Productivity is the effectiveness or efficiency of the productive effort:

Productivity = output/input

In the context of construction, input is the supply of resources or effort, which is

commonly referred to as the 4M’s, namely Manpower (labour), Machine
(equipment / plant), Materials and Money. Output is the work done, it can be
Tangible product or Service.

Productivity measured in terms of one input factor is known as Single-Factor

Productivity (SFP). The input factor that is often chosen is manpower because
manpower is easily quantifiable. >>provide a straightforward comparison
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To um
reflect the overall productivity of an organization or industry more accurately,
one should take all the inputs into account. >> Total-Factor Productivity (TFP)

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑇𝐹𝑃 =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
=
𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 + 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙 + 𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑠 + 𝑀𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑦 + 𝑀𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

▫ Require a common base of expression, e.g. Monetary terms ($)

▫ Limitations: some inputs could be difficult to quantify and convert to
monetary terms, e.g. Managerial input

Other considerations:

▪ Consideration for Inflation or Deflation

▪ Quantifying Output: output should be quantified by units that are
comparable, e.g. total monetary value, functional units (floor area, km of
roads, kW of power generation)

Main factors that influence productivity:

▫ availability of resources
 :
▫ timing of provision of resources
▫ sequence of construction activities
▫ method used to carry out construction activities

Adopt an iterative and repeated process - PDCA (Plan-Do-Check-Act) for

continuous productivity improvement:

▪ Plan: Establish objectives and processes required to deliver the desired

results.
▪ Do: Carry out the plan from the previous step. While carrying out the plan,
you need to monitor the results of implementation and gather relevant
-

data for subsequent checking in the next stage.

▪ Check: The data and results gathered from the previous stage are
evaluated. Data is compared against the expected outcomes to identify
any similarities and differences. A commonly adopted technique, namely
Work Study, could be used to systematically evaluate
-
the works plan /
construction activity. There are two subcategories of Work Study, namely
Method Study and Work Measurement.
identify
▪ Act: Data and analysis results from the Do and Check stages allow
-

deviations and issues to be identified. These issues present

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opportunities for improvements and may include nonconformities,
inefficiencies and other issues that result in deviations and outcomes
that are less-than-optimal. We will then propose improvements to
resolve these issues. The original plan will be adjusted to incorporate the
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proposed improvements.
▪ The modified plan will then be implemented and the cycle repeats.

↓
The ultimate goal of work study is to identify issues within the operation / plan /
activity.

▫ Method study: focuses on evaluating the methods used in carrying out

-

M an operation / activity.
▫ Works measurement: focuses on evaluating the time spent on an -
 operation / activity.

Method Study:
F
We would determine the optimum site layouts, select the most suitable
equipment and labour, and balance work gangs for the most efficient use of
resources.

Desired Outcome:

1. Improvements in site layout, material handling and storage methods,

and use of materials etc.
2. Simplified tasks by introducing standard methods and by reducing the
variety of work
3. Reduced fatigue, unnecessary work, and idle or wasted time.

Step 1-Select: It is worthwhile to perform a method study for operations that

make up a large proportion of the contract value, are repetitive in nature, are
difficult, and involve a large quantity of material.

Step 2-Record:
 ▪ For existing or ongoing operation: You could record the observed
and
sequence of operations together with resources used, associated time
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involvement, delays, and any interruption.
▪ For new operations that have not yet started: You could propose the
sequence of operations, the resources to be used and the time required
for each activity in the operation based on previous experience.
▪ We can use different techniques such as the flow process chart, flow
diagram and multiple activity chart.

Step 4-Develop:

We would try to eliminate all unnecessary activities, combine several activities

when suitable, and rearrange activities for efficient execution and simplify
complicated activities. Changes made include re-assigning personnel with more
X
skilled ones and enhancing work environment.

Work Measurement: It is the application of techniques designed to establish

the time for a qualified worker to carry out a specified job at a defined level of
performance.

▫ Qualified worker: A worker who is physically fit, and has the required
level of education, intelligence, skill and knowledge for the job.
▫ Defined level of performance: It is defined as the performance when the
worker is brisk (活泼), skilled and motivated; and perform without waiting
and idling except that required for normal rest and relaxation.
▫ Techniques: eg. Time study, synthesis, analytical estimating

Time study:

Time study is not simply the timing of an operation. It involves:

▪ Timing, to discover how long various operations are taking.

The first step in a time study is to record the observed time to complete various
 activities that make up an operation, such as using a stopwatch.

▪ Rating, to assess the worker’s performance being observed against a

norm.

Timing alone does not produce a fair assessment of effort since the working
ability, or the efficiency of a worker affects the timing. Therefore, a system of
rating is provided. Rating of 100 is referred to as the standard rating (defined
level of performance). The rating can be highly subjective.

▪ Building standard times, by normalizing observed times and allowing for

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appropriate relaxation and contingency allowances.

What is the purpose of establishing standard time? The standard time

established for each activity could help us with time planning for works in the
future. For example, in preparing milestones and construction programme for a
new project, we could use standard times established from previous projects as
reference to estimate time required for each activity in the new project.

Standard Time = Basic Time + Relaxation Allowance + Contingency Allowance

Basic Time = Observed Time x Observed Rating / Standard Rating (the time
required for a worker to carry out a certain task with the standard rate of
working.)

Relaxation allowance is the time allowed for various relaxation activities, such

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as recovering from fatigue, a visit to the toilet, etc. Fixed allowances are meant
for the worker’s personal needs and basic fatigue, including occasional stretch,
a visit to the toilet, and having a drink of water. Variable allowances are the
times allowed for a worker to recover from fatigue that is tied to the nature of the
work or environmental conditions.

Contingency allowance is the time allowed for various incidents that could
potentially occur, such as maintenance of tools, waiting time caused by delays,
machine breakdowns, unexpected site conditions, bad weather, etc.