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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

SUBJECT CODE : MVJ21EC33
SUBJECT NAME: ELECTROMAGNETICS AND TRANSMISSION LINES
LECTURE PRESENTATION MODULE – 1

FACULTY : Dr. Utsab Banerjee , Assistant Professor, Dept. of ECE

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 Module Structure
MODULE-1
Prerequisites: Vector Algebra, Coordinate systems (Rectangular Coordinate System, Cylindrical
Coordinate System and Spherical Coordinate System), gradient, divergence and curl
Electrostatics: Coulomb’s Law, Electric Field Intensity, Flux density and potential:
Coulomb’s law, Electric field intensity, Field due to line charge, Field due to Sheet of charge, Field
due to continuous volume charge distribution, Electric flux, Electric flux density, Electric potential,
Potential difference.
Text Book:
• 1. Matthew N. O. Sadiku, “Elements of Electromagnetics”, Oxford University Press, Edition VII,
2018.
Reference Books:
• 1. David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 4th edition, 2014.
• 2. W.H. Hayt. J.A. Buck & M Jaleel Akhtar, “Engineering Electromagnetics”, Tata McGraw – Hill,
Edition VIII, 2014. 2

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 Course Outcomes
At the end of the course, the students will be able to:
• CO1: Evaluate problems on electrostatic force, electric field due to point, linear, surface charge
and volume charges.
• CO2: Apply Gauss law to evaluate Electric fields due to different charge distributions by using
Divergence Theorem. Determine potential and capacitance using Laplace equation and Poisson
equation.
• CO3: Apply Biot-Savart’s and Ampere’s laws for evaluating Magnetic field for different current
configurations.
• CO4: Apply Maxwell’s equations for time varying fields and evaluate power associated with EM
waves using Poynting theorem.
• CO5: Determine the parameters of transmission lines for determining the impedance and
admittance.

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 Concept of Scalars and Vectors

• For any physical parameter under study,

• The parameter is scalar if it is completely defined in terms of
its magnitude only.
– Eg. mass, time, temperature etc
• The parameter is vector if its complete definition requires the
knowledge of its magnitude as well as the direction.
Eg. force, displacement, velocity etc.
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 Representations

There are two major forms of representation:-

➢Pictorial representation

➢Algebraic representation

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Representations

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 7

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 Summation of Vectors

The two most widely used laws for vector addition are:-

➢Triangle Law of Vector Addition.

➢Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition.

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 Triangle law of Vector addition
If two vectors A and B are oriented in such a way that the head of A is
adjacent to the tail of B, then the sum vector, also known as the resultant
vector, say C, is given by the vector from the tail of A to the head of B.

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 Parallelogram law of Vector addition

If two vectors A and B are oriented in such a way that they form two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the sum vector, also known as
the resultant vector, say C, is given by the diagonal of the parallelogram
through the point of intersection of the two vectors A and B.

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 Difference and Null Vector

Difference Vector is basically addition of one vector

with the negative of the other, i.e.
A – B = A + (-B)

Thus it is evident that if we add a vector A with the

negative of itself, we get a null vector, i.e.
A + (-A) = null vector
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 Laws of Vector algebra

A + B = B +A {Commutative Law}

A + (B + C) = (A +B) + C {Associative Law}

m.A = A.m , ‘m’ is a scalar {Commutative Law for Multiplication}

m.(n.A) = (mn).A {Associative Law for Multiplication}

(m + n).A = m.A + n.A {Distributive Law}

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 Unit Vector

A unit vector has a magnitude of unity and is practically used to

represent the direction of any finite vector.

Suppose A is a vector; then a unit vector along A is given by A/ A

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 Rectangular Unit Vectors

Rectangular Unit Vectors are unit vectors along the three

axes of the Cartesian system of coordinates, x-, y- and z- axes.

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 Utility of Unit Vectors
➢ In the Cartesian system of coordinates, any vector can be resolved into three components
along three coordinate axes and represented in terms of unit vectors along the three axes.
➢ Components of a vector are basically projections of a vector (arbitrarily oriented with
respect to the coordinate frame) along the different coordinate axes.

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Scalar and Vector Fields
Scalar Fields Vector Fields

A scalar field is a mathematical function A vector field is a mathematical function

that represents the distribution of a that represents the distribution of a
parameter variable which is direction parameter variable which is direction
invariant as a function of time. dependent as a function of time.

Eg. Temperature distribution on the Eg. Velocity of a point within a moving

Earth’s surface. fluid volume.

A vector field which is space dependent but

time – independent is known as a steady
state or stationary field

Eg. Gravitational field

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Dot & Cross Products
Dot Product Cross Product

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Cross product as a determinant

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 Coordinate Systems

The choice of a proper coordinate system depends

upon the given problem.

We should choose that coordinate system about

which the given problem is symmetric.

Tells us about the space dependency of the concerned

parameter under study.
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 Types of Coordinate systems

Three major types:-

➢Rectangular or Cartesian Coordinate system.

➢Cylindrical Coordinate system.

➢Spherical Coordinate system.

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 Orthogonal Coordinate systems

A coordinate system is defined by a number of

intersecting axes, each representing a parameter of
variation.

A coordinate system in which the axes are mutually

perpendicular is known as Orthogonal coordinate
system.

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 Cartesian Coordinate system

In the Cartesian coordinate system, there are three

mutually perpendicular axes, named as x- , y- and z- axes.

The point of intersection of the three axes is known as

the origin.

Any test point in 3D space can be located with the help of

the projection values on the three coordinate axes.
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Cartesian system

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If a point be located in space such that the projection values in the
three coordinate axes be Ax, Ay and Az respectively, then the position
vector of the point from the origin is given by:-
A = Ax.x + Ay.y + Az.z
Where x, y and z are the unit vectors along x- , y- and z- axes respectively.

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Rectangular Components

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 Cylindrical coordinate system
• Parameters are:-
• i) ρ - the radial distance of the observation point from the central (z) axis.
• ii) φ – the angle between the projection of the observation point on the azimuthal (xy-) plane
and the positive x- axis.
• iii) z – the elevation of the observation point from the azimuthal plane.

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Constant ρ, φ and z surfaces

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 Parametric ranges

• The following are the bounds of the parameters of the

cylindrical coordinate systems: -

0 
0    2
−  z  
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Unit vectors in Cylindrical coordinate system

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Inter relation between Cartesian and Cylindrical
systems

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Unit vectors in Cartesian & Cylindrical systems

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Constant coordinate surfaces

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Vector Calculus – differential parameters

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 Vector differential length

The vector differential length in the Cartesian

coordinate system is expressed as:-
dl = [Link] + [Link] + [Link]

dx, dy and dz are differential lengths in the x-, y- and

z- axes respectively

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Vector differential surface

dSx = [Link] (surface oriented along x-axis)

dSy = [Link] (surface oriented along y-axis)

dSz = [Link] (surface oriented along z-axis)

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 Vector differential volume

The vector differential volume is expressed as:-

dV = [Link]

Clearly, the differential volume represents an

enclosure in space.

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If an incremental surface is not aligned along any
coordinate axes, then it is represented as
dS = [Link]

Where, an represents an unit vector directed

perpendicular to the surface.

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 Differential parameters in Cylindrical coordinate
systems
Differential length (displacement):-
dl = dρ.aρ + ρdφ.aφ + [Link]
dρ, ρdφ and dz are differential length components along ρ, φ and z- axes respectively.
Differential Surface:-
dS = ρdφdz.aρ
= dρdz.aφ
= ρdφdρ.az
Differential Volume:-
dV = ρdρdφdz
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 Differential parameters in Spherical coordinate systems

Differential length (displacement):-

dl = [Link] + rdθ.aθ + rsinθdφ.aφ
dr, rdθ and rsinθdφ are differential length components along r, θ and φ- axes
respectively.
Differential Surface:-
dS = r^2sinθdθdφ.ar
= rsinθdrdφ.aθ
= rdrdθ.aφ
Differential Volume:-
dV = r^2sinθdrdθdφ 43

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Line integral

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Closed contour integral

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Contour integral example

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Surface integral

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Surface integral

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 Volume integral

The volume integral is specified for a scalar

entity ‘ρ’ defined over an incremental volume
‘dV’, represented as:-

∫∫∫ρ.dV

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 The ‘Del’ operator
The ‘DEL’ operator is a vector differential operator.
The ‘DEL’ operator is itself a scalar function, but when operating on another scalar
function, yields a vector quantity.
eg. Temperature is a scalar function. But rate of change of temperature (‘DEL’ of
temperature) is a vector, having direction dependency with respect to height above
earth’s surface, up along a longitude etc.

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 Contributions of the ‘Del’ operator

The ‘DEL’ operator helps to define the following parameters:-

➢ Gradient of a Scalar.

➢ Divergence of a vector.

➢ Curl of a vector.

➢ Laplacian of a scalar.
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‘Del’ operator in Cylindrical coordinate system

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‘Del’ operator in Spherical coordinate system

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Gradient of a scalar quantity
The gradient of a scalar
field ‘V’ is a vector, which
represents both in
magnitude and direction the
maximum space rate of
change of ‘V’.

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Few results on gradients

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i) The magnitude of gradient of a scalar ‘V’ represents the maximum space
rate of change of ‘V’.

ii) Grad. ‘V’ points in the direction of the maximum rate of change of ‘V’.

iii) Grad ‘V’ at any point is perpendicular to the constant ‘V’ surface
passing through that point.

iv) The projection (or component) of Grad. ‘V’ in the direction of a unit
vector ‘a’, is known as the directional derivative of ‘V’ along ‘a’.

v) If A = Grad. V, then ‘V’ is called the scalar potential of ‘A’.

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 Divergence of a Vector

The divergence of a vector ‘A’ at a point ‘P’ is physically

defined as the net outward flux per unit volume at the
point ‘P’, as the volume shrinks to ‘0’.

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The divergence of a vector at a particular point has a sign
characteristic:-
The divergence of the vector ‘A’ is positive, if the field
diverges from the point.
The divergence of the vector ‘A’ is negative, if the field
converges at the point.
The divergence of the vector ‘A’ is zero, if the field neither
diverges from or converges to the particular point.
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Positive, negative & Zero divergence

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Divergence, in different coordinate systems

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 Properties of Divergence

i) The divergence of a vector field produces a scalar field (due

to the dot product).

ii) The divergence of a scalar field carries no sense.

iii) div. (A +B) = div. A + div. B

iv) div. (VA) = V (div. A) + A. (grad. V)

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 Divergence theorem

The net outward flux of a vector field A through a closed

surface ‘S’ is equal to the volume integral of the
divergence of A, integrated over an incremental volume
‘dV’.

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 Curl of a Vector

The curl of a vector A is an axial (or rotational) vector whose

magnitude is the maximum circulation of A per unit area, as the
area tends to zero; and whose direction is normal to the direction
of the area, when the area is oriented so as to make the circulation
maximum.

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Curl in Cylindrical coordinate system

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Curl, in Spherical coordinate system

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 Properties of Curl

1. The curl of a vector A is another vector.

2. The curl of a scalar V makes no sense.
3. Curl (A + B) = Curl (A) + Curl (B).
4. Curl (VA) = V (Curl A) + {(grad. V) × A}
5. The divergence of the curl of a vector is 0.
6. The curl of the gradient of a scalar is 0.

Physically, curl of a vector A at a point P provides a measure as to

how much the field (A) rotates or curls around the point ‘P’
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 Stoke’s theorem

The circulation of a vector field A around a closed loop (or

path) ‘L’ is equal to the surface integral of the curl of ‘A’
over the open surface ‘S’ bound by the loop ‘L’, provided A
and curl (A) are continuous over ‘S’.

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 Laplacian of a Scalar field
• The Laplacian of a scalar field ‘V’ is defined as the divergence of the gradient of ‘V’

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Classification of fields

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Helmholtz theorem

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Introduction to Electrostatic field
• Static Electric field in free space, created by a static charge distribution.
• Practical Usage:
• There are diverse areas of application like…
• Electric power transmission
• X-ray machines
• Lightning protection associated with strong electric fields
• Solid state electronic devices are based on electrostatics
• Computer peripherals. I/O devices
• Medical Applications like ECG, EEG, Medical imaging
• Agricultural applications like sorting of seeds, measuring soil moisture content
• And many more to mention…
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Building blocks
• Two fundamental pillars of Electrostatics:
1. Coulomb's law, and 2. Gauss' law.
• Both of these laws are based on experimental studies and they are interdependent.
• Although Coulomb's law is applicable in finding the electric field due to any charge configuration, it is
easier to use Gauss's law when charge distribution is symmetrical.
• So Coulomb’s law is more fundamental…but for mathematical benefits, we may use Gauss’ law often.

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 Coulomb’s Law
Coulomb's law is an experimental law formulated in 1785 by the French colonel,
Charles Augustin de Coulomb.
It deals with the force a static point charge exerts on another static point charge.
By a point charge we mean a charge that is located on a body whose dimensions
are much smaller than other relevant dimensions.
Coulomb’s Law states that:
The force acting between two static point charges Q1 and Q2 is:
i. Acting along the line joining the point charges
ii. Directly proportional to the product of the two charges Q 1 and Q2 i.e. Q1.Q2
iii. Inversely proportional two the square of the distance (R) between the two
charges
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 Mathematical representation
Mathematically, Coulomb’s law can be expressed as:
𝐹 ∝ 𝑄1. 𝑄2
1
𝐹∝ 2
𝑅
Thus, combining, we get:
𝑄1. 𝑄2
𝐹∝
𝑅2
𝑄 .𝑄
Or, 𝐹 = 𝑘. 1𝑅2 2
Where ‘k’ is a constant of proportionality. In SI units, charges Q1 and Q2 are in coulombs (C), the distance ‘R’ is in
meters (m), and the force F is in newtons (N).
1
The constant ‘k’ is expressed as 4𝜋𝜀 , where 𝜀0 is known as the permittivity of free space. It is expressed in farads. per
0
meter and has a value of:
−12
10−9
𝜀0 = 8.854 × 10 ≅ 𝐹/𝑚
36𝜋
Using this value, we get
1
𝑘= = 9 × 109 𝑚/𝐹 75
4𝜋𝜀0

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So, the force becomes:
𝑄1 . 𝑄2
𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 . 𝑅2

If point charges Q1 and Q2 are located at points having position vectors r1 and r2, then the force F12 on
Q2 due to Q1, is given by:

𝑄 .𝑄2
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 4𝜋𝜀1 2 . 𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 (1)
0 .𝑅

𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝒓𝟐 − 𝒓𝟏

𝑅 = 𝑹𝟏𝟐

𝑹𝟏𝟐 𝑹𝟏𝟐
𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = 𝑹𝟏𝟐
= 𝑅
(2) 76

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By substituting (2) in (1), we get
𝑄1 . 𝑄2
𝑭𝟏𝟐 = 3
. 𝑹𝟏𝟐
4𝜋𝜀0 . 𝑅

𝑄1 .𝑄2 .(𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟏 )

Or, 𝑭𝟏𝟐 =
4𝜋𝜀0 . 𝒓𝟐 −𝒓𝟏 3
It is important to note the following points:
i. The force F21 on Q1 due to Q2 is given by:
𝑭𝟐𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 . 𝒂𝑹𝟐𝟏 = 𝑭𝟏𝟐 . −𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐 = −𝑭𝟏𝟐
Since, 𝒂𝑹𝟐𝟏 = −𝒂𝑹𝟏𝟐
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ii. Like charges (charges of the same sign) repel each other while unlike
charges attract.
iii. The distance R between the charged bodies Q1 and Q2 must be large
compared with the linear dimensions of the bodies; that is, Q1 and Q2
must be point charges.
iv. Q1 and Q2 must be static (at rest).
v. The signs of Q1 and Q2 must be taken into account.

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 Multiple point charges
If there are multiple point charges, then to find the total force exerted
by all of those point charges, we have to apply the principle of
superposition.
If there are N charges Q1, Q2,….,QN located, respectively, at points with
position vectors r1, r2,. . .,rn, the resultant force F on a charge Q located
at point r is the vector sum of the forces exerted on Q by each of the
charges Q1, Q2,. . .,QN.
𝑁
𝑄 𝑄𝑘 (𝒓 − 𝒓𝒌 )
𝑭= ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝒓 − 𝒓𝒌 𝟑
𝑘=1
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 Electric Field Intensity
The electric field intensity (E) or, the electric field strength is the force experienced
per unit charge, when placed in an electric field.
𝑭
Mathematically, 𝑬 = lim
𝑄→0 𝑄
𝑭
Or, simply stated, 𝑬=
𝑄
The electric field intensity (E), as is clear is a vector quantity, is directed in the
direction of the force (F), and is expressed in Newton/Coulomb or Volts/meter.
The electric field intensity at point r due to a point charge
located at r’ is given by
𝑄 𝑄. (𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ )
𝑬= 2
𝒂𝑹 =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 − 𝑟 ′ 3
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 Application of the Superposition Principle
For N point charges Q1, Q2,…QN, located at r1, r2,…rN, the electric field
intensity at a point ‘r’ is obtained as:
𝑁
1 𝑄𝑘 . (𝒓 − 𝒓𝒌 )
𝑬= ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝒓 − 𝒓𝒌 3
𝑘=1
Problems follow:

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 Electric Field due to Continuous charge
distributions
Till now we have only considered forces and electric fields due to point
charges, which are essentially charges occupying very small physical
space. It is also possible to have continuous charge distribution along a
line, on a surface, or in a volume.

It is necessary to denote the line charge density, surface charge density,

and volume charge density by
𝜌𝐿 . 𝑖𝑛 𝐶. 𝑚−1 , 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑖𝑛 𝐶. 𝑚−2 , 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉 . (𝑖𝑛 𝐶. 𝑚−3 ) respectively.

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The incremental charge element, and hence the total charge associated with
these charge distributions are expressed as:
.
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑑𝑙 → 𝑄 = ‫ 𝐿𝜌 𝐿׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 (line charge)
.
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑆 → 𝑄 = ‫ 𝑆𝜌 𝑆׬‬. 𝑑𝑆 (surface charge)
.
𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 → 𝑄 = ‫ 𝑉𝜌 𝑉׬‬. 𝑑𝑉 (volume charge)

The electric field due to each of these charge distributions may be

considered as the summation of the field due to each of the point charges
that make up that charge distribution. So, here also, we are making use of
the superposition principle in a way.
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 Expressions for Electric fields
The expressions for the electric fields due to the charge distributions
can be obtained by representing the charge elements in terms of the
corresponding charge densities.
𝜌𝐿 .𝑑𝑙
𝐸=‫׬‬ . 𝑎𝑅 (line charge)
4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑅2
𝜌𝑆 .𝑑𝑆
𝐸=‫׬‬ 𝑎𝑅 (surface charge)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2
𝜌𝑉 .𝑑𝑉
𝐸=‫׬‬ 𝑎𝑅 (volume charge)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅 2

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 Electric Field due to a line charge
Consider a line charge with uniform charge density pL extending from A
to B along the z-axis as shown in the figure. The charge element dQ
associated with element dl = dz of the line is dQ = pLdl = pL dz
𝑍𝐵
So the total charge is 𝑄 = ‫ 𝐿𝜌 𝑍׬‬. 𝑑𝑧
𝐴

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It is a conventional practice to represent the field point by (x, y, z) and the source point by (x’, y’, z’).
Form the figure, dl = dz’
R = (x, y, z) – (0, 0, z’) = 𝑥. 𝒂𝒙 + 𝑦. 𝒂𝒚 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ . 𝒂𝒛

∴ 𝑹 = 𝜌. 𝒂𝝆 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 ′ . 𝒂𝒛

𝑹2 = 𝑅 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2 = 𝜌2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2

𝒂𝑹 𝑹 𝜌. 𝒂𝝆 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ . 𝒂𝒛
= = 3
𝑅2 𝑹3 𝜌2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2 ൗ2

Substituting, we get the value of E to be:

𝜌𝐿 𝜌. 𝒂𝝆 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ . 𝒂𝒛
𝑬= න 3ൗ . 𝑑𝑧′
4𝜋𝜀0 2
𝜌 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2 2

To evaluate this integral, we need to define α, α and α as shown in the figure.

1 2 86

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As seen in the figure,
1
𝑅 = 𝜌2 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ 2 ൗ2 = 𝜌. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼
z’ = OT – ρ.tanα
Which implies, 𝑑𝑧 ′ = −𝜌. 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼. 𝑑𝛼

𝜌 = 𝑅. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 ; 𝑅 = 𝜌. 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝛼 ; 𝑧 − 𝑧′ = 𝑅. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼

Using these sets of values, we get

𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼 𝑅. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑅. 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 . 𝑑𝛼 2 2

𝐸= න 𝑎𝑠 𝜌 + 𝑧 − 𝑧′ = 𝑅2
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅3
𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 . 𝑑𝛼
𝐸= න
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
𝜌𝐿 −𝜌𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 . 𝑑𝛼
𝐸= න
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌2 𝑠𝑒𝑐2 𝛼
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 𝛼1 𝛼1
𝜌𝐿
𝐸= න −𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 . 𝑑𝛼 − න 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼. 𝑑𝛼 . 𝑎
ෞ𝜌
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 𝛼2 𝛼2

𝜌𝐿
𝐸= 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼2 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼2 . 𝑎
ෞ𝜌
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌

As a special case, for an infinite line charge, point B is at (0, 0, ∞) and A at (0, 0, - ∞) so that α = π/2, α = l 2

—π/2

𝜌𝐿 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝐸= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 − − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 − .𝑎
ෞ𝜌
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 2 2 2 2

𝜌𝐿
𝐸= .𝑎
ෞ
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 𝜌

This equation has been obtained for an infinite line charge along the z-axis so that ρ and aρ have their
usual meaning. If the line is not along the z-axis, ρ is the perpendicular distance from the line to the point 88
of interest and aρ is a unit vector along that distance directed from the line charge to the field point.

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 Electric Field due to a surface charge
Let us consider an infinite sheet of charge, having uniform charge
density of 𝜌𝑆 . 𝐶. 𝑚−2 . The charge associated with an incremental
element of area dS, is thus given by 𝑑𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑆 → 𝑄 = ‫ 𝑆𝜌 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑆. The
electric field intensity at a point P (0, 0, h) due to the incremental area
𝑑𝑄
dS is given by: 𝑑𝐸 = 2 . 𝑎𝑅 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

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 𝑅 = 𝜌 −𝑎𝜌 + ℎ 𝑎𝑍 = −𝜌. 𝑎 ෞ𝜌 + ℎ. 𝑎ෞ𝑍
2 2 1ൗ2
𝑅 =𝑅 = 𝜌 +ℎ
𝜌𝑆 . 𝑑𝑆
𝑑𝐸 = 3
.𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅
Now, 𝑑𝑆 = 𝜌. 𝑑𝜑. 𝑑𝜌
𝜌𝑆 .𝜌.𝑑𝜌.𝑑𝜑(−𝜌𝑎ෞ𝜌 +ℎ𝑎ෞ𝑍 )
𝑑𝐸 = 3 …………(3)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌2 +ℎ 2 ൗ2

Owing to the symmetry of the charge distribution, for every charge element (1),
as shown in the figure, there exists another element (2), along ‘ρ’, whose
contribution to the field along ‘ρ’ cancels that of (1). So, the 𝐸𝜌 component of
the electric field cancels out. Hence the electric field has only the Z-component.
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So, equation (3) reduces to:
𝜌𝑆 . 𝜌. 𝑑𝜌. 𝑑𝜑. ℎ
𝑑𝐸 = 3 . 𝑎ෞ𝑍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜌2 + ℎ2 ൗ2

𝜌𝑆 . ℎ 2𝜋 ∞
−3ൗ2
1
𝐸= න 𝑑𝜑 න 𝜌2 + ℎ2 . . 𝑑 𝜌 2 . 𝑎ෞ𝑍
4𝜋𝜀0 0 0 2

𝜌𝑆 . ℎ. 2𝜋 −1ൗ2 ∞
𝐸= − 𝜌2 + ℎ2 . 𝑎ෞ
4𝜋𝜀0 0 𝑍

𝜌𝑆 . ℎ
𝐸= . 𝑎ෞ
2𝜀0 . ℎ 𝑍
𝜌𝑆
𝐸= . 𝑎ෞ
2𝜀0 𝑍
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This equation is only valid if h > 0. If h < 0, we have to replace 𝑎ෞ𝑍 by -ෞ
𝑎𝑍
Thus generally, we can write
𝜌𝑆
𝐸= . 𝑎ෞ
2𝜀0 𝑛

Where 𝑎ෞ𝑛 is the unit vector normal to the conducting sheet.

We have the following observations:
i. The electric field due to a surface charge distributions normal to the conducting surface.
ii. The electric field is independent upon the distance between the conducting sheet and the point of observation.
In case of a parallel plate capacitor, the electric field between the two plates carrying equal and opposite charges is given
by:

𝜌𝑆 −𝜌𝑆
𝐸= . 𝑎ෞ𝑛 + . −ෞ
𝑎𝑛
2𝜀0 2𝜀0

𝜌𝑆
𝐸= . 𝑎ෞ
𝜀0 𝑛 92

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 Electric Field due to a volume charge
Let us consider a charged sphere of radius ‘a’ having uniform charge
density of 𝜌𝑉 𝐶. 𝑚−3
The charge associated with an incremental volume ‘dV’ located at (r’,
θ’, ϕ’) is dQ = ρ[Link]

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The total charge on the sphere is then given by:
4 4
𝑄 = ‫ 𝑉𝜌 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑉 = 𝜌𝑉 ‫ 𝑉𝜌 = 𝑉𝑑 ׬‬. 𝜋𝑎 3 = 𝜋𝜌𝑉 𝑎 3 ………(4)
3 3
The electric field at an observation point P (0, 0, z), outside the sphere is given by:
𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉
𝑑𝐸 = 2
. 𝑎ෞ𝑅
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅

𝑎ෞ𝑅 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 −ෞ
𝑎𝜌 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼(ෞ
𝑎𝑍 )

Owing to the symmetry of the charge distribution, the EX and EY components cancel each
other, only the EZ component remains. Thus the electric field is given by 𝑑𝐸𝑍 = 𝑑𝐸. 𝑎
ෞ𝑧
The total electric field is given by
𝐸 = න 𝑑𝐸. 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼. 𝑎ෞ𝑍
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 𝜌𝑉𝑑𝑉 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝐸=‫׬‬ 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑅2
. 𝑎ෞ𝑍 ………(5)
Now, 𝑑𝑉 ′ = 𝑟′2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ′ . 𝑑𝑟 ′ . 𝑑𝜃 ′ . 𝑑𝜑′
Applying cosine formula,
𝑅2 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑟′2 − 2𝑧𝑟 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃′ and

𝑟′2 = 𝑧 2 + 𝑅2 − 2𝑧𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼

𝑧 2 + 𝑟′2 − 𝑅2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 ′ =
2𝑧𝑟′

𝑅.𝑑𝑅
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ′ = 𝑧𝑟′
keeping z & r’ constant

𝑧 2 + 𝑅2 − 𝑟′2
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
2𝑧𝑅

95
It is mathematically desired to evaluate the integral (5) in terms of z and r’. In that case, we need to express cosθ’, cosα
and sinθ’dθ’ in terms of z and r’.

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Equation (5) becomes
𝑧+𝑟′
2𝜋 𝑎
𝜌𝑉 𝑑𝑉 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝐸= න න න 𝑎
ෞ𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 𝜑=0 𝑟 ′ =0 𝑅2
𝑅=𝑧−𝑟′
As 𝜃 varies from 0֯ to 180֯, R varies from (z – r’) to (z + r’)

𝑎 𝑧+𝑟′ 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑟′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝑟 ′ 𝑑𝜃 ′ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼
𝐸= . 2𝜋 න න 2
𝑎
ෞ𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 0 𝑧−𝑟′ 𝑅

𝑎 𝑧+𝑟′ 2
𝜌𝑉 𝑅. 𝑑𝑅 𝑧 2 +𝑅 2 −𝑟 ′ 1
2 ′
= . 2𝜋 න න 𝑟′ 𝑑𝑟 2𝑧𝑅 . 2 .𝑎
ෞ𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0 0 𝑧−𝑟′ 𝑧𝑟′ 𝑅

𝜌𝑉 . 2𝜋 𝑎 𝑧+𝑟′
𝑧 2 − 𝑟′2
= න 𝑟′ න 1+ 𝑑𝑅 𝑑𝑟′ෞ
𝑎𝑧
8𝜋𝜀0 𝑧 2 0 𝑧−𝑟′ 𝑅2

𝑎 2
𝜌𝑉 𝜋 𝑧2 − 𝑟′ 𝑧 + 𝑟′
= න 𝑟′ 𝑅 − 𝑑𝑟′ෞ
𝑎𝑧 96
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑧 2 0 𝑅 𝑧 − 𝑟′

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 𝑎
𝜌𝑉 𝜋
= 2 න 4𝑟′2𝑑𝑟′ෞ
𝑎𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0𝑧 0

𝜌𝑉 𝜋 4 3
= 𝑎 𝑎
ෞ𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0𝑧 2 3

1 4 3
= 𝜋𝑎 𝜌𝑉 𝑎
ෞ𝑧
4𝜋𝜀0𝑧 2 3

𝑄
𝑎
ෞ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0𝑧 2 𝑧
This expression for the electric field is when the point of observation is at (0, 0, z). But generally, the point of observation
can be anywhere (r, θ, ϕ). The expression for the electric field then becomes:

𝑄
.𝑎
ෞ 𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟 2 𝑟
This indicates that the electric field due to a volume charge distribution is independent upon θ- and ϕ- components and is
oriented radially.
This is identical to the electric field at the same point due to a point charge Q located at the origin or the centre of the 97
spherical charge distribution.

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 Charge Distribution Expression for Electric Field

Linear Charge Distribution 𝜌𝐿

𝐸= 𝑎
ෞ
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜌 𝜌

Surface Charge Distribution 𝜌𝑆

𝐸= 𝑎ෞ
2𝜀0 𝑛

Volume Charge Distribution 𝑄

𝐸= 𝑎
ෞ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 𝑟

98

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 Electric Flux Density
The electric flux density is a measure of the strength of an electric field
generated by a free electric charge.
It can be estimated by the number of electric lines of force passing through a
given area.
It has previously been encountered that the electric field intensity is
dependent on the medium in which the charge is placed.
Suppose a new vector field, 𝐷, independent of the medium is defined by:
𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸
𝐷 is known as the electric flux density or also the electric displacement.
It is measured in 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏𝑠. 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 −2
99

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 Electric Flux
The electric flux is then defined as:
Ψ = න 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡. 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠)

From the relation between electric flux density and the electric field, it
is clear that from the formulae of 𝐸, we can arrive at the formulae for
𝐷, simply by multiplying the expressions by 𝜀0 .
It also follows from this analysis that the electric flux density or the
electric displacement in independent upon the medium properties
(𝜀0 ), but it depends upon the charge distribution that creates the field.
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 Gauss’s Law in Electromagnetism
Gauss’s law is one of the most fundamental laws in electromagnetism.
It can be applied to both Electric, as well as magnetic fields.
In the Electric field, Gauss’s law relates the charges to the electric flux
density, and is governed by the famous Maxwell’s law in theory, which
states that:
“The total electric flux coming out of a closed surface is equal to the net
charge enclosed by the surface.”
Let us have a closed surface, enclosing certain amount of charge,
having a volume charge density of 𝜌𝑉 . Let the electric flux density
coming out of the closed surface be 𝐷. We further consider that an
incremental surface area ‘dS’ encloses an incremental volume ‘dV’.
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 Gauss’s law in terms of Maxwell’s equation
The total electric charge enclosed by the surface is given by ‫ 𝑉𝜌 ׮‬. 𝑑𝑉. The total flux coming out of the closed surface is given by ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆
According to Gauss’s law,

‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = ‫ 𝑉𝜌 ׮‬. 𝑑𝑉 →→ Integral form

Applying divergence theorem to the L.H.S, we get

඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = ම ∇. 𝐷 𝑑𝑉

Using this in the integral form,

ම ∇. 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑉 = ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉

‫∇ ׮‬. 𝐷 − 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉 = 0.

∇. 𝐷 − 𝜌𝑉 = 0
102

∇. 𝐷 = 𝜌𝑉 →→ Differential form

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 Observations
i. It follows that if the closed surface does not enclose any charge,
then the net flux coming out of the surface is ‘0’
ii. Gauss’s law can be expressed in two forms, the integral form and
the differential form, both forms having identical implications.
iii. Gauss’s law and Coulomb’s law are basically identical. Infact, we
can arrive at Gauss’s law by proper application of the divergence
theorem in Coulomb’s law.

103

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Gauss’s law is a suitable means of finding the electric field and the electric
flux density of a symmetric charge distribution.
But, it does not mean that if the charge distribution is asymmetric, then
Gauss’s law cannot be applied.
Consider the following example:
Thus, even though the charge
distribution is asymmetric, Gauss’s
law holds. Its just that it cannot be
used to evaluate the electric field
or the electric flux density. In those cases, we have to resort to Coulomb’s
law, which makes it more versatile of the two.
But in some cases, Gauss’s law can prove to be very simple in terms of
analytical point of view.
104

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As already mentioned, Gauss’s law can be very conveniently used to evaluate the electric
field, or the electric flux density for a symmetric distribution.

A continuous charge distribution is rectangular symmetric if it depends only upon x (or y, or

z), cylindrical symmetric if it depends only upon ‘ρ’ and spherically symmetric if it only
depends upon ‘r’.

Given a charge distribution, our first job is to find out whether the charge distribution is
symmetric or not.

If symmetry exists, then we construct an imaginary, mathematical closed surface, satisfying

the symmetry of the charge distribution. This mathematical closed surface is known as the
Gaussian surface.

The surface should be so chosen that 𝐷 will either be tangential or normal to the surface.
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When 𝐷 is normal to the Gaussian surface, ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 as dS, also
being normal to the surface, is aligned with 𝐷

When 𝐷 is tangential to the surface, then ‫𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆 = 0, as 𝐷 and dS are

orthogonal to each other.

Now we will evaluate the electric flux density due to a point charge, a
line charge, a surface charge and a volume charge distribution.
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 Electric flux density due to a point charge
Let us consider a point charge ‘Q’ located in
space. We want to find out the electric flux
density at a point ‘P’.
It is quite obvious from the situation that a
spherical surface, having the point charge at
its center and passing through ‘P’ may be
considered to be a Gaussian surface in this case. Since 𝐷 is everywhere
normal to the surface, we have,
𝑄 = ඾ 𝐷𝑟 . 𝑑𝑆

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 2𝜋 𝜋
𝑄 = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑
𝜑=0 𝜃=0

𝑄 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2

𝑄
𝐷𝑟 = 2
.𝑎
ෞ𝑟
4𝜋𝑟

This is the electric flux density of a point charge.

108

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 Electric flux density due to a line charge
Let us consider a line charge distribution, having a
charge density of 𝜌𝐿 , oriented along the z-axis.
We can consider a finite length cylinder of length ‘l’
radius ‘r’ and axis along the z-axis as the Gaussian
surface. The 𝐷 is normal to the lateral surface of
the cylinder. The total charge enclosed within the
finite cylindrical length is given by 𝑄 = 𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙.
The total flux coming out of the closed surface is given by 𝐷 =
‫ 𝜌𝐷 װ‬. 𝑑𝑆
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 𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 ඾ 𝑑𝑆

𝐷 = 𝐷𝜌 . 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
According to Gauss’s law,
𝜌𝐿 . 𝑙 = 𝐷𝜌 . 2𝜋𝑟𝑙

𝜌𝐿
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝜌
2𝜋𝑟

It is also to be noted that as the electric flux density at the top and bottom of
the cylindrical Gaussian surface is tangential to the surface, 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 0 in 110
these two surfaces, as 𝐷 and dS are orthogonal to each other.
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 Electric flux density due to a surface charge
Let us consider a infinite surface of charge density
𝜌𝑆 oriented along the xy-plane. The Gaussian
surface is a block on the xy-plane as shown,
containing the sheet of charge, and having the top
and bottom faces parallel to the xy-plane.
The top and bottom surfaces are of area ‘A’.
The total charge enclosed by the block is given by 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑆 . 𝐴

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The total electric flux coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
඾ 𝐷 . 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑧 𝐴 + 𝐴 = 2𝐴. 𝐷𝑧

According to Gauss’s law,

𝜌𝑆 . 𝐴 = 2𝐴. 𝐷𝑧

𝜌𝑆
𝐷 = .𝑎ෞ𝑧
2

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 Electric flux density due to a volume
charge
Let us consider a uniformly charged sphere of radius ‘a’ with a charge
density of 𝜌𝑉 . Since the charge has a spherical symmetry, its obvious
that a spherical surface will be a Gaussian surface.
Now, this Gaussian surface can be within the charged sphere or outside
it. Accordingly, we have two analytical cases.
Case 1: Gaussian surface inside the charged sphere i.e. r < a
Total charge enclosed within the spherical
surface of radius ‘r’ is given by
𝑄 = ම 𝜌𝑉 . 𝑑𝑉
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 𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 ම 𝑑𝑉
𝑟 𝜋 2𝜋
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 න න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑
𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝜑=0
4 3
= 𝜌𝑉 . 𝜋𝑟
3
The net electric flux coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
𝜋 2𝜋
඾ 𝐷. 𝑑𝑆 = 𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜃=0 𝜑=0

According to Gauss’s law

4 3
2
𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑟
3
𝜌𝑉 𝑟
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝑟 →→ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑎
3 114

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Case 2: The Gaussian surface is outside the charged sphere i.e. 𝑟 > 𝑎
It must be remembered that the charge is limited to the charged sphere (of radius ‘a’) only.
The net charge enclosed within the sphere is given by
𝑎 𝜋 2𝜋
4 3 2
𝑄 = 𝜌𝑉 න න න 𝑟 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝑟. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑎
𝑟=0 𝜃=0 𝜑=0 3
The total electric flux density coming out of the Gaussian surface is given by
𝜋 2𝜋
𝐷𝑟 න න 𝑟 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃. 𝑑𝜃. 𝑑𝜑 = 𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜃=0 𝜑=0
According to Gauss’s law
4 3
2
𝐷𝑟 . 4𝜋𝑟 = 𝜌𝑉 𝜋𝑎
3

𝜌𝑉 . 𝑎 3
𝐷= .𝑎
ෞ𝑟 →→ 𝑟 > 𝑎 115
3𝑟 2

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It must be noted that the process of evaluating the electric flux density
is to take 𝐷 out of the integral. This means 𝐷 must be constant on the
Gaussian surface. This gives us another parameter for choosing the
proper Gaussian surface.
So, the properties for choosing the Gaussian surface are:
i. The charge distribution must be symmetric on the Gaussian
surface.
ii. D must be either tangential or normal to the Gaussian surface.
iii. D must be constant on the Gaussian surface.
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 Electric Potential
• It is seen that the Electric field can be obtained from a given charge
distribution by applying Coulomb’s law, or, if the charge distribution is
symmetric, then by using Gauss’s law.
• Another way of finding the electric field is by using the concept of Electric
Scalar Potential (V), as it is easier to work with scalars, rather than vectors.
Let us consider that we are moving a point
charge from ‘A’ to ‘B’, as shown. Further
assume that there is a point charge at the
origin, due to which, there is an electric
field, as indicated by the lines of forces.
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As stated by Coulomb’s law, the force acting on the point charge at ‘A’ is
given by 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑄𝐸. The work done in moving this point charge by a length
‘dl’ is given by 𝑑𝑊 = −𝐹. Ԧ 𝑑𝑙 = −𝑄𝐸. 𝑑𝑙. The significance of the negative
sign is that the work is done by an external agent.
𝐵 𝐵
Ԧ
The total work done is given by 𝑊 = − ‫ 𝐹 𝐴׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 = − ‫ 𝐸𝑄 𝐴׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 =
𝐵
− 𝑄 ‫ 𝐸 𝐴׬‬. 𝑑𝑙
Dividing this work done by the charge, we get the work done per unit
charge, or the potential per unit charge as,
𝑊 𝐵
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = = − ‫ 𝐸 𝐴׬‬. 𝑑𝑙 ………(6)
𝑄
This quantity is known as the potential difference between the points A
and B. 118

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In finding 𝑉𝐴𝐵 , we should be careful about the following conditions:

i. ‘A’ is the initial point, and ‘B’ is the final point.

ii. If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is negative, this means there is a loss in potential in moving the charge
from ‘A’ to ‘B’, or work is done by the field itself. If 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is positive, then there is
a gain in potential in the transfer, and work is done on the field.

iii. 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is independent upon the path of integration.

iv. 𝑉𝐴𝐵 is expressed in Joules.𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏−1 , which is popularly known as Volts. 119

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We know that for a point charge located at the origin, the electric field is given by:
𝑄
𝐸= .𝑎
ෞ
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟 2 𝑟
Using this equation in (6), we get
𝑟𝐵
𝑄
𝑉𝐴𝐵 = − න 2.𝑎
ෞ𝑟 . 𝑑𝑟. 𝑎
ෞ𝑟
𝑟𝐴 4𝜋𝜀 0 𝑟

𝑟𝐵
𝑄 1
=− න . 𝑑𝑟
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐴 𝑟 2

𝑄 1 1
= −
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝐵 𝑟𝐴

𝑄 𝑄
= −
4𝜋𝜀0𝑟𝐵 4𝜋𝜀0𝑟𝐴

∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = 𝑉𝐵 − 𝑉𝐴 120

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Thus, the potential difference between two points ‘A’ & ‘B’ (‘A’ being
the initial point), is the potential at the point ‘B’ with respect to that at
point ‘A’.
In most cases, for point charges, the reference point is considered to be
at infinity, where the potential is zero. Thus 𝑉 ∞ = 0 [𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝐴 → ∞].
Under this circumstance, the potential at any point 𝑟𝐵 → 𝑟 is given by

𝑄
𝑉= ………(7)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟

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Another observation follows from equation (6).
• Since the electric field has only the radial component, any contributions due
to displacements in the θ and ϕ directions are removed by the dot product
𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 or [Link]α, where ‘α’ is the angle between 𝐸 and dl. This makes the
integral and hence 𝑉𝐴𝐵 independent upon the path from A to B.
• In general, if the line integral of a vector is independent upon the path of
integration, then the vector is said to be conservative. Thus, 𝐸 is
conservative.
• The potential at a point is defined as the potential difference between that
point and a chosen reference point, where the potential is zero.
In terms of the work done, the potential at a point, represented by the
position vector 𝑟,Ԧ due to a point charge placed at the origin, is the work done
per unit charge by an external source to bring a test charge from infinity upto 122
that point.
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Till now, we have considered the source charge to be placed at the origin. But if
the source charge is placed at a point represented by the position vector 𝑟′, then
the potential at a point, represented by the position vector 𝑟, Ԧ is given by:
𝑄
𝑉=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 − 𝑟′
Till now it is also considered that the potential is due to a single point charge. But, if
we have a charge distribution due to a composition of point charges, then then
superposition principle needs to be considered.
Thus, if there are n point charges 𝑄1 , 𝑄2,…, 𝑄𝑛 , located at position vectors
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 , … , 𝑟𝑛 , then the potential at 𝑟Ԧ due to these charges is given by:
𝑛
1 𝑄𝑖
𝑉= ෍
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 − 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1
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For continuous charge distributions, the charges are represented by
charge densities and the summation is replaced by integration.

1 𝜌𝐿 𝑟 .𝑑𝑙
𝑉 𝑟 = ‫׬‬ →→ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 …(8)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑟′

1 𝜌𝑆 𝑟 .𝑑𝑆
𝑉 𝑟 = ‫׭‬ →→ 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 …(9)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑟′

1 𝜌𝑉 𝑟 .𝑑𝑉
𝑉 𝑟 = ‫׮‬ →→ 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 …(10)
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟−𝑟′
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Till now, the chosen reference point is taken to be at infinity, where the potential is
0. If any other point is chosen as the reference, then the potential is expressed as:
𝑄
𝑉= +𝐶
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
Where, ‘C’ is an arbitrary constant, evaluated at the chosen point of reference.
The potential can be evaluated in two ways, depending upon whether the charge
distribution, or the electric field is known.
i. If the charge distribution is known, then potential can be evaluated using
either (8), (9) or (10).
ii. If the electric field is known, then potential is evaluated as
𝑉 = − න 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 + 𝐶

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 Relationship between 𝐸 and V
As mentioned previously, the potential difference between two points A & B is path
independent.
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 = −𝑉𝐵𝐴
∴ 𝑉𝐴𝐵 + 𝑉𝐵𝐴 = ‫𝐸 ׯ‬. 𝑑𝑙 = 0 …(11)
This shows that the line integral of E along a closed path must be zero. Physically, this
implies that no net work is done in moving a charge along a closed path in an electrostatic
field.
Now applying Stoke’s theorem, we get
ර 𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = ඵ ∇ × 𝐸 . 𝑑𝑆 = 0

∴∇×𝐸 =0 …(12)
These two equations (11) and (12) depict the conservative nature of electric field, in light
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As 𝑉 = − ‫ 𝐸 ׬‬. 𝑑𝑙, it follows that
𝑑𝑉 = −𝐸. 𝑑𝑙 = −𝐸𝑥 . 𝑑𝑥 − 𝐸𝑦 . 𝑑𝑦 − 𝐸𝑧 . 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
But, 𝑑𝑉 = . 𝑑𝑥 + . 𝑑𝑦 + . 𝑑𝑧
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Comparing the two expressions for dV, we get
𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉 𝜕𝑉
𝐸𝑥 = − ; 𝐸𝑦 = − ; 𝐸𝑧 = −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
Or, 𝐸 = −∇𝑉
Thus, the electric field intensity is the gradient of V. The negative sign shows that the
direction of 𝐸 is opposite to the direction in which V increases; 𝐸 is directed from higher to
lower levels of V.
In other words, if the potential field is given, then we can find out the electric field by
taking the negative gradient of the potential.
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 Video Links related to the module

• 1. [Link]
• 2. [Link]
• 3. [Link]

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 MCQs
1. Which of the following is not a scalar field?
(a) Displacement of a mosquito in space
(b) Light intensity in a drawing room
(c) Temperature distribution in your classroom
(d) Atmospheric pressure in a given region
(e) Humidity of a city
2. Which of these is correct?
(a) A X A = |A|2
( b )AX B +B XA=0
(c) A • B • C = B • C • A
(d) axay = az
(e) ak = ax - ay
129
where ak is a unit vector.

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 MCQs Contd…
3. Which of the following identities is not valid?
(a) a(b + c) = ab + be
(b) a X (b + c) = a X b + a X c
(c) a • b = b • a
(d) c • (a X b) = - b • (a X c)
(e) aA • aB = cos dAB
4. Which of the following statements are meaningless?
(a) A • B + 2A = 0
(b) A • B + 5 = 2A
(c) A(A + B) + 2 = 0
(d) A • A + B • B = 0
5. Let F = 2ax - 63a + 10a2 and G = ax + Gyay + 5az. If F and G have the same unit vector, Gy is
(a) 6 (c) 0
(b) - 3 (d) 6 130

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 MCQs contd…
6. Given that A = a + aa + a and B = <xa + a + a , if A and B are normal to each other, a is
x y z x y z

(a) - 2 (d) 1
(b) -1/2 (e) 2
(c) 0
7. The component of 6a + 2a , — 3a along 3a — 4a is
x } z x >(

(a) -12a - 9a - 3a
x y z

(b) 30a, - 40a^

(c) 10/7
(d) 2
(e) 10
8. Given A = — 6a + 3a + 2a , the projection of A along a is
x y z y

(a) -12
(b) - 4
(c) 3
(d) 7 131
(e) 12

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 132

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