designed to manage ticks and mites, which can harm plants, animals, and humans.
j. Nematicide- Used to control nematodes, microscopic worms that can cause damage to plants.
k. Algaecide- These compounds control and kill algae growth, particularly in aquatic environments.

Terms to Remember in Pesticides:

a. Active Ingredient (AI) - Chemical components responsible for the pesticidal effects of a formulation.
b. Inert Ingredient- Substance in a pesticide formulation that lacks pesticidal action.
c. Formulation- Preparation of a pesticide for practical use, combining active and inert ingredients.
d. Carrier- Inert liquid or solid added to an active ingredient to create a pesticide formulation.
e. Diluent- Liquid or solid used to dilute an active ingredient. Water or oil in liquid formulations; talc, clay, or dust in dry ones.
f. Emulsifier- Chemical aiding in suspending one liquid within another, forming an emulsion.
g. Emulsion- Mixture of one liquid dispersed within another liquid.
h. Wetting Agent- Chemical promoting thorough liquid contact with surfaces.
i. Suspension- Mix of fine solid particles within a liquid.
j. Soluble- Capable of dissolving in a liquid.
k. Surfactant- Enhances emulsifying, dispersing, spreading, and wetting properties of a formulation.

Different Formulations:

a. Dusts:
• Very fine dry carrier made from talc, clay, etc.
• Variable particle size.
b. Granules (G):
• Hard, dry particles with porous materials and active ingredient.
• Higher AI than dusts but less than EC.
• Safe for application, often used for soil treatments.
c. Aerosols:
• Contains one or more active ingredients.
• Common for home and garden use, not agriculture.
• Low AI, for contact or time-released control of flying pests.
d. Wettable Powders (WP):
• Dry and powdery, with wetting and dispersing agents.
• Mixed with water for application.
• More concentrated than dusts.
• Frequent agitation needed for suspension.

e. Emulsifiable Concentrates (EC):

• Active ingredient dissolved in oil with an emulsifier.
• Mixed with water or oil for spraying.
• Widely used, high AI concentration.
f. Flowable Liquids (F or L):
• Active ingredients suspended in liquid with suspending agents.
• Easily handled, won't clog nozzles, moderate agitation needed.
g. Solutions and Water-Soluble Concentrates (SC/WSC):
• Fully soluble in water and solvents.
• No residues, nozzles clogging.
h. Water-Dispersible Granules (WDG or DF):
• Similar to granules but behave like wettable powders.
• Easily measured, less dust released.
• High AI content.
i. Poisonous Baits:
• Attractive to pests, contains pesticide.
• Used for rodents and insects, indoors/outdoors.
• Lower AI content than some formulations.
j. Soluble Powders (SP or WSP):
• Dissolves in water to form true solutions.
• No additional agitation needed.
• AI ranges from 15 to 95 percent, few active ingredients soluble in water
Pesticide Color Band (Based on Hazard Class)

Oral Lethal dose mg per kg

Label Category Level of Toxicity Example of Chemicals
body weight of test animal
Red Label (Poison) Category I Extremely Toxic 1-50 Monocrotophos, Zinc
phosphide, Ethyl mercury
acetate
Yellow Label (Poison) Category II Highly Toxic 51-500 Edosulfan, carbaryl,
quinalphos
Blue Label (Danger) Category III Moderately Toxic 501-5000 Malathion, Thiram,
Glyphosate
Green Label (Caution) Category IV Slightly Toxic More than 50001 Mancozeb, Oxyflouren,
Mosquito repellant oils and
liquids

8. Quarantine/Legal Control

It involves the implementation of regulations, restrictions, and measures to prevent the introduction and spread of pests acr oss geographic
regions. It aims to protect agriculture, ecosystems, and economies from the potential devastation caused by invasive pests.

Example:
Asian Citrus Psyllid and Huanglongbing (HLB)
• Pest and Disease: The Asian Citrus Psyllid (ACP) is a vector for the devastating plant disease Huanglongbing (HLB), also known as citrus greening.
• Impact: HLB is lethal to citrus trees, causing significant economic losses to citrus industries worldwide.
• Quarantine Measures: Many citrus-producing regions have established strict quarantine measures to prevent the introduction and spread of ACP
and HLB. These measures include:
1. Restrictions on Plant Movement: Regulations control the movement of citrus plants, plant parts, and related materials from infested
areas.
2. Inspections: Quarantine officers inspect shipments of citrus plants and fruits to ensure they are free from ACP and HLB.
3. Treatments: Certain treatments, such as cold treatments or fumigation, may be required for shipments to eliminate potential pests.
4. Monitoring: Monitoring programs track the presence and distribution of ACP and HLB within and outside quarantined areas.
5. Public Awareness: Awareness campaigns educate the public about the importance of adhering to quarantine measures to prevent pest
spread.