Radiometric Method of Exploration

Prof. A.K. Chaubey

akchaubey@[Link]

14 Nov. 2024
: Two lectures
Importance of Radiometric Method
Surveying for radioactive minerals has become increasingly important
over the past few decades due to the rising demand for nuclear fuels.
Consequently, radiometric exploration in geophysical surveys has
become essential, as it aids in detecting and quantifying naturally
occurring radioactive elements - primarily uranium, thorium, and
potassium - within rocks and soils. This method is based on the
principle that these elements emit gamma radiation as they decay,
enabling geoscientists to map and analyze their distribution within the
Earth's crust. The following points highlight the significance of
radiometric exploration:
1. Mineral Exploration: Radiometric surveys are essential in
identifying radioactive minerals such as Uranium, Thorium,
Potassium etc. as well as other minerals that may be spatially
associated with radioactive elements.
2. Mapping Geological Units: Radiometric methods allow for the
differentiation of various rock types and geological formations based
on their specific radioactive signatures. This can be particularly
useful for mapping boundaries between igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks, as different rock types typically have distinct
radiometric profiles.
3. Environmental and Radioactive Contamination Studies:
Radiometric exploration can detect areas with abnormal radiation
levels, which can indicate natural sources of radioactive
contamination or areas impacted by human activities, such as
mining and industrial processes.
4. Cost-Effectiveness and Efficiency: Modern radiometric
surveys, often conducted from airborne platforms, cover large
areas relatively quickly and at lower costs compared to some
other geophysical methods. The data obtained can serve as an
initial filter for narrowing down potential zones for further detailed
study.
5. Powerful Means of Dating Geological Events: Time of
formation of rock etc
6. Useful in Borehole Logging: The most common application
of radiometric techniques is in geophysical borehole logging for
estimation of porosity and detection fracture and underground
movement of fluids.
Principles of Radioactivity and Disintegration
 ATOM
 Atoms are the basic units of matter.
 The term "atom" comes from the Greek word for indivisible,
because it was once thought that atoms were the smallest
particle in the universe and could not be divided.
 We now know that atoms are made up of three particles
known as subatomic particles: protons, neutrons and electrons
- which are composed of even smaller particles, such
as quarks.
 Atoms were created after the Big Bang ~14 billion years ago.
As the hot, dense new universe cooled, conditions became
suitable for quarks and electrons to form. Quarks came
together to form protons and neutrons, and these particles
combined into nuclei.
 An atom is composed of two entities: a central nucleus,
containing most of the mass, and an array of orbiting electrons.
 Atomic Structure
Matter

Atoms

Nucleus Electron cloud

Neutrons Protons = electrons (in a neutral atom)

• The number of protons in an atom equals it’s atomic number
• Every atom has a unique atomic number
• Since electrons are easily gained or lost they determine the
overall charge of an atom.
The nucleus was discovered in 1911 by Ernest Rutherford, a physicist from New Zealand. In
1920, Rutherford proposed the name proton for the positively charged particles of the atom.
He also theorized that there was a neutral particle within the nucleus, which James
Chadwick, a British physicist and student of Rutherford, was able to confirm in 1932.
 Atomic Structure
Particle Symbol Location Charge Mass
Proton p+ nucleus 1+ 1 amu

Neutron no nucleus 0 1 amu

No charge

Electron e- Electron 1- 1/1840

cloud amu
• Let’s just consider the
scale of the atom
• In fact the tiny electrons
and quarks have no
observed structure and
are for all intents and
purposes fundamental.
Charge and mass of
the particles within
atoms
Elementary
Charge Mass
Particle
Proton +1 1
Neutron 0 1
Electron −1 ~0
1AMU = 1.67×10−27 kg
 The Problem of the Nucleus
• Why doesn’t the nucleus - full of positive
protons that repel one another and
neutral neutrons - blow itself apart?
 The Four Fundamental Forces
 The four fundamental forces: gravity, weak
nuclear, electromagnetism, and strong nuclear
which control the interactions in the universe
 All but gravity explained by the Standard Model of
particle physics
Gravity: 1 Gravity: infinite
Weak Nuclear Force : 1033 Weak Nuclear Force : 10-18 m
Electromagnetic: 1036 Electromagnetic: infinite
Strong Nuclear Force:1038 Strong Nuclear Force: 10-15 m
(Holds atomic nuclei together) (Holds atomic nuclei together)
Alpha particles: are helium nuclei (2He4) which are
emitted from the nucleus during certain disintegrations:

Beta particles: are electrons which may be emitted

when a neutron splits into a proton and an electron during
certain [Link] proton remains within the nucleus
so that the atomic weight remains the same but the
atomic number increases by one to form a new element:
Gamma rays: are pure electromagnetic radiation
released from excited nuclei during disintegration. They are
characterized by frequencies in excess of about 1016 Hz and
differ from X-rays only in being of higher energy.

K capture: In addition to these emissions, a further

process occurs in some radioactive elements which also
releases energy in the form of gamma rays. This is known as K
capture and takes place when an electron from the innermost
(K) shell enters the nucleus. The atomic number decreases
and a new element is formed:
 Isotopes
 The term isotope is named from the Greek roots isos
("equal") and topos ("place"), meaning "the same place“.
 Thus, the meaning behind the name is that different isotopes
of a single element occupy the same position in the periodic
table.
 A family of people often consists of related but not identical
individuals. Elements have families as well, known as
isotopes. Isotopes are members of a family of an element
that all have the same number of protons but different
numbers of neutrons.
 All isotopes of a given element have almost the same
chemical properties, but they have different atomic masses
and physical properties.
 The number of protons within the atom's nucleus is called
atomic number and is equal to the number of electrons in
the neutral (non-ionized) atom.
 Isotopes
• Atoms with the same number of protons but
different numbers of neutrons.
• An elements mass number is the number of
protons plus the number of neutrons.
• To determine the number of neutrons subtract
the atomic number from the mass number.
• Mass Number – atomic Number = Number of
neutrons
 U 238
92
U - 238
Determine the number of neutron in each isotope

1. 238 – 92 = 146 neutrons

2. 84 – 36 = 48 neutrons

3. 35 – 17 = 18 neutrons

4. 14 – 6 = 8 neutrons
 Isotopes of Carbon
Naturally occurring carbon consists of three isotopes, 12C, 13C, and 14C. State the
number of protons, neutrons, and electrons in each of these carbon atoms.
12C 13C 14C
6 6 6

12
#P _______
C _______13
C _______ 14C
6
#N _______ _______ 6 _______ 6
#E _______ _______ _______
#P __6___ _ 6___ ___6___

#N __6___ _ _7___ ___8___

#E __6___ _ 6___ ___6___

 Carbon occurs naturally in three isotopes: carbon 12,
carbon 13 and carbon 14.
 Every element has its own number of isotopes.
 The addition of even one neutron can dramatically change
an isotope’s properties.
 Carbon-12 is stable, meaning it never undergoes
radioactive decay.
 Carbon-14 is unstable and undergoes radioactive decay
with a half-life of about 5,730 years (meaning that half of
the material will be gone after 5,730 years).
 This decay means the amount of carbon-14 in an object
serves as a clock, showing the object’s age in a process
called “carbon dating.”
 Hydrogen exists as 3 isotopes. Although Hydrogen-1
makes up the vast majority of the naturally occurring
element.
1 2
1 H 1 H 3
1 H

Protons Protons Protons

Electrons Electrons Electrons
Neutrons Neutrons Neutrons

Hydrogen (Deuterium) (Tritium)

All have a different mass, tritium is radioactive but all react with
oxygen to form water.
 Isotope Facts
 All elements have isotopes.
 There are two main types of isotopes: stable and
unstable (radioactive).
 There are about 254 known stable isotopes, which have
not been observed to decay with available detection
equipment.
 All artificial (lab-made) isotopes are unstable and
therefore radioactive; scientists call them radioisotopes.
 Some elements can only exist in an unstable form (for
example, uranium).
 Hydrogen is the only element whose isotopes have
unique names: deuterium for hydrogen with one neutron
and tritium for hydrogen with two neutrons.
 Unstable Nuclides with Half-lives
A small number of
unstable nuclides
have sufficiently long
half-lives.

They have not

entirely decayed to
extinction since the
formation of the solar
system.

Nuclides with half-

lives over 1000 Gy
decay too slowly to
be geologically
useful.
 Importance of Isotopes
 Isotopes of an element have the same chemical behavior, but the
unstable isotopes undergo spontaneous decay during which they emit
radiation and achieve a stable state.
 They are important in nuclear medicine, oil and gas exploration, basic
research, and national security.
 Uranium is an example. U-235 and U-238 both contain 92 protons, but
U-238 has three extra neutrons and is more stable. Nuclear power
reactors work by “enriching” or increasing the percentage of U-235,
which is more easily fissioned or split.
 Today, isotopes are a fundamental part of science. Isotopes are used
in carbon-14 dating, a method for calculating geological age.
 However, isotopes are not always available in sufficient quantities or at
reasonable prices.
Isotones : One or more atoms having an equal number
of neutrons are called isotones.
Example 2
Example: 8O16  P=8, e=8, n=16-8=8 1H 
3 P=1, e=1, n=3-1=2

C14  P=6, e=6, n=14-6=8 2He 

4 P=2, e=2, n=4-2=2
6

Isobars: It is derived from the Greek word isos, meaning

"equal" and baros, meaning "weight". Isobars are atoms that
have the same mass number.

Example: 18Ar40  P=18, e=18, n=40-18=22,

Atomic mass Number=40

Ca40  P=20, e=20, n=40-20=20

20
Atomic mass Number=40
 The Law of Radioactive Decay
The rate of decay of a radioactive parent nuclide to a stable
daughter product is proportional to the number of atoms, n
present at any time t (Rutherford and Soddy, 1902):

…………………(1)

where λ is the constant of proportionality, which is characteristic

of the radionuclide in question and is called the decay constant
(expressed in units of reciprocal time). The decay constant
states the probability that a given atom of the radionuclide will
decay within a stated time. The term dn/dt is the rate of change
of the number of parent atoms, and is negative because this rate
decreases with time. Rearranging equation [1], we obtain:
 …………………(2)

This expression is integrated from t = 0 to t, given that the

number of atoms present at time t = 0 is n0.

…………………(3)

Hence …………………(4)

Which can be written as …………………(5)

A useful way of referring to the rate of decay of a radionuclide is
the ‘half-life’, t1/2, which is the time required for half of the parent
atoms to decay. Substituting n = n0/2 and t = t1/2 into equation
[5], and taking the natural log of both sides, we obtain:

……………(6)

The number of radiogenic daughter atoms formed, D , is equal

to the number of parent atoms consumed:
…………………(7)

but n0 = n eλt (from equation [5]); so substituting for n0 in

equation [7] yields:
……………..…(8)

………….……(9)
If the number of daughter atoms at time t = 0 is D0, then the total
number of daughter atoms after time t is given as:

………………………(10)

This equation is the fundamental basis of geochronological dating

tools. In the uranium series decay chains, the daughter products
of radioactive decay (other than the three Pb isotopes) are
themselves radioactive. Hence the rate of decay of such a
daughter product is given by the difference between its production
rate from the parent and its own decay rate:

…………………(11)

where n1 and λ1 are the abundance and decay constant of the

parent, and n2 and λ2 correspond to the daughter.
But equation [5] can be substituted for n1 in equation [11] to
yield:

…………(12)

this equation is integrated for a chosen set of initial conditions,

the simplest of which sets n2 = 0 at t = 0. Then:

…………(13)

This type of solution was first demonstrated by Bateman (1910)

and is named after him. Recently, Catchen (1984) examined
more general initial conditions for these equations, leading to
more complex solutions.
 Radioactivity of Rocks
 The radioactivity of rocks is primarily due to the presence of
naturally occurring radioactive isotopes, predominantly uranium-
238, thorium-232, and potassium-40.
 These isotopes are unstable and decay over time, emitting
gamma radiation. The levels of radioactivity vary significantly
among different rock types, largely due to their mineral
composition and formation environment. Following are
breakdown of the radioactivity in common rock types:
Igneous Rocks:
 Granitic Rocks: Granite and similar felsic rocks generally have
higher concentrations of uranium, thorium, and potassium,
making them among the more radioactive rock types.
Potassium-40, present in minerals like feldspar and mica, is
particularly common in these rocks.
 Basaltic Rocks: Basalts and other mafic rocks tend to have
lower radioactivity because they contain lower amounts of
potassium, uranium, and thorium compared to granites.
Sedimentary Rocks:
Shales and Clays: Shales, which often contain minerals that
can incorporate uranium and thorium, may exhibit relatively high
radioactivity levels. Organic-rich shales can also concentrate
uranium, contributing further to their radioactivity.
Sandstones and Carbonates: Pure sandstones and limestones
generally have low radioactivity, but certain sandstones may
show elevated radioactivity if they contain clay or detrital
minerals with uranium or thorium.

Metamorphic Rocks:
The radioactivity in metamorphic rocks depends largely on the
original rock composition and the degree of metamorphism. For
instance, gneiss, derived from granite, often retains high levels
of uranium, thorium, and potassium.
Typical abundances of important radioactive
elements in various rock types
Radioactive Minerals
 Instruments for Measuring Radioactivity
Several instruments are commonly used to measure
radioactivity in geological studies and exploration. These
devices detect and quantify the gamma, alpha, or beta
radiation emitted by radioactive isotopes like uranium, thorium,
and potassium. Following are the primary instruments used:
1. Scintillation Counters:
The scintillation counter or scintillometer is used to measure
gamma radiation based on the phenomenon that certain
substances such as thallium-treated sodium iodide and
lithium-drifted germanium convert gamma rays to light;
that is, they scintillate.
The light is converted into an electrical signal, allowing the
instrument to measure the intensity of gamma radiation in
counts per second (cps).
They are ideal for rapid field surveys and provide reasonably
accurate measurements of gamma radiation levels.
2. Geiger-Müller (GM) Counters:
The Geiger (or Geiger - Müller) counters are among the most widely
known instruments for detecting radioactivity. The GM counter
responds primarily to beta particles.
The Geiger counter is cheap and easy to use. However, since it only
responds to beta particles, its use is limited to ground surveys over
terrain with little soil cover.

3. Gamma-Ray Spectrometer:
The gamma-ray spectrometer is an extension of the scintillation
counter that enables the source element to be identified. This is
possible as the spectra of gamma rays from 40K, 232Th and 238U
contain peaks which represent stages in the decay series. Because
higher frequencies of gamma radiation correspond to higher energy
levels, it is customary to express the spectrum in terms of energy.
Spectrometers are used both on the ground and from airborne
platforms for large-scale surveys, and they provide detailed data on
elemental composition in the surveyed area.
4. Radon Emanometer: Radon emanometry is concerned
mainly with detection and measurement of radon in soil ground
water. Because Radon is a noble gas, it does not form
compound with other elements and can move freely through
the pores, fissures, joints and faults distances up to several
hundred meters.

Radon can also dissolve in groundwater and can travel

considerable distance from source rock of Uranium before
being detected.
 Radiometric Exploration Techniques
Ground-Based Surveys: Handheld or portable gamma-ray
spectrometers and scintillation counters are used on the
ground to measure radioactivity at specific locations. Ground
surveys are useful for detailed mapping and analysis in smaller
areas or as a follow-up to airborne surveys.
Airborne Surveys: Airborne gamma-ray spectrometers are
mounted on planes or drones to cover large areas quickly. This
technique is efficient for regional exploration and mapping, as
it can identify areas with high concentrations of uranium,
thorium, or potassium, narrowing down regions for further
ground-based exploration.
Laboratory Analysis: In addition to field measurements, rock
or soil samples can be collected and analyzed in a laboratory
using high-resolution gamma-ray spectrometry to precisely
determine radioactive element concentrations.
An Example of Radiometric Surveying
The anomalies arise from magnetite and pitchblende, located
immediately beneath the anomaly maxima, in an argillaceous
and quartzitic host. Pitchblende is a variety of massive,
botryoidal or colloform Uraninite.
Radiometric and Magnetic Profiles
A zone of Uranium Mineralization
Pillow lava at CIR observed during manned submersible dive