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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE : MVJ20EC35
SUBJECT NAME: ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
LECTURE PRESENTATION MODULE – 3

FACULTY : Dr. Utsab Banerjee , Asst. Prof, Dept. of ECE

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 Module Structure
MODULE-3
Magnetostatics: Steady Magnetic Field: Biot-Savart Law, Ampere’s circuital law, Curl, Stoke’s
theorem, Gauss’s law for magnetic fields, Magnetic flux and Magnetic flux density, Magnetic Scalar
and Vector Potentials.
Magnetic Forces and magnetic materials: Force on a moving charge and differential current
element, Force between differential current elements, Magnetization, magnetic susceptibility,
permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, Inductances, magnetic energy, magnetic circuit.
Text Book:
• 1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Elements of Electromagnetics”, Oxford University Press, Edition VII,
2018.
Reference Books:
• 1. David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 4th edition, 2014.
• 2. W.H. Hayt. J.A. Buck & M Jaleel Akhtar, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, Tata McGraw – Hill,
Edition VIII, 2014. 2

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 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
• CO1: Evaluate problems on electrostatic force, electric field due to point, linear, surface charge
and volume charges.
• CO2: Apply Gauss law to evaluate Electric fields due to different charge distributions by using
Divergence Theorem. Determine potential and capacitance using Laplace equation and Poisson
equation.
• CO3: Apply Biot-Savart’s and Ampere’s laws for evaluating Magnetic field for different current
configurations.
• CO4: Apply Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields and evaluate power associated with EM
waves using Poynting theorem.
• CO5: Determine the parameters of transmission lines for determining the impedance and
admittance.

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General Introduction
In this module, we focus our attention on static magnetic fields, which are characterized by 𝐻 or 𝐵.
There are definite similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields. As 𝐸 and 𝐷
are related according to 𝐷 = 𝜀𝐸, for linear material space, 𝐻 and 𝐵 are related according to 𝐵 =
𝜇𝐻.
A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established by Oersted in 1820.

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 Generation of Magnetostatic Fields
As we have noticed in the previous module, an electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary
charges in a material space.
If the charges are moving with constant velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is
produced.
A magnetostatic field is produced by a constant current flow (or direct current). This current flow
may be due to magnetization currents as in permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in
vacuum tubes, or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.

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 Applications of Magnetostatic fields
Magnetostatic fields can have a wide array of applications:
Motors
Transformers
Microphones
Compasses
Telephone bell
Ringers
Television focusing controls
Advertising displays
Magnetically levitated highspeed vehicles
Memory stores
Magnetic separators…to name a few
6

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 Two governing laws of Magnetostatics
There are two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:
(1) Biot-Savart's law, and
(2) Ampere's circuit law.
Like Coulomb's law in the electrostatic field, Biot-Savart's law is the general law of magnetostatics.
Just as Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's
law and can be comprehensively applied in problems involving symmetrical current distribution.

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 Biot – Savart’s law
Biot – Savart’s law states that the magnetic field intensity 𝑑𝐻, produced at a point P, by a differential current element 𝐼.Ԧ dl, is:
Proportional to the product 𝐼.Ԧ dl
Proportional to sine of the angle α between the element, and the line joining the element with the observation point ‘P’.
Inversely proportional to the square of the distance ‘R’ between the element and the observation point ‘P’
Thus, mathematically,
𝐼. 𝑑𝑙. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑑𝐻 ∝
𝑅2

𝑘.𝐼.𝑑𝑙.𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Or 𝑑𝐻 =
𝑅2

1
Where, ‘k’ is a constant of proportionality, in SI unit 𝑘 = 4𝜋, so the equation becomes

𝐼. 𝑑𝑙. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋𝑅2

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If we want to express ‘dH’ in vector form, then we can write:
𝐼𝑑𝒍 × 𝑎ෞ𝑅
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋𝑅2

𝐼𝑑𝑙×𝑅
𝑑𝐻 = 4𝜋𝑅 3
…(1)
Just as we have different charge distributions, we may also have different current distributions, like,
linear current, surface current, or a volume current distribution.
In those cases,
𝐼𝑑𝒍×𝑎ෞ𝑅
𝐻=‫׬‬ 4𝜋𝑅 2
→→ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(2)
𝑲𝑑𝑆×𝑎ෞ𝑅
𝐻=‫׭‬ 4𝜋𝑅 2
→→ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(3)
𝑱𝑑𝑉×𝑎ෞ𝑅
𝐻=‫׮‬ 4𝜋𝑅 2
→→ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(4)
Where, 𝐾 & 𝐽Ԧ represent the surface and volume current densities in 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠. 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 −2 and
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠. 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟 −3 respectively 9

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 Magnetostatic field due to a linear current
Let us consider a straight current conducting wire of finite length ‘AB’.
The conductor is along the z-axis with its lower and upper ends
respectively subtending angles 𝛼1 and 𝛼2 at the point ‘P’, where
the field is to be determined.
If we consider the contribution d𝐻 at P due to an element 𝑑𝒍 at
(0, 0, z), then,
𝐼𝑑𝒍 × 𝑅
𝑑𝐻 =
4𝜋𝑅3
But, 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝑧. 𝑎
ෞ𝑧 and 𝑅 = 𝜌. 𝑎
ෞ𝜌 − 𝑧. 𝑎
ෞ𝑧
So,
𝑑𝒍 × 𝑅 = 𝜌. 𝑑𝑧. 𝑎ෞ
𝜑

10

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Hence,
𝐼. 𝜌. 𝑑𝑧
𝐻= 3 . 𝑎ෞ𝜑
4𝜋 + 𝜌2 𝑧 2 ൗ2
From the figure, z = ρ.cot α, 𝑑𝑧 = −𝜌. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼. 𝑑𝛼. Thus the equation becomes,

𝐼 𝛼1 𝜌 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝛼. 𝑑𝛼
𝐻=− න 𝑎ෞ𝜑
4𝜋 𝛼1 𝜌 3 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 3 𝛼

𝛼2
𝐼
𝐻=− . 𝑎ෞ න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼. 𝑑𝛼
4𝜋𝜌 𝜑 𝛼1
𝐼
𝐻= 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 . 𝑎ෞ𝜑 …(5)
4𝜋𝜌
It is to be noted that, 𝐻 is always along the unit vector 𝑎ෞ𝜑 (i.e., along concentric circular paths)
irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P.
11

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We may encounter two special cases:
Case 1: The wire is semi-infinite in length, i.e. the point ‘A’ is now at O (0, 0, 0) and the point ‘B’ is now at
(0, 0, ∞).
In that case, 𝛼1 = 90° & 𝛼2 = 0°
So, equation (5) becomes
𝐼
. 𝑎ෞ 𝐻=
4𝜋𝜌 𝜑
Case 2: The wire is infinite in length, i.e. the point ‘A’ is now at O (0, 0, -∞) and the point ‘B’ is now at (0,
0, ∞).
In that case, 𝛼1 = 180° & 𝛼2 = 0°
So, equation (5) becomes
𝐼
𝐻= . 𝑎ෞ
2𝜋𝜌 𝜑
The unit vector, 𝑎ෞ𝜑 is defined as
𝑎ෞ𝜑 = 𝑎ෝ𝑙 × 𝑎
ෞ𝜌
Where, 𝑎ෝ𝑙 is the unit vector along the line current and 𝑎
ෞ𝜌 is the unit vector along the perpendicular line 12
from the line current to the field point.

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 Ampere’s Circuit law
Ampere’s Circuit law states that the line integral of the tangential component of the magnetic field intensity 𝑯,
around a closed path, is equal to the net current enclosed by that path.
Mathematically, ‫𝐻 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 …(6)

Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it can be conveniently implemented to determine 𝐻 when the current
distribution is symmetrical.
It should be noted that Ampere’s circuit law always holds whether the current distribution is symmetrical or not, but,
we can only use the equation to determine 𝐻 when the current distribution is symmetrical.
Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's law in a way that the former may be derived from the latter.

13

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 Stoke’s theorem

For an incremental length (dl) of a conducting element and an

incremental area (da) of a conducting surface, Stoke’s law is stated as:-
The closed line integral of a vector 𝑨 over a path length dl, is equal to
the surface integral of the curl of the vector 𝑨, over an area da,
enclosed by the path.
Mathematically,
ර 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑙 = ඵ ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑎

14

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 Application of Stoke’s theorem in Ampere’s Circuit law
Applying Stoke’s theorem to equation (6), we get
ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = ඵ ∇ × 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑆

Also,
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ඵ 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆

Thus,
ඵ ∇ × 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ 𝐽Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆

Which implies that,

∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ …(7)
It should be noted that observe that ∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽Ԧ ≠ 0; that is, magnetostatic field is not 15
conservative.

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 Applications of Ampere’s Circuit law
Ampere’s Circuit law can be used to determine the magnetic field intensity due to an infinite line
current, an infinite current sheet, and an infinitely long coaxial transmission line.
The operational steps are similar to that encountered in the applications of Gauss’s law.
We will take up the three cases one by one.

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 Magnetic field intensity due to an infinite line current
Consider an infinitely long filamentary current 𝐼Ԧ along the z-axis as shown in the figure. To
determine 𝐻 at an observation point P, we consider a closed path pass through P. This path, on
which Ampere's law is to be applied, is known as an Amperian path (analogous to the term
Gaussian surface). We choose a concentric circle as the Amperian path, which shows that 𝐻 is
constant provided ρ is constant. Since this path encloses the whole current 𝐼Ԧ , according to
Ampere's law:
𝐼 = න 𝐻𝜑 𝑎𝜑 . 𝜌𝑑𝜑𝑎𝜑 = 𝐻𝜑 න 𝜌. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝐻𝜑 . 2𝜋𝜌

So,
𝐼
𝐻= 𝑎ෞ
2𝜋𝜌 𝜑

17

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 Magnetic field intensity due to an infinite sheet of
current
Consider an infinite current sheet in the z = 0 plane. If the sheet has a uniform current density 𝐾
= 𝐾𝑦 𝑎ෞ𝑦 as shown in the figure, applying Ampere's law to the rectangular closed path (Amperian path)
gives:
‫ 𝐻 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐾𝑦 . 𝑏…(8)
The infinite sheet can be considered to be composed of current
carrying filaments. It can be shown that the resultant 𝒅𝑯 has
only x-component.
Also, 𝐻 on one side of the sheet is negative of that on the other
side.
Thus, the magnetic field intensity is given by:
𝐻0 . 𝑎
ෞ𝑥 →→ 𝑧 > 0
𝐻=ቊ
−𝐻0 . 𝑎ෞ𝑥 →→ 𝑧 < 0
Where, 𝐻0 is to be determined. 18

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Evaluating the line integral for 𝐻, over the closed path 1-2-3-4-1, we get
2 3 4 1
ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = (න + න + න + න )𝐻. 𝑑𝒍
1 2 3 4
= 0. −𝑎 + −𝐻0 −𝑏 + 0 𝑎 + 𝐻0(𝑏)
= 2𝐻0. 𝑏 …(9)
Comparing equations (8) & (9), we get
𝐾𝑦 . 𝑏 = 2𝐻0. 𝑏
Or,
1
𝐻0 = 𝐾𝑦
2
1
𝐾𝑦 . 𝑎
ෞ𝑥 →→ 𝑧 > 0
𝐻= 2
1
− 𝐾𝑦 . 𝑎 ෞ𝑥 →→ 𝑧 < 0
2
Thus, generally we have,
1
𝐻 = 𝐾. 𝑎ෞ𝑛
2
𝑎ෞ𝑛 being the unit normal vector directed from the sheet of current to the point of observation. 19

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 Magnetic field intensity due to an infinite coaxial cable
Let us consider an infinitely long coaxial cable, as shown.
There are two coaxial conductors (shaded regions),
whose axes are aligned with the z-axis.
The inner conductor is of radius ‘a’ and carries a uniform
Ԧ while the outer conductor has an inner radius
current 𝐼,
Ԧ
‘b’, a thickness ‘t’ and carries a current −𝐼.
Its our objective to determine 𝐻 within the conductor.
Since the current distribution is symmetric, we deploy
Ampere’s circuit law on all possible Amperian paths, as
shown.
20

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As seen from the figure, there are four Amperian paths for the regions:
0 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑎 ; 𝑎 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏 ; 𝑏 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌 ≥ 𝑏 + 𝑡
For the region, 𝟎 ≤ 𝝆 ≤ 𝒂, we apply Ampere’s circuit law to the path 𝑳𝟏
ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ඵ 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆

Since the current is uniformly distributed over the cross section, we get
𝐼
𝐽Ԧ = 2 . 𝑎ෞ𝑧 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑺 = 𝜌. 𝑑𝜑. 𝑑𝜌. 𝑎 ෞ𝑧
𝜋𝑎
We have
𝐼
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = ඵ 𝐽.Ԧ 𝑑𝑺 = 2 ඵ 𝜌. 𝑑𝜑 . 𝑑𝜌
𝜋𝑎
2𝜋
𝑎
𝐼
= 2 න 𝑑𝜑 න 𝜌. 𝑑𝜌
𝜋𝑎 0
0
𝐼 𝜌2
= 2 . 2𝜋.
𝜋𝑎 2 21
𝐼.𝜌2
∴ 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝑎2
…(10)
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Also,
‫𝐻 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻𝜑 ‫ 𝜑𝐻 = 𝑙𝑑 ׬‬. 2𝜋𝜌 …(11)
Comparing equations (10) and (11), we get,
𝐼𝜌2
𝐻𝜑 . 2𝜋𝜌 = 2
𝑎
Or,
𝐼𝜌
𝐻𝜑 =
2𝜋𝑎2

22

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For the region 𝒂 ≤ 𝝆 ≤ 𝒃 , we consider 𝑳𝟐 as the Amperian path.
ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼

𝐻𝜑 . 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼

𝐼
𝐻𝜑 =
2𝜋𝜌
Observations:
i. The whole current is enclosed within 𝐿2
ii. Hφ is independent upon ‘a’

23

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For the region b≤ 𝝆 ≤ 𝒃 + 𝒕, we consider 𝑳𝟑 as the Amperian path.
‫𝐻 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 𝐻𝜑 . 2𝜋𝜌 = 𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 …(12)
Where,
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 + ‫𝐽 ׭‬.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆 …(13)
𝐽Ԧ is the current density of the outer conductor and is directed along −ෞ
𝑎𝑧 .
𝐼
𝐽Ԧ = − .𝑎ෞ𝑧
𝜋 𝑏 + 𝑡 2 − 𝑏2
Form (13), we get
𝐼 2𝜋 𝜌
𝐼𝑒𝑛𝑐 = 𝐼 − ‫=𝜑׬‬0 ‫𝜌 𝑏=𝜌׬‬. 𝑑𝜑. 𝑑𝜌
𝜋 𝑏+𝑡 2 −𝑏 2

𝜌2 − 𝑏2
=𝐼 1− 2
𝑡 + 2𝑏𝑡
Comparing this expression with equation (12), we get

𝐼 𝜌2 − 𝑏2
𝐻𝜑 = 1− 2 24
2𝜋𝜌 𝑡 + 2𝑏𝑡

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For the region 𝝆 ≥ 𝒃 + 𝒕, we consider 𝑳𝟒 as the Amperian path.
We observe that within that Amperian path, the net current enclosed is 𝐼Ԧ − 𝐼Ԧ = 0
So, 𝐻𝜑 = 0
So, to summarize, we can say that:
𝐼𝜌
→→ 0 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑎
2𝜋𝑎2
𝐻𝜑 = 𝐼
→→ 𝑎 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏
2𝜋𝜌

𝐼 𝜌2 − 𝑏2
1− 2 →→ 𝑏 ≤ 𝜌 ≤ 𝑏 + 𝑡
𝐻𝜑 = ൞2𝜋𝜌 𝑡 + 2𝑏𝑡
0 →→ 𝜌 ≥ 𝑏 + 𝑡
The key to evaluating 𝐻𝜑 , is to take it out of the integral.
Thus on any Amperian path, 𝐻 should be constant.
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 Gauss’s law for Magnetic fields, Magnetic Flux and Flux
density
The magnetic flux density gives an estimation of the magnetic power passing through an unit area.
Magnetic flux density 𝐵 is related to the magnetic field intensity 𝐻 as
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻
𝜇0 is known as the permeability of free space and its value is
𝜇0 = 4𝜋 × 10−7 𝐻. 𝑚−1
The magnetic flux through a given surface is expressed as:
Ψ = ඵ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆

The magnetic flux is expressed in Webers, and the flux density as Webers/meter.

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Properties of magnetic flux lines:
i. The magnetic flux line is the path to which B is tangential at every point in a magnetic field.
ii. It is the line along which the needle of a magnetic compass will orient itself if placed in the
magnetic field.
iii. Each flux line is closed and has no beginning or end.
iv. The direction of B is taken as that indicated as "north" by the needle of the magnetic compass.

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 Gauss’s law in magnetic field
We know that magnetic poles always exist in pairs. This means that there are no isolated magnetic
monopoles.
If this is the case, then the total magnetic flux, through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be
zero. Expressed mathematically,
‫𝐵 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 0 …(14)
This is the law of conservation of magnetic flux, popularly known as Gauss’s law for magnetostatic
fields.
Applying divergence theorem to equation (14), we get
඾ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = ම ∇. 𝐵 . 𝑑𝑉 = 0

Which means,
∇. 𝐵 = 0 …(15)
Equation (14) and (15) represent the integral and differential form for Maxwell’s equation for 28
magnetic fields.

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 Magnetic scalar and vector potentials
The potential associated with a magnetostatic field is known as a magnetic potential.
Magnetic potential can be scalar or vector, accordingly, we have the magnetic scalar potential (𝑉𝑚 )
Ԧ
and the magnetic vector potential (𝐴).
Definition of these two magnetic potentials requires the usage of two vector identities:
∇ × ∇𝑉 = 0 &

∇. ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ = 0
Magnetic scalar potential is related to the magnetic field intensity as:
𝐻 = −∇𝑉𝑚
It is already known that 𝐽Ԧ = ∇ × 𝐻
∴ 𝐽Ԧ = ∇ × 𝐻 = ∇ × −∇𝑉𝑚 = 0
Thus the magnetic scalar potential 𝑉𝑚 is only defined in a region where 𝐽Ԧ = 0
It is also to be noted that the magnetic scalar potential satisfies Laplace’s equation. Thus, 29

∇2 𝑉𝑚 = 0
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 Ԧ such that
We can define the magnetic vector potential 𝐴,
𝐵 = ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ
Just as we have defined the electric potential for different charge distributions, it is possible to
define the magnetic vector potential for different current distributions, like

𝜇0 𝐼.𝑑𝒍
𝐴Ԧ = ‫ ׬‬4𝜋𝑅 →→ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(16)

𝜇 𝑲.𝑑𝑆
𝐴Ԧ = ‫ ׭‬04𝜋𝑅 →→ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(17)

𝜇0 𝑱.𝑑𝑉
𝐴Ԧ = ‫ ׮‬4𝜋𝑅 →→ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 …(18)

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We will derive equation (16), with respect to the definition of the magnetic field intensity.
In light of equation (2), we can write
𝜇0 𝐼.𝑑𝑙 ′ ×𝑅
𝐵= ‫׬‬ …(19)
4𝜋 𝑅3
Where 𝑅 is the distance vector from the source point (x’, y’, z’), located on the line carrying the
current element dl, and the field point (x, y, z).
1
𝑅 = 𝒓 − 𝒓′ = 𝑥 − 𝑥′ 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑦′ 2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2 ൗ2
We have
1 𝑥 − 𝑥′ 𝑎 ෞ𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑦 ′ 𝑎ෞ𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ 𝑎
ෞ𝑧 𝑅
∇ =− 3ൗ = − 𝑅3
𝑅 ′ 2
𝑥−𝑥 + 𝑦−𝑦 + 𝑧−𝑧 ′ 2 ′ 2 2

Or,
𝑅 1
= −∇
𝑅3 𝑅
Thus, we can write equation (19) as
𝜇 1 31
𝐵 = − 4𝜋0 ‫𝐼 ׬‬. 𝑑𝒍′ × ∇ 𝑅
…(20)

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Applying the vector identity
1
∇ × 𝑎. 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑎. ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐴Ԧ ×(∇𝑎) to equation (20), we get by considering 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑑𝒍′
𝑅
1 1 𝑑𝑙′
𝑑𝑙 ′ × ∇ = . ∇ × 𝑑𝑙 ′ − ∇ ×
𝑅 𝑅 𝑅
Since ∇ operates with respect to (x, y, z), but dl’ is a function of (x’, y’, z’), we have ∇ × 𝑑𝑙 ′ = 0
′ 1 𝑑𝑙 ′
So, 𝑑𝑙 × ∇ = −∇ ×
𝑅 𝑅
With this, equation (20) simplifies as
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙′
𝐵=− න 𝐼. −∇ ×
4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇0 𝐼𝑑𝒍′
=∇×න
4𝜋𝑅
Ԧ we can say that
Comparing this equation with 𝐵 = ∇ × 𝐴,
𝜇 𝐼𝑑𝒍 ′
𝐴Ԧ = ‫ ׬‬0 32
4𝜋𝑅
Thereby validating equation (16)
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Also we know that
Ψ = ඵ 𝐵. 𝑑𝑆 = ඵ ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑆 = ර 𝐴Ԧ . 𝑑𝑙

Thus,
Ψ = ‫𝐴 ׯ‬Ԧ . 𝑑𝑙 …(21)
Hence, the magnetic flux can be found out using either the magnetic flux density 𝐵 or by using the
Ԧ
magnetic vector potential 𝐴.
It can be seen in research that the use of the magnetic vector potential provides a powerful, elegant
approach to solving EM problems, particularly those relating to antennas.

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 Magnetic forces and Magnetic materials
We are in a context to discuss the force a magnetic field exerts on charged particles, current
elements, and loops.
Such a study is important to problems on electrical devices such as ammeters, voltmeters,
galvanometers, cyclotrons, plasmas, motors, and magneto-hydrodynamic generators.
Further, the behaviour of magnetic fields in material media will be taken up and discussed in
contrast to magnetic fields in vacuum or free space.
In a magnetic field, a force can be exerted in three different ways:
i. Due to a moving charged particle in a magnetic field.
ii. On a current element in an external magnetic field.
iii. In between two current elements.
We will take up the cases individually

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 Force on a moving charged particle in a magnetic field
The force 𝐹𝑚 experienced by a charge Q, moving with a velocity 𝑢 in a magnetic field 𝐵, is given by:
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑄𝑢 × 𝐵 …(22)
Thus clearly, 𝐹𝑚 is perpendicular to both 𝑢 and 𝐵
Also we know that, in an electric field, from Coulomb’s law,
𝐹𝑒 = 𝑄𝐸 …(23)
Based on these two equations, a comparison can be made between 𝐹𝑒 and 𝐹𝑚
i. Fe is independent upon the velocity of the charged particle. This force does work on the charged particle and
increases its kinetic energy.
ii. On contrast, 𝐹𝑚 depends upon the velocity of the charged body and is directed normal to it.
iii. 𝑭𝒎 cannot perform any work, as it is directed normal to the direction of motion of the charged body i.e. [Link]
= 0. As a result, it cannot increase the kinetic energy of the charged body.
iv. The magnitude of Fm is generally small as compared to 𝐹𝑒 , unless at large velocities.

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 Force on a moving charge in an electric and magnetic
field
For a moving charge, ‘Q’ in the presence of both an electric and a magnetic field, the force acting on
the charged body is given by:
𝐹Ԧ = 𝐹𝑒 + 𝐹𝑚
Or,
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑄(𝐸 + 𝑢 × 𝐵) …(24)
Equation (24) is known as the Lorentz force condition, and it relates mechanical force with electrical
force.
If the mass of the charged particle by ‘m’, then, according to Newton’s second law, we have
𝑑𝑢
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚 𝑑𝑡
= 𝑄(𝐸 + 𝑢 × 𝐵) …(25)
The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in 𝐸 and
𝐵 fields.
We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by means of the electric
field. 36

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 Force on a current element in a Magnetic field
To determine the force on a current element [Link], of a current carrying conductor, due to a magnetic
field 𝐵, we consider the current density to be expressed as:
𝐽Ԧ = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑢
Also, we recall that, 𝐼. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑲. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑱. 𝑑𝑉
So, 𝐼. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑢. dV = 𝜌𝑉 . dV 𝑢 = 𝑑𝑄. 𝑢
Thus, 𝐼. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝑑𝑄. 𝑢
Thus, an incremental charge dQ, moving with a velocity 𝑢, is equivalent to the current element 𝐼. 𝑑𝒍.
Using this concept in equation (22) we get,
𝑑𝐹Ԧ = 𝐼. 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
The net force for a current I, through a closed path L, is given by:
𝐹Ԧ = ර 𝐼. 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
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It should be clearly understood that the magnetic field produced by the current element [Link] does not
exert force on the element itself just as a point charge does not exert force on itself.
The magnetic field 𝐵, which exerts force on the element [Link], must be due to another element.
The magnetic field 𝑩 is external to the element [Link]
For surface current density ‘K’, and volume current density ‘J’, similarly we have
𝑑 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑲. 𝑑𝑆 × 𝐵
𝑑 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑱. 𝑑𝑉 × 𝐵
The net force in those cases are given by:
𝐹Ԧ = ඵ 𝑲. 𝑑𝑆 × 𝐵

and
𝐹Ԧ = ම 𝑱. 𝑑𝑉 × 𝐵

In light of these equations, the magnetic field 𝑩 can also be defined as the magnetic force per unit
current element. (be it linear, surface or volume current distribution). 38

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 Force between two differential current elements
We now find the force on two current elements 𝐼1 . 𝑑𝑙1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 . 𝑑𝑙2 .
According to Biot-Savart’s law, both the elements produce magnetic fields.
In order to find the force 𝑑(𝑑𝐹1 ), on the current element 𝐼1 . 𝑑𝑙1 , due to the magnetic field 𝑑𝐵2 ,
produced by the element 𝐼2 . 𝑑𝑙2 , we can say that,
𝑑 𝑑𝐹1 = 𝐼1 . 𝑑𝑙1 × 𝑑𝐵2
But, from Biot-Savart’s law, we know that,
𝜇0 . 𝐼2 . 𝑑𝑙2 × 𝑎
ෟ𝑅21
𝑑𝐵2 =
4𝜋𝑅21 2
Substituting, we get,
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝑑𝑙1 × 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙2 × ෟ
𝑎𝑅21
𝑑 𝑑𝐹1 =
4𝜋𝑅21 2
Thus,
𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙1 × (𝑑𝑙2 × ෟ
𝑎𝑅21 )
𝐹1 = රර 39
4𝜋 𝑅21 2

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The force 𝐹2 on the current element 𝐼2 . 𝑑𝑙2 due to the field 𝐵1 produced by the element 𝐼1 . 𝑑𝑙1 is
obtained just by interchanging the subscripts 1 and 2 in the previous equation. i.e.

𝜇0 𝐼1 𝐼2 𝑑𝑙2 × (𝑑𝑙1 × ෟ
𝑎𝑅12 )
𝐹1 = රර
4𝜋 𝑅12 2
Form the property of cross product, it can be easily seen that
𝐹1 = −𝐹2
Thus, 𝐹1 & 𝐹2 obey Newton’s third law for action – reaction pair.

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 Magnetic torque and moment
Let us consider a rectangular loop of length ‘l’ and width ‘w’ in a uniform magnetic field 𝐵. We also
observe that dl is perpendicular to the sides 12 & 34 of the loop, and so, no
Force is exerted on those sides. Thus, the net force is given by:

3 1
𝐹Ԧ = 𝐼 න 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵 + 𝐼 න 𝑑𝑙 × 𝐵
𝑙 2 𝑙 4
= 𝐼 න 𝑑𝑧. 𝑎
ෞ𝑧 × 𝐵 + 𝐼 න 𝑑𝑧. (−ෞ
𝑎𝑧 ) × 𝐵
0 0
= 𝐹0 + (−𝐹0 )
=0
Thus no resultant force is exerted on the loop as a whole.
However, 𝐹0 and −𝐹0 act on different parts of the loop, hence they generate a couple.
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Let us consider that the normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle α
with 𝐵.
The torque on the loop is
𝑇 = 𝐹0 𝑤. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
Or, 𝑇 = 𝐵𝐼𝑙𝑤. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
But 𝑙𝑤 = S, the area of the loop
𝑇 = 𝐵𝐼𝑆. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
In this context, we define the quantity 𝑚 = 𝐼𝑆. 𝑎ෞ𝑛 , as the magnetic dipole
moment expressed in 𝐴. 𝑚2 .
Thus, magnetic dipole moment is defined as the product of the current and area of the loop. Its direction is
normal to the loop.
Thus we have
𝑇 =𝑚×𝐵
Throughout the derivation, we have to consider that the magnetic field is uniform.
It is directed such as to reduce ‘α’ so that 𝑚 and 𝐵 are in the same direction.
In an equilibrium position (when 𝑚 and 𝐵 are in the same direction), the loop is perpendicular to the magnetic
42
field and the torque will be zero as well as the sum of the forces on the loop.

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 Magnetic dipole
A bar magnet, or a small current carrying loop may be referred to as a magnetic dipole.
Let us determine the magnetic field 𝐵 , at an observation point P(r, θ, ϕ), due to a circular loop carrying current ‘I’, as
shown.
The magnetic vector potential at the point ‘P’ is given by:
𝜇0𝐼 𝑑𝒍
𝐴Ԧ = ර
4𝜋 𝑟
It can be experimentally shown that in the far field, i.e. r >> a,
𝐴Ԧ has only the ϕ component. i.e.
𝜇0𝐼𝜋𝑎2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑎ෞ 𝜑
𝐴Ԧ =
4𝜋𝑟 2
Or,
𝜇0(𝑚 × 𝑎 ෞ𝑟 )
𝐴Ԧ =
4𝜋𝑟 2
Where, 𝑚 = 𝐼𝜋𝑎2. 𝑎 ෞ𝑧 and 𝑎
ෞ𝑧 × 𝑎
ෞ𝑟 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑎ෞ𝜑

Once 𝐴Ԧ has been obtained, we can determine 𝐵 from 𝐵 = ∇ × 𝐴Ԧ 43

𝜇0𝑚
𝐵= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃. 𝑎ෞ𝑟 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑎ෞ𝜃
4𝜋𝑟 3
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Magnetic field lines

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 Magnetization
We consider the magnetic moments in an enclosed volume with and without an applied, external
magnetic field 𝐵. Consider the following figures:

Without an external magnetic field, the net magnetic moment is ‘0’ due to the random orientation
of the individual magnetic moments of the electrons, as seen in figure (a).
Upon application of an external magnetic field 𝐵 , the magnetic moments of the constituent
electrons align with 𝐵, so that the net magnetic moment is not ‘0’, as seen in figure (b). 45

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The magnetization 𝑀 (in Amperes/meter) is defined as the magnetic dipole moment per unit
volume.
If there are N atoms in a given volume ∆𝑉, then the magnetization is given as:

σ𝑁
𝑘=1 𝑚𝑘
𝑀 = lim
∆𝑉→0 ∆𝑉
Where, 𝑚𝑘 is the magnetic moment of the k’th atom.
A medium, for which 𝑴 is not ‘0’ everywhere is said to be magnetized.
For a differential volume dv’, the magnetic moment is d𝑚 = 𝑀. 𝑑𝑣′
The vector magnetic potential due to d𝑚 is given by

𝜇0 𝑀 × 𝑎ෞ𝑅 ′ 𝜇0 𝑀 × 𝑅
𝑑𝐴Ԧ = 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑑𝑣′
4𝜋𝑅2 4𝜋𝑅3
𝑅 1 1
Already observed in equation (20), 𝑅 3 = −∇ 𝑅
= ∇′ 𝑅
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 𝜇 1
Hence, 𝐴Ԧ = 4𝜋0 ‫∇ × 𝑀 ׬‬′ 𝑅 𝑑𝑣′ …(26)
1 1 𝑀
Also, 𝑀 × ∇′ 𝑅 = 𝑅 ∇′ × 𝑀 − ∇′ × 𝑅
Substituting this equation in (26), we get,
𝜇0 ∇′ × 𝑀 𝜇0 𝑀
𝐴Ԧ = න 𝑑𝑣′ − න ∇′ × 𝑑𝑣′
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅

Applying the vector identity ‫∇ ׬‬′ × 𝐹Ԧ 𝑑𝑣 ′ = − ‫𝐹 ׯ‬Ԧ × 𝑑𝑆, we get

𝜇0 ∇′ × 𝑀 𝜇0 𝑀 × 𝑎ෞ𝑛 ′
Ԧ
𝐴= න 𝑑𝑣′ + ර 𝑑𝑆
4𝜋 𝑅 4𝜋 𝑅
𝜇 𝐽 𝜇 𝐾𝑏 ′
= 4𝜋0 ‫𝑣𝑑 𝑏𝑅 ׬‬′ + 4𝜋0 ‫ׯ‬ 𝑅
𝑑𝑆
Comparing these two equations we can say that:
𝐽𝑏 = ∇ × 𝑀
And, 𝐾𝑏 = 𝑀 × 𝑎ෞ𝑛
Where,
𝐽𝑏 is the bound volume current density or magnetization volume current density (in Amperes/meter sq)
47
𝐾𝑏 is bound surface current density (in Amperes/meter), 𝑎ෞ𝑛 is a unit vector, normal to the surface.

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 Magnetic susceptibility
In free space, 𝑀 = 0. Thus we have
𝐵
∇ × 𝐻 = 𝐽𝑓 = ∇ × →→ 𝑎𝑠 𝐵 = 𝜇0. 𝐻
𝜇0
Where, 𝐽𝑓 is the free volume current density. In a material medium, 𝑀 is not equal to 0. So,
𝐵
∇× 𝜇0
= 𝐽𝑓 + 𝐽𝑏 = 𝐽Ԧ
= ∇ × 𝐻 + (∇ × 𝑀)
So, 𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝑀 …(27)
This equation holds true for linear as well as non-linear media.
For a linear medium, 𝑀 depends upon 𝐻 linearly, such that
𝑀 = 𝛾𝑚 𝐻 …(28)
𝜸𝒎 is a dimensionless quantity, known as the magnetic susceptibility of the medium.
It generally gives a measure of how much responsive the medium is to a magnetic field.
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 Magnetic permeability
Substituting (28) into (27), we get
𝐵 = 𝜇0 𝐻 + 𝛾𝑚 𝐻

𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝜇𝑟 𝐻

𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻

𝜇
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝛾𝑚 =
𝜇0
The quantity, 𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 is known as the permeability of the medium and is expressed in Henry/meter.
The dimensionless quantity 𝜇𝑟 is the ratio of the permeability of a given material to that of free space
and is known as the relative permeability of the material.
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 Magnetic materials
Materials can be broadly classified into:
1. Non-magnetic- If 𝛾𝑚 = 0 or 𝜇𝑟 = 1. eg. Free space, air etc.
2. Magnetic- If 𝛾𝑚 ≠ 0, 𝑜𝑟𝜇𝑟 ≠ 1.
Magnetic materials are classified into three types: Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic.
Diamagnetic materials: In this type of materials, magnetic fields due to electronic motions of orbiting and spinning
completely cancel each other.
• Thus, the permanent (or intrinsic) magnetic moment of each atom is zero and the materials are weakly affected by
a magnetic field.
• This type of materials are characterized by, 𝛾𝑚 < 0; 𝜇𝑟 ≤ 1. Perfect diamagnetism occurs when 𝛾𝑚 = -1 or 𝜇𝑟 =
0 & 𝐵 = 0. Eg: Lead, Copper, Bismuth, Silicon, Diamond, NaCl etc.
Paramagnetic materials: In this type of materials, magnetic fields due to electronic motions of orbiting and spinning
do not cancel each other completely.
• Paramagnetism is temperature dependant.
• For this type of materials, 𝛾𝑚 is of the order of +10−5 𝑡𝑜 + 10−3
• Generally, 𝛾𝑚 > 0; 𝜇𝑟 ≥ 1.
• Eg. Platinum, Tungsten, Potassium etc.
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 Magnetic materials contd.
Ferromagnetic materials: Occurs in materials, whose atoms have relatively large magnetic moment.
• Capable of being magnetized very strongly by a magnetic field, and can retain their magnetization strongly
after removal of the magnetic field.
• Characterized by 𝛾𝑚 ≫ 0; 𝜇𝑟 ≫ 1.
• They lose their ferromagnetic properties and become linear paramagnetic materials when the temperature
is raised above a certain value, known as the curie temperature. Thus, if a permanent magnet is heated
above its curie temperature (770°C for iron), it loses its magnetization completely.
• They are non linear. Eg. Iron, Cobalt, Nickel and their alloys.

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 Magnetic boundary conditions
Magnetic boundary conditions are obtained by applying the integral form of Gauss’s law for
magnetic field and Ampere’s circuit law at the boundary of two different medium. These boundary
conditions must be satisfied by 𝐵(𝑜𝑟 𝐻).

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 Magnetic boundary conditions contd.
We make use of the following:
Gauss’s law for magnetic field i.e. ‫𝐵 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 0 and
Ampere’s circuit law i.e. ‫𝐻 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝒍 = 𝐼
Applying Gauss’s law to the cylindrical box at the boundary, and letting ∆ℎ → 0, we have
𝐵1𝑛. ∆𝑆 − 𝐵2𝑛. ∆𝑆 = 0
So, 𝐵1𝑛 = 𝐵2𝑛 …(29)
As 𝐵 = 𝜇𝐻, so from equation (29), we get
𝜇1𝐻1𝑛 = 𝜇2𝐻2𝑛 …(30)
Equation (29) shows that the normal component of 𝑩 is continuous across the interface.
Equation (30) shows that the normal component of 𝑯 is not continuous across the interface (as 𝝁𝟏 may not be
equal to 𝝁𝟐)

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We apply Ampere’s circuit law to the closed loop abcda, as shown in figure (b)., where the surface current density 𝐾, is
assumed to be normal to the path.
From the figure (b), we have
∆ℎ ℎ∆ ∆ℎ ∆ℎ
𝐾. ∆𝑤 = 𝐻1𝑡 . ∆𝑤 + 𝐻1𝑛 . + 𝐻2𝑛 − 𝐻2𝑡 . ∆𝑤 − 𝐻2𝑛 − 𝐻1𝑛 …(31)
2 2 2 2
As ∆ℎ → 0, from equation (31), we get
𝐻1𝑡 − 𝐻2𝑡 = 𝐾 …(32)
Or, in vector form, 𝐻1 − 𝐻2 × 𝑎
ෟ 𝑛12 = 𝐾 …(33)
Where, 𝑎
ෟ 𝑛12 is a unit vector, normal to the interface, and directed from medium 1 to medium 2
From equation (32), we have,
𝐵1𝑡 𝐵2𝑡
− =𝐾 …(34)
𝜇1 𝜇2
In absence of a surface current at the boundary, we get from equation (33) and (34),
𝐻1𝑡 = 𝐻2𝑡 …(35)
𝐵1𝑡 𝐵2𝑡
And, = …(36)
𝜇1 𝜇2
Thus equation (35) shows that the tangential component of 𝑯 is continuous across the interface, in absence of a surface
current; while equation (36) shows that the tangential component of 𝑩 is not continuous. (as 𝝁𝟏 may not be equal to 𝝁𝟐 )

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 Refraction of magnetic flux lines at media boundary
If the fields make angle θ with the normal to the interface, then
From equation (29), we can write
𝐵1 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃1 = 𝐵1𝑛 = 𝐵2𝑛 = 𝐵2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃2 …(37)
And from equation (35), we can write
𝐵1 𝐵
𝜇1
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝐻1𝑡 = 𝐻2𝑡 = 𝜇2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃2 …(38)
2

Dividing (38) by (37), we get

𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 𝜇
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2
= 𝜇1 …(39)
2

Equation (39) is known as the law of refraction of magnetic flux lines at a medium interface, without
any surface current.

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 Inductances
A circuit, or a closed conducting path carrying current I, produces a magnetic field 𝐵, which causes a
flux Ψ = ‫𝐵 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆 to pass through each turn of the circuit, as shown.
If the circuit has ‘N’ identical terms, we can define a term, the Flux linkage,
as, λ = NΨ
Also, if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, the flux linkage is
proportional to the current producing it.
i.e. λ∝𝐼
Or, λ = LI
where ‘L’ is a constant of proportionality called the inductance of the circuit.
The inductance ‘L’ is a property of the physical arrangement of the circuit. A circuit or part of a
circuit that has inductance is called an inductor.
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 λ 𝑁Ψ
We have, 𝐿=𝐼= 𝐼
The unit of Inductance is Henry or Webers/Ampere.
The inductance defined in this way is known as self-inductance, as the linkages are caused by the
inductor itself.
We may consider inductance as a measure of how much magnetic energy is stored in an inductor.
The magnetic energy (in Joules) stored in an inductor is given by:
1 2
𝑊𝑚 = 𝐿𝐼
2
2𝑊
Or, 𝐿 = 𝐼 2𝑚
Thus, the inductance can be calculated from the stored energy also.

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 Mutual inductance
If instead of having a single circuit, we have two circuits carrying current 𝐼1 and 𝐼2 , as shown in the
figure, a magnetic interaction exists between the circuits.
Four component fluxes Ψ11 , Ψ12 , Ψ21 , Ψ22 are produced. The flux Ψ12 , for example, is the flux
passing through circuit 1 due to current 𝐼2 in circuit 2. If 𝐵2 is the field due to 𝐼2 and 𝑆1 is the area of
circuit 1, then
Ψ12 = න 𝐵2 . 𝑑𝑆

We can define mutual inductance 𝑀12 as the ratio of the flux linkage λ12 = 𝑁1 . Ψ12 on circuit 1 due
to the current 𝐼2 . i.e.
λ12 𝑁1 . Ψ12
𝑀12 = =
𝐼2 𝐼2
Similarly, we define mutual inductance 𝑀21 as
λ21 𝑁2 . Ψ21
𝑀21 = =
𝐼1 𝐼1
It can be shown that, if the medium surrounding the circuit is linear, then 58
𝑀12 = 𝑀21

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Circuit showing mutual inductance

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We define self inductance of the circuits 1 and 2 as:

λ11 𝑁1 Ψ1
𝐿1 = =
𝐼1 𝐼1
λ22 𝑁2 Ψ2
and 𝐿2 = =
𝐼2 𝐼2
Where,
Ψ1 = Ψ11 + Ψ12 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Ψ2 = Ψ21 + Ψ22
The total energy in the magnetic field is due to 𝐿1 , 𝐿2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑀12 (𝑜𝑟 𝑀21 )

Thus, 𝑊𝑚 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊12
1 1
𝑊𝑚 = 𝐿1 𝐼1 2 + 𝐿2 𝐼2 2 ± 𝑀12 𝐼1 𝐼2
2 2

The positive sign is taken into account, when the magnetic fields of the two currents reinforce each other,
while the negative sign is taken into consideration when the magnetic fields oppose each other.

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 Examples of inductive circuit components
An inductor is basically a conductor, arranged in a shape appropriate to store magnetic energy.
Typical examples of inductors are:
• Toroids
• Solenoids
• Coaxial transmission lines
• Parallel-wire transmission lines
etc…

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 Magnetic energy
The energy in a magnetostatic field can be obtained by finding the magnetic energy in the field of
an inductor, which is expressed as:
1
𝑊𝑚 = 2 𝐿𝐼2 …(40)
Since the energy is stored in the magnetic field 𝐵, equation (40) needs to be expressed in terms of
𝐵 and 𝐻.
Consider a differential volume in a magnetic field as shown in the figure. Let the volume be covered
with conducting sheets at the top and bottom surfaces with current ∆𝐼.

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Each such volume will have an inductance, given by:
∆Ψ 𝜇𝐻∆𝑥∆𝑧
∆𝐿 = ∆𝐼
= ∆𝐼
…(41)
Where, ∆𝐼 = 𝐻∆𝑦
Substituting equation (41) in (40), we get
1 1 1
∆𝑊𝑚 = ∆𝐿. ∆𝐼2 = 𝜇𝐻2 ∆𝑥∆𝑦∆𝑧 = 𝜇𝐻2 ∆𝑣
2 2 2
The magnetostatic energy density is given by
∆𝑊𝑚 1 2
𝑤𝑚 = lim = 𝜇𝐻
∆𝑣→0 ∆𝑣 2
Thus,
1 2 1 1 𝐵2
𝑤𝑚 = 𝜇𝐻 = 𝐵. 𝐻 =
2 2 2 𝜇
The energy in a magnetostatic field is thus given by:
2
1 1 1 𝐵
𝑊𝑚 = න 𝑤𝑚 . 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝜇𝐻2 . 𝑑𝑣 = න 𝐵. 𝐻 . 𝑑𝑣 = න . 𝑑𝑣
2 2 2 𝜇 63

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 Magnetic circuits
Magnetic devices such as toroids, transformers, motors, generators, and relays may be considered
as magnetic circuits.
Analysis of magnetic circuits can be conveniently done if a fruitful analogy can be drawn between
electrical and magnetic parameters, as tabulated in the following table:
In this context, the magnetomotive force is defined as:
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑁𝐼 = ර 𝐻. 𝑑𝒍

Where, ‘N’ is the number of turns of the conducting coil, and ‘I’ represents the current
So the unit of the magnetomotive force is Ampere-turns.

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Comparison between electrical and magnetic circuit
parameters
Electric Magnetic
Conductivity σ Permeability μ
Field intensity 𝐸 Field intensity 𝐻
Current 𝐼Ԧ = ‫𝐽 ׬‬.Ԧ 𝑑𝑆 Magnetic flux Ψ = ‫𝐵 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆
𝐼Ԧ Ψ
Current density 𝐽Ԧ = = 𝜎𝐸 Flux density 𝐵 = = 𝜇𝐻
𝑆 𝑆

Electromotive force (emf) 𝑉 Magnetomotive force (mmf) 𝐹𝑚

Resistance, R Reluctance, 𝑅𝑚
1 1
Conductance, 𝐺 = Permeance, 𝑃𝑚 =
𝑅 𝑅𝑚
𝑉 𝑙 𝑃𝑚
Ohm's law 𝑅 = = Ohm's law 𝑅𝑚 =
𝐼 𝜎𝑆 Ψ
or V = El = IR or, 𝑃𝑚 = 𝐻𝑙 = 𝑅𝑚 . Ψ = 𝑁𝐼
Kirchoff's laws: σ 𝐼 = 0 Kirchhoff's laws: σ Ψ = 0

෍ 𝑉 − ෍ 𝑅𝐼 = 0 ෍ 𝑃𝑚 − ෍ 𝑅𝑚 . Ψ = 0 65

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 Magnetic circuit components
Reluctance is defined as:
𝑙
𝑅𝑚 = 𝜇𝑆 (ampere-turns/weber)
Where, ‘l’ and ‘S’ are respectively the length and the cross-sectional area of the magnetic core.
The reciprocal of reluctance is the Permeance. This is defined as:
𝐹𝑚 = 𝑅𝑚 . Ψ
The equivalent flux ‘Ψ’ and the mmf ‘𝐹𝑚 ’ in a series and parallel magnetic circuit is given by:
For series magnetic circuit:
Ψ1 = Ψ2 = Ψ3 = ⋯ = Ψ𝑛
and 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 + 𝐹3 + ⋯ + 𝐹𝑛
For parallel magnetic circuit:
Ψ = Ψ1 + Ψ2 + Ψ3 + ⋯ + Ψ𝑛
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐹3 = ⋯ = 𝐹𝑛
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 Difference between electric and magnetic circuits
1. Unlike an electric circuit where current 𝐼Ԧ flows, magnetic flux does not flow.
2. Also, conductivity σ is independent of current density 𝐽Ԧ in an electric circuit, whereas
permeability μ varies with flux density 𝐵 in a magnetic circuit. This is because ferromagnetic
(nonlinear) materials are normally used in most practical magnetic devices.

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 Video links related to the module
• 1. [Link]
• 2. [Link]
• 3. [Link]

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 69

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