AP
Biology
Chapter
10
Notes
Photosynthesis
I. Overview:
a. Photosynthesis:
capturing
light
energy
from
the
sun
and
converting
it
to
chemical
energy
b. Autotrophs:
self-‐
feeders-‐
organisms
that
can
convert
light
energy
from
the
sun
to
chemical
energy
i. Self
sustaining
ii. Organic
molecules
produced
from
CO2
iii. Ultimate
source
of
organic
compounds
for
all
non-‐autotrophic
organisms
iv. Often
called
producers
v. Most
plants,
algae,
some
protists
and
some
prokaryotes
vi. Consume
CO2
and
produce
O2
in
the
process
c. Heterotrophs:
live
on
compounds
produced
by
autotrophs
i. Unable
to
make
their
own
food
ii. Consumers
iii. Decomposers-‐
consume
dead
organisms
1. Fungi
and
many
types
of
prokaryotes
iv. Consume
oxygen
and
produce
CO2
in
the
process
II. Chapter
10.1:
Photosynthesis
converts
light
energy
to
the
chemical
energy
of
food.
a. Chloroplasts:
The
sites
of
photosynthesis
i. Chloroplasts
are
found
in
the
green
parts
of
the
plant
1. Major
site
of
photosynthesis
is
in
the
leave
2. About
½
million
chloroplast
/
square
millimeter
of
leaf
surface
3. Found
in
the
mesophyll
(spongy
and
palisade)
a. Mesophyll
contains
about
30
to
40
chloroplasts
4. About
2-‐4
μm
by
4-‐7μm
5. Double
membrane
6. Stroma:
dense
fluid
in
the
chloroplast
7. Thylakoids:
interconnected
membranous
sacs
a. Stacked
in
columns
called
grana
b. Contains
chlorophyll
8. Thylakoid
space
ii. Chlorophyll:
green
photosynthetic
pigment
found
in
the
chloroplast
1. Light
energy
absorbed
by
the
chlorophyll
drive
photosynthesis
iii. Stomata:
microscopic
pores
by
which
CO2
enters
the
leaf
and
O2
exists.
iv. Phloem
and
Xylem-‐
transport
vessels
bringing
water
and
nutrients
from
the
soil
b. Tracking
Atoms
Through
Photosynthesis:
i. 6CO2
+
12H2O
+
light
energy
è
C6H12O6
+
6H2O
c. The
Splitting
of
Water:
i. The
oxygen
given
off
by
plants
comes
from
water
and
not
carbon
dioxide
1. Chloroplasts
splits
water
into
hydrogen
and
oxygen
2. 1930-‐
CB
van
Niel
of
Stanford
University
challenged
the
conventional
theory
that
CO2
split
into
carbon
and
O2,
then
the
addition
of
water
formed
the
glucose
molecule
(CH2O-‐
general
formula
for
carbohydrates)
a. Some
bacteria
use
H2S
instead
of
water
(purple
sulfur
bacteria)
leaving
yellow
globules
of
sulfur
as
a
waste
product
b. Niel
concluded
that
all
photosynthetic
organisms
need
a
source
of
hydrogen,
whether
it
be
from
H2O,
H2S
or
some
other
source.
i. General
formula
1. CO2
+
2H2Xè|CH2O|
+
H2O
+
X
3. Scientists
later
confirmed
Niels
work
by
tagging
the
Oxygen
from
water
and
carbon
dioxide
with
isotopes
(oxygen-‐
18)
d. Photosynthesis
as
a
redox
process:
i. Like
cellular
respiration,
photosynthesis
is
a
redox
process
1. In
cellular
respiration,
energy
released
from
sugar
when
electrons
are
transported
by
carriers
to
oxygen
forming
water
as
a
by
product
a. Fall
down
process-‐
towards
the
very
electronegative
process
2. Photosynthesis
reverses
the
flow
of
the
electrons
a. Starts
with
the
splitting
of
water
by
a
photon
i. Electrons
are
then
transferred
with
H+
from
water
to
CO2,
reducing
it
to
a
sugar
1. Electrons
are
increasing
in
potential
energy
2. Energy
boost
provided
by
photons
e. The
Two
Stages
of
Photosynthesis:
i. Stage
one:
light
reactions
(photo)
1. Converts
solar
energy
to
chemical
energy
2. Light
absorbed
by
chlorophyll
drives
a
transfer
of
electrons
and
hydrogen
from
water
to
an
electron
acceptor
called:
NADP
(nicotineamide
adnenine
dinucleotide
phosphate)
which
temporarily
stores
the
electrons
a. NADP+
gets
reduced
to
NADPH
b. Cousin
to
NAD+
3. Water
is
split
and
O2
is
released
as
a
by
product
4. ATP
is
generated
in
the
process
a. Chemiosmosis
adds
a
phosphate
group
to
ADP
i. Photophosphorylation
5. Summary:
light
energy
is
converted
to
chemical
energy
in
the
form
of
NADPH
and
ATP
ii. Stage
two:
calvin
cycle
(synthesis)
1. Melvin
Calvin-‐
1940’s
2. Incorporates
CO2
from
the
air
into
organic
molecules
a. Carbon
fixation-‐
reduction
of
the
fixed
carbon
to
carbohydrates
by
the
addition
of
electrons
b. Requires
chemical
energy
in
the
form
of
ATP
i. Generated
by
the
light
reaction
3. Sometimes
referred
to
as
the
dark
reaction
or
light
independent
reactions
a. Occurs
during
daylight
because
it
requires
the
reduction
of
NADP+
III. Chapter
10.2:
The
light
reactions
convert
solar
energy
to
the
chemical
energy
of
ATP
and
NADPH:
a. The
nature
of
sunlight:
i. Wavelength
=
the
distance
between
the
crests
of
electromagnetic
waves
ii. Electromagnetic
spectrum:
the
range
of
radiation
1. Photosynthesis
uses
electromagnetic
radiation
form
the
visible
light
range:
380
–
750
nm
a. Visible
range
because
its
detected
by
the
naked
eye.
b. Photons:
discrete
particles
of
light
c. Photosynthetic
pigments
i. Matter
reflects,
transmits
or
absorbs
light
ii. Pigments
absorb
light
1. Different
pigments
absorb
different
wavelengths
a. Wavelengths
that
are
absorbed
disappear
i. The
absorbance
of
all
pigments
=
black
ii. The
reflection
of
all
wavelengths
=
white
2. The
ability
to
absorb
or
reflect
pigments
can
be
measured
with
a
spectrophotometer
a. Measures
the
fraction
of
light
transmitted
at
a
each
wavelength
b. Absorption
spectrum:
a
graph
plotting
a
pigments
light
absorption
versus
wavelength
iii. Three
types
of
chlorophyll
pigments:
1. Chlorophyll
a-‐
violet-‐
blue
and
red
light
work
best
for
photosynthesis
a. Blue-‐
green
in
color
2. Chlorophyll
b-‐
slightly
different
in
structure
a.
Yellow-‐
green
in
color
3. Carotenoids:
hydrocarbons
that
are
various
shades
of
yellow
and
orange
because
they
absorb
violet
and
blue-‐
green
light
iv. Excitation
of
chlorophyll
by
light
1. When
a
molecule
absorbs
a
photon
of
light,
one
of
the
electrons
is
elevated
to
an
orbital
where
it
has
more
potential
energy
a. Ground
state-‐
when
a
pigments
electrons
are
not
excited
b. Excited
state-‐
when
a
pigments
electrons
are
excited
d. A
photosystem:
A
reaction
center
associated
with
light
harvesting
complexes.
i. Photosystem:
composed
of
a
reaction
center
surrounding
by
a
number
of
light
harvesting
complexes
ii. Light
harvesting
complex
consists
of
pigment
molecules
bound
to
particular
proteins
1. Pigments:
chlorophyll
a
and
b
and
carotenoids
iii. Reaction
center:
a
protein
complex
that
includes
two
special
chlorophyll
a
molecules
and
another
molecule
called
a
primary
electron
acceptor.
1. Transferring
an
electron
from
the
chlorophyll
a
to
the
primary
electron
acceptor
is
the
first
step
of
the
light
reaction.
iv. Thylakoid
membrane
contains
two
types
of
photosystems(named
in
order
of
their
discovery).
1. Photosystem
II
(PSII)-‐
functions
first
a. P680-‐
the
reaction
center
in
chlorophyll
a
of
PSII
2. Photosytem
I
(PSI)-‐
discovered/
named
first
a. P700-‐
the
reaction
center
in
chlorophyll
a
of
PSI
3. P680
and
P700
are
identical
chlorophyll
a
molecules,
but
are
associated
with
different
proteins
in
the
thylakoid
membrane
and
affects
the
distribution
of
electrons
in
the
chlorophyll
molecule
and
accounts
for
slight
differences
in
light
absorbing
properties
e. Noncyclic
electron
flow:
i. Light
strikes
a
pigment
molecule
and
excites
one
of
the
electrons
of
P680
in
PSII
ii. Electron
is
captured
in
primary
electron
acceptor
iii. Enzyme
splits
water
molecule
into
two
electrons,
two
hydrogen
ions
and
an
oxygen
atom
1. When
P680
is
missing
an
electron
it
becomes
a
very
powerful
oxidizing
agent
iv. Each
electron
is
passed
down
an
electron
transport
chain
from
PSII
to
PSI.
1. Electron
transport
chain
is
composed
of
plastoquinone(Pq),
cytochrome
complex,
and
plastcyanin
(Pc)
v. Electrons
fall,
exergonic
process
providing
energy
to
produce
ATP
vi. Electrons
get
excited
by
a
photon
in
PSI’s
primary
electron
acceptor
to
a
second
electron
transport
chain
through
the
protein
ferrodoxin
(Fd)
vii. NADP+
reductase
transfers
electrons
from
Fd
to
NADP+
reducing
it
to
NADPH
(requires
two
electrons)
f. Cyclic
electron
flow:
i. Photoexcited
elctrons
from
PSI
are
occasionally
shunted
back
from
ferredoxing
(Fd)
to
chlorophyll
via
the
cytochrome
complex
and
plastocyanin
(Pc)
1. Supplies
energy
for
ATP
2. No
NADP+
is
reduced
IV. Chapter
10.3:
The
Calvin
Cycle
uses
ATP
and
NADPH
to
convert
CO2
to
sugar:
a. Calvin
cycle
is
similar
to
cirtic
acid
cycle
i. Citric
acid
cycle
is
catabolic-‐
oxidizing
glucose
and
releasing
enegy
ii. Calvin
cycle
is
anabolic-‐
building
sugar
from
smaller
molecules
and
consuming
energy
b. Calvin
cycle
does
not
produce
a
six
carbon
glucose
directly
i. It
produces
a
3
carbon
sugars
called
glyceraldehyde
3-‐
phosphate
(G3P)
ii. Net
synthesis
of
one
molecule
of
glucose,
the
cycle
must
take
place
three
times
1. Fixing
three
molecules
of
CO2
c. Three
phases
of
the
calvin
cycle:
i. Carbon
fixation:
1. Each
molecule
of
carbon
dioxide(3)
is
attached
to
a
5
carbon
sugar
named
ribose
biphosphate(RuBP)
a. This
reactionis
catalyzed
by
the
enzyme
Rubisco
i. RuBP
carboxylase
ii. Most
abundant
protein
in
the
chloroplast
and
probably
the
most
abundant
protein
on
the
planet
2. Product
of
this
reaction
is
a
six
carbon
intermediate
molecule
a. Short
lived
because
its
is
unstable
and
will
immediately
split
in
half
forming
two
molecules
of
3-‐
phosphoglycerate
(for
each
CO2)
ii. Reduction:
1. Each
3-‐
phosphoglycerate
is
phosphorylated
by
ATP
a. Produces
1,3
bisphosphoglycerate
b. Each
1,3
bisphosphoglycerate
gets
reduced
by
NADPH
to
G3P
i. A
three
carbon
sugar
ii. High
potential
energy
iii. Also
formed
during
glycolysis
iii. Regeneration
of
the
CO2
acceptor
(RuBP)
1. Carbon
skeleton
of
5
G3P
molecules
are
rearranged
to
3
molecules
of
RuBP
a. RuBP
is
now
ready
to
receive
CO2
again.
d. Input
vs.
Output
of
Calvin
cycle:
i. 3
CO2
molecules
enter
one
at
a
time
ii. produces
3
short
lived
six
carbon
intermediate
iii. cleaves
into
6,
3-‐
phosphoglycerate
molecules
iv. 6,
3-‐
phosphoglycerate
molecules
are
phosphorylated
into
6,
1,3
biphosphoglycerate
by
6
ATP
1. producing
6
ADP
and
6
inorgainc
phosphates
v. 6,
1,3
phosphoglycerate
molecules
are
reduced
to
6
G3P
by
NADPH
1. 6
NADP+
molecules
and
6
inorganic
phosphates
are
produced
vi. 1
of
the
6
G3P
will
go
onto
form
glucose
and
other
organic
molecules
vii. 5
of
the
6
G3P
will
go
on
to
regenerate
RuBP
which
are
phosphorylated
by
3
ATP
1. 3
ADP
molecules
are
produced
2. 3
inorganic
phosphates
are
also
produced
viii. Each
RuBP
cylces
back
to
CO2
to
start
the
cycle
over
V. Chapter
10.4:
Alternative
mechanisms
of
carbon
fixation
have
evolved
in
hot,
arid
climates.
a. Terrestrial
life
has
proposed
lots
of
problems
to
plant
life
i. Dehydration
b. Photorespiration:
An
evolutionary
relic?
i. C3
plant:
plants
that
fix
CO2
via
rubisco
to
produce
G3P
1. During
hot
and
dry
conditions,
the
plants
stomata
are
closed
to
prevent
dehydration
a. Very
little
CO2
can
enter
the
plant
and
the
rate
of
photosynthesis
slows
2. Photorespiration:
if
CO2
is
not
present
the
plant
will
add
O2
to
the
Calvin
cycle
a. O2
splits
and
a
two
carbon
compound
leaves
the
chloroplast
releasing
CO2
b. No
ATP
is
generated,
it
is
consumed
instead
c. No
sugar
is
produced
d. Siphons
organic
material
from
the
Calvin
cycle
e. This
could
have
been
a
metabolic
process
from
long
ago
during
times
when
there
was
more
CO2
in
the
air
and
less
O2.
i. Rubisco
retains
some
affinity
for
O2
f. A
certain
amount
of
photorespiration
is
inevitable
given
the
high
concentration
of
O2
in
the
atmosphere
g. Drains
as
much
as
50%
of
the
carbon
fixed
by
CO2
ii. C4
plants:
preface
the
Calvin
cycle
with
an
alternate
mode
of
carbon
fixation
that
forms
a
four-‐
carbon
compound
as
its
first
product
1. Grasses,
sugar
cane
and
corn
use
C4
pathways
2. C4
pathway
plants
have
unique
leaf
anatomy
a. Bundle
sheath:
photosynthetic
cells
arranged
into
tightly
packed
sheaths
around
the
veins
of
the
leaf
i. Calvin
cycle
is
confined
to
this
area
b. Mesophyll
cells-‐
loosely
arranged
cells
found
between
the
bundle
sheath
and
leaf
surface.
3. Steps
of
the
C4
pathway:
a. PEP
carboxylase
(phosphoenolpyruvate
carboxylase)
adds
CO2
to
PEP
forming
a
four
carbon
product
(oxaloacetate)
i. PEP
carboxylase
has
a
much
higher
affinity
for
CO2
than
Rubisco
ii. PEP
carboxylase
has
no
affinity
for
O2
b. The
four
carbon
molecule
(malate)
is
shipped
to
the
bundle
sheath
cells
via
the
plasmodesmata
c. In
the
bundle
sheath
the
four
carbon
molecule
releases
CO2
which
enters
the
Calvin
cycle
d. Pyruvate
is
regenerated
for
conversion
to
PEP
in
the
mesophyll
4. Results:
a. The
C4
pathways
keeps
the
concentration
of
CO2
abundant
in
the
mesophyll
so
rubisco
can
fix
carbon
dioxide
rather
than
O2
b. Process
is
powered
by
ATP
c. Advantages
in
hot
and
dry
regions
iii. CAM
Plants
(Crassulacean
Acid
Metabolism)
1. Use
by
succulents
(water
storing
)
plants
a. Jade
plants,
cacti,
pineapples.
b. These
plants
open
their
stomata
at
night
and
close
them
during
the
day
c. Opposite
of
how
other
plants
behave
d. CO2
is
taken
in
at
night
an
converted
into
a
variety
of
organic
acids
e. The
organic
acids
are
stored
in
vacuoles
in
the
cells
of
the
mesophyll
until
morning
f. When
the
stomata
close
during
the
day,
CO2
is
released
from
the
organic
acids
made
the
night
before
i. ATP
and
NADPH
made
from
the
light
reaction
can
then
be
used
to
make
sugars
in
the
Calvin
cycle
iv. C3,
C4
and
CAM
plants
all
use
the
Calvin
cycle
to
make
sugar
from
CO2
1. The
methods
by
which
CO2
is
delivered
to
the
Calvin
cycle
is
different
a. C3
plants
–
CO2
is
directly
brought
into
the
Calvin
cycle
b. C4
plants-‐
a
four
carbon
molecule
releases
CO2
to
the
Calvin
cycle
c. CAM
plants-‐
organic
acids
carry
CO2
to
the
Calvin
cycle