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Photosynthesis Overview and Process

Chapter 10 of the AP Biology notes discusses photosynthesis, detailing the process by which autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy. It explains the roles of chloroplasts, chlorophyll, and the stages of photosynthesis, including light reactions and the Calvin cycle. The chapter emphasizes the importance of photosynthesis in producing organic compounds and oxygen, while also distinguishing between autotrophs and heterotrophs.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
10 views8 pages

Photosynthesis Overview and Process

Chapter 10 of the AP Biology notes discusses photosynthesis, detailing the process by which autotrophs convert light energy into chemical energy. It explains the roles of chloroplasts, chlorophyll, and the stages of photosynthesis, including light reactions and the Calvin cycle. The chapter emphasizes the importance of photosynthesis in producing organic compounds and oxygen, while also distinguishing between autotrophs and heterotrophs.

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Salma Wesam
Copyright
© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

AP

 Biology  
Chapter  10  Notes  
Photosynthesis  
 
I. Overview:  
a. Photosynthesis:  capturing  light  energy  from  the  sun  and  converting  it  
to  chemical  energy  
b. Autotrophs:    self-­‐  feeders-­‐  organisms  that  can  convert  light  energy  
from  the  sun  to  chemical  energy  
i. Self  sustaining  
ii. Organic  molecules  produced  from  CO2  
iii. Ultimate  source  of  organic  compounds  for  all  non-­‐autotrophic  
organisms  
iv. Often  called  producers  
v. Most  plants,  algae,  some  protists  and  some  prokaryotes  
vi. Consume  CO2  and  produce  O2  in  the  process  
c. Heterotrophs:  live  on  compounds  produced  by  autotrophs  
i. Unable  to  make  their  own  food  
ii. Consumers  
iii. Decomposers-­‐  consume  dead  organisms  
1. Fungi  and  many  types  of  prokaryotes  
iv. Consume  oxygen  and  produce  CO2  in  the  process  
 
II. Chapter  10.1:    Photosynthesis  converts  light  energy  to  the  chemical  
energy  of  food.  
a. Chloroplasts:  The  sites  of  photosynthesis  
i. Chloroplasts  are  found  in  the  green  parts  of  the  plant  
1. Major  site  of  photosynthesis  is  in  the  leave  
2. About  ½  million  chloroplast  /  square  millimeter  of  leaf  
surface  
3. Found  in  the  mesophyll  (spongy  and  palisade)  
a. Mesophyll  contains  about  30  to  40  chloroplasts  
4. About  2-­‐4  μm  by  4-­‐7μm  
5. Double  membrane  
6. Stroma:  dense  fluid  in  the  chloroplast  
7. Thylakoids:  interconnected  membranous  sacs  
a. Stacked  in  columns  called  grana  
b. Contains  chlorophyll  
8. Thylakoid  space  
ii. Chlorophyll:  green  photosynthetic  pigment  found  in  the  
chloroplast  
1. Light  energy  absorbed  by  the  chlorophyll  drive  
photosynthesis  
iii. Stomata:  microscopic  pores  by  which  CO2  enters  the  leaf  and  
O2  exists.  
iv. Phloem  and  Xylem-­‐  transport  vessels  bringing  water  and  
nutrients  from  the  soil  
b. Tracking  Atoms  Through  Photosynthesis:    
i. 6CO2    +    12H2O  +  light  energy    è      C6H12O6      +      6H2O  
c. The  Splitting  of  Water:    
i. The  oxygen  given  off  by  plants  comes  from  water  and  not  
carbon  dioxide  
1. Chloroplasts  splits  water  into  hydrogen  and  oxygen  
2. 1930-­‐  CB  van  Niel  of  Stanford  University  challenged  the  
conventional  theory  that  CO2  split  into  carbon  and  O2,  
then  the  addition  of  water  formed  the  glucose  molecule  
(CH2O-­‐  general  formula  for  carbohydrates)  
a. Some  bacteria  use  H2S  instead  of  water  (purple  
sulfur  bacteria)  leaving  yellow  globules  of  sulfur  
as  a  waste  product  
b. Niel  concluded  that  all  photosynthetic  organisms    
need  a  source  of  hydrogen,  whether  it  be  from  
H2O,  H2S  or  some  other  source.  
i. General  formula  
1. CO2  +  2H2Xè|CH2O|  +  H2O  +  X  
3. Scientists  later  confirmed  Niels  work  by  tagging  the  
Oxygen  from  water  and  carbon  dioxide  with  isotopes  
(oxygen-­‐  18)  
d. Photosynthesis  as  a  redox  process:  
i. Like  cellular  respiration,  photosynthesis  is  a  redox  process  
1. In  cellular  respiration,  energy  released  from  sugar  when  
electrons  are  transported  by  carriers  to  oxygen  forming  
water  as  a  by  product  
a. Fall  down  process-­‐  towards  the  very  
electronegative  process  
2. Photosynthesis  reverses  the  flow  of  the  electrons  
a. Starts  with  the  splitting  of  water  by  a  photon  
i. Electrons  are  then  transferred  with  H+  
from  water  to  CO2,  reducing  it  to  a  sugar  
1. Electrons  are  increasing  in  
potential  energy  
2. Energy  boost  provided  by  photons  
e. The  Two  Stages  of  Photosynthesis:    
i. Stage  one:  light  reactions  (photo)  
1. Converts  solar  energy  to  chemical  energy  
2. Light  absorbed  by  chlorophyll  drives  a  transfer  of  
electrons  and  hydrogen  from  water  to  an  electron  
acceptor  called:  NADP  (nicotineamide  adnenine  
dinucleotide  phosphate)  which  temporarily  stores  the  
electrons  
a. NADP+  gets  reduced  to  NADPH  
b. Cousin  to  NAD+  
3. Water  is  split  and  O2  is  released  as  a  by  product  
4. ATP  is  generated  in  the  process  
a. Chemiosmosis  adds  a  phosphate  group  to  ADP  
i. Photophosphorylation  
5. Summary:  light  energy  is  converted  to  chemical  energy  
in  the  form  of  NADPH  and  ATP  
ii. Stage  two:  calvin  cycle  (synthesis)  
1. Melvin  Calvin-­‐  1940’s  
2. Incorporates  CO2  from  the  air  into  organic  molecules  
a. Carbon  fixation-­‐  reduction  of  the  fixed  carbon  to  
carbohydrates  by  the  addition  of  electrons  
b. Requires  chemical  energy  in  the  form  of  ATP  
i. Generated  by  the  light  reaction  
3. Sometimes  referred  to  as  the  dark  reaction  or  light  
independent  reactions  
a. Occurs  during  daylight  because  it  requires  the  
reduction  of  NADP+  
III. Chapter  10.2:  The  light  reactions  convert  solar  energy  to  the  chemical  
energy  of  ATP  and  NADPH:  
a. The  nature  of  sunlight:  
i. Wavelength  =  the  distance  between  the  crests  of  
electromagnetic  waves  
ii. Electromagnetic  spectrum:  the  range  of  radiation  
1. Photosynthesis  uses  electromagnetic  radiation  form  the  
visible  light  range:  380  –  750  nm  
a. Visible  range  because  its  detected  by  the  naked  
eye.    
b. Photons:  discrete  particles  of  light  
c. Photosynthetic  pigments  
i. Matter  reflects,  transmits  or  absorbs  light  
ii. Pigments  absorb  light  
1. Different  pigments  absorb  different  wavelengths  
a. Wavelengths  that  are  absorbed  disappear  
i. The  absorbance  of  all  pigments  =  black  
ii. The  reflection  of  all  wavelengths  =  white  
2. The  ability  to  absorb  or  reflect  pigments  can  be  
measured  with  a  spectrophotometer  
a. Measures  the  fraction  of  light  transmitted  at  a  
each  wavelength  
b. Absorption  spectrum:  a  graph  plotting  a  
pigments  light  absorption  versus  wavelength  
iii. Three  types  of  chlorophyll  pigments:    
1. Chlorophyll  a-­‐  violet-­‐  blue  and  red  light  work  best  for  
photosynthesis  
a. Blue-­‐  green  in  color  
2. Chlorophyll  b-­‐  slightly  different  in  structure  
a.  Yellow-­‐  green  in  color  
3. Carotenoids:  hydrocarbons  that  are  various  shades  of  
yellow  and  orange  because  they  absorb  violet  and  blue-­‐
green  light  
iv. Excitation  of  chlorophyll  by  light  
1. When  a  molecule  absorbs  a  photon  of  light,  one  of  the  
electrons  is  elevated  to  an  orbital  where  it  has  more  
potential  energy  
a. Ground  state-­‐  when  a  pigments  electrons  are  not  
excited  
b. Excited  state-­‐  when  a  pigments  electrons  are  
excited  
d. A  photosystem:  A  reaction  center  associated  with  light  harvesting  
complexes.    
i. Photosystem:  composed  of  a  reaction  center  surrounding  by  a  
number  of  light  harvesting  complexes  
ii. Light  harvesting  complex  consists  of  pigment  molecules  bound  
to  particular  proteins  
1. Pigments:  chlorophyll  a  and  b  and  carotenoids  
iii. Reaction  center:  a  protein  complex  that  includes  two  special  
chlorophyll  a  molecules  and  another  molecule  called  a  primary  
electron  acceptor.    
1. Transferring  an  electron  from  the  chlorophyll  a  to  the  
primary  electron  acceptor  is  the  first  step  of  the  light  
reaction.    
iv. Thylakoid  membrane  contains  two  types  of  
photosystems(named  in  order  of  their  discovery).    
1. Photosystem  II  (PSII)-­‐  functions  first  
a. P680-­‐  the  reaction  center  in  chlorophyll    a  of  PSII  
2. Photosytem  I  (PSI)-­‐  discovered/  named  first  
a. P700-­‐  the  reaction  center  in  chlorophyll  a  of  PSI  
3. P680  and  P700  are  identical  chlorophyll  a  molecules,  
but  are  associated  with  different  proteins  in  the  
thylakoid  membrane  and  affects  the  distribution  of  
electrons  in  the  chlorophyll  molecule  and  accounts  for  
slight  differences  in  light  absorbing  properties  
e. Noncyclic  electron  flow:    
i. Light  strikes  a  pigment  molecule  and  excites  one  of  the  
electrons  of  P680  in  PSII  
ii. Electron  is  captured  in  primary  electron  acceptor  
iii. Enzyme  splits  water  molecule  into  two  electrons,  two  
hydrogen  ions  and  an  oxygen  atom  
1. When  P680  is  missing  an  electron  it  becomes  a  very  
powerful  oxidizing  agent  
iv. Each  electron  is  passed  down  an  electron  transport  chain  from  
PSII  to  PSI.    
1. Electron  transport  chain  is  composed  of  
plastoquinone(Pq),  cytochrome  complex,  and  
plastcyanin  (Pc)  
v. Electrons  fall,  exergonic  process  providing  energy  to  produce  
ATP  
vi. Electrons  get  excited  by  a  photon  in  PSI’s  primary  electron  
acceptor  to  a  second  electron  transport  chain  through  the  
protein  ferrodoxin  (Fd)  
vii. NADP+  reductase  transfers  electrons  from  Fd  to  NADP+  
reducing  it  to  NADPH  (requires  two  electrons)  
f. Cyclic  electron  flow:    
i. Photoexcited  elctrons  from  PSI  are  occasionally  shunted  back  
from  ferredoxing  (Fd)  to  chlorophyll  via  the  cytochrome  
complex  and  plastocyanin  (Pc)  
1. Supplies  energy  for  ATP    
2. No  NADP+  is  reduced  
IV. Chapter  10.3:  The  Calvin  Cycle  uses  ATP  and  NADPH  to  convert  CO2  to  
sugar:    
a. Calvin  cycle  is  similar  to  cirtic  acid  cycle  
i. Citric  acid  cycle  is  catabolic-­‐  oxidizing  glucose  and  releasing  
enegy  
ii. Calvin  cycle  is  anabolic-­‐  building  sugar  from  smaller  molecules  
and  consuming  energy  
b. Calvin  cycle  does  not  produce  a  six  carbon  glucose  directly  
i. It  produces  a  3  carbon  sugars  called  glyceraldehyde  3-­‐  
phosphate  (G3P)  
ii. Net  synthesis  of  one  molecule  of  glucose,  the  cycle  must  take  
place  three  times  
1. Fixing  three  molecules  of  CO2  
c. Three  phases  of  the  calvin  cycle:  
i. Carbon  fixation:    
1. Each  molecule  of  carbon  dioxide(3)  is  attached  to  a  5  
carbon  sugar  named  ribose  biphosphate(RuBP)  
a. This  reactionis  catalyzed  by  the  enzyme  Rubisco  
i. RuBP  carboxylase  
ii. Most  abundant  protein  in  the  chloroplast  
and  probably  the  most  abundant  protein  
on  the  planet  
2. Product  of  this  reaction  is  a  six  carbon  intermediate  
molecule  
a. Short  lived  because  its  is  unstable  and  will  
immediately  split  in  half  forming  two  molecules  
of  3-­‐  phosphoglycerate  (for  each  CO2)  
ii. Reduction:    
1. Each  3-­‐  phosphoglycerate  is  phosphorylated  by  ATP    
a. Produces  1,3  bisphosphoglycerate  
b. Each  1,3  bisphosphoglycerate  gets  reduced  by  
NADPH  to  G3P  
i. A  three  carbon  sugar  
ii. High  potential  energy  
iii. Also  formed  during  glycolysis  
iii. Regeneration  of  the  CO2  acceptor  (RuBP)  
1. Carbon  skeleton  of  5  G3P  molecules  are  rearranged  to  3  
molecules  of  RuBP  
a. RuBP  is  now  ready  to  receive  CO2  again.  
d. Input  vs.  Output  of  Calvin  cycle:  
i. 3  CO2  molecules  enter  one  at  a  time  
ii. produces  3  short  lived  six  carbon  intermediate  
iii. cleaves  into  6,  3-­‐  phosphoglycerate  molecules  
iv. 6,  3-­‐  phosphoglycerate  molecules  are  phosphorylated  into  6,  
1,3  biphosphoglycerate  by  6  ATP  
1. producing  6  ADP  and  6  inorgainc  phosphates  
v. 6,  1,3  phosphoglycerate  molecules  are  reduced  to  6  G3P  by  
NADPH  
1. 6  NADP+  molecules  and  6  inorganic  phosphates  are  
produced  
vi. 1  of  the  6  G3P  will  go  onto  form  glucose  and  other  organic  
molecules  
vii. 5  of  the  6  G3P  will  go  on  to  regenerate  RuBP  which  are  
phosphorylated  by  3  ATP  
1. 3  ADP  molecules  are  produced  
2. 3  inorganic  phosphates  are  also  produced  
viii. Each  RuBP  cylces  back  to  CO2  to  start  the  cycle  over  
V. Chapter  10.4:  Alternative  mechanisms  of  carbon  fixation  have  evolved  in  
hot,  arid  climates.  
a. Terrestrial  life  has  proposed  lots  of  problems  to  plant  life  
i. Dehydration  
b. Photorespiration:    An  evolutionary  relic?  
i. C3  plant:  plants  that  fix  CO2  via  rubisco  to  produce  G3P  
1. During  hot  and  dry  conditions,  the  plants  stomata  are  
closed  to  prevent  dehydration  
a. Very  little  CO2  can  enter  the  plant  and  the  rate  of  
photosynthesis  slows  
2. Photorespiration:  if  CO2  is  not  present  the  plant  will  
add  O2  to  the  Calvin  cycle  
a. O2  splits  and  a  two  carbon  compound  leaves  the  
chloroplast  releasing  CO2  
b. No  ATP  is  generated,  it  is  consumed  instead  
c. No  sugar  is  produced  
d. Siphons  organic  material  from  the  Calvin  cycle  
e. This  could  have  been  a  metabolic  process  from  
long  ago  during  times  when  there  was  more  CO2  
in  the  air  and  less  O2.    
i. Rubisco  retains  some  affinity  for  O2  
f. A  certain  amount  of  photorespiration  is  
inevitable  given  the  high  concentration  of  O2  in  
the  atmosphere  
g. Drains  as  much  as  50%  of  the  carbon  fixed  by  
CO2  
ii. C4  plants:  preface  the  Calvin  cycle  with  an  alternate  mode  of  
carbon  fixation  that  forms  a  four-­‐  carbon  compound  as  its  first  
product  
1. Grasses,  sugar  cane  and  corn  use  C4  pathways  
2. C4  pathway  plants  have  unique  leaf  anatomy  
a. Bundle  sheath:  photosynthetic  cells  arranged  
into  tightly  packed  sheaths  around  the  veins  of  
the  leaf  
i. Calvin  cycle  is  confined  to  this  area  
b. Mesophyll  cells-­‐  loosely  arranged  cells  found  
between  the  bundle  sheath  and  leaf  surface.    
3. Steps  of  the  C4  pathway:  
a. PEP  carboxylase  (phosphoenolpyruvate  
carboxylase)  adds  CO2  to  PEP  forming  a  four  
carbon  product  (oxaloacetate)  
i. PEP  carboxylase  has  a  much  higher  
affinity  for  CO2  than  Rubisco  
ii. PEP  carboxylase  has  no  affinity  for  O2  
b. The  four  carbon  molecule  (malate)  is  shipped  to  
the  bundle  sheath  cells  via  the  plasmodesmata  
c. In  the  bundle  sheath  the  four  carbon  molecule  
releases  CO2    which  enters  the  Calvin  cycle  
d. Pyruvate  is  regenerated  for  conversion  to  PEP  in  
the  mesophyll  
4. Results:  
a. The  C4  pathways  keeps  the  concentration  of  CO2  
abundant  in  the  mesophyll  so  rubisco  can  fix  
carbon  dioxide  rather  than  O2  
b. Process  is  powered  by  ATP  
c. Advantages  in  hot  and  dry  regions  
iii. CAM  Plants  (Crassulacean  Acid  Metabolism)  
1. Use  by  succulents  (water  storing  )  plants  
a. Jade  plants,  cacti,  pineapples.    
b. These  plants  open  their  stomata  at  night  and  
close  them  during  the  day  
c. Opposite  of  how  other  plants  behave  
d. CO2  is  taken  in  at  night  an  converted  into  a  
variety  of  organic  acids  
e. The  organic  acids  are  stored  in  vacuoles  in  the  
cells  of  the  mesophyll  until  morning  
f. When  the  stomata  close  during  the  day,  CO2  is  
released  from  the  organic  acids  made  the  night  
before  
i. ATP  and  NADPH  made  from  the  light  
reaction  can  then  be  used  to  make  sugars  
in  the  Calvin  cycle  
iv. C3,  C4  and  CAM  plants  all  use  the  Calvin  cycle  to  make  sugar  
from  CO2  
1. The  methods  by  which  CO2  is  delivered  to  the  Calvin  
cycle  is  different  
a. C3  plants  –  CO2  is  directly  brought  into  the  
Calvin  cycle  
b. C4  plants-­‐  a  four  carbon  molecule  releases  CO2  
to  the  Calvin  cycle  
c. CAM  plants-­‐  organic  acids  carry  CO2  to  the  
Calvin  cycle    
 
 

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