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Cellular Respiration Overview and Mechanisms

Chapter 9 discusses cellular respiration, detailing catabolic pathways that yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels, including fermentation and cellular respiration. It explains the processes of glucose oxidation, the role of NAD+ in electron transport, and the stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The chapter emphasizes the importance of stepwise energy harvesting to prevent explosive reactions and ensure efficient ATP synthesis.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
7 views5 pages

Cellular Respiration Overview and Mechanisms

Chapter 9 discusses cellular respiration, detailing catabolic pathways that yield energy by oxidizing organic fuels, including fermentation and cellular respiration. It explains the processes of glucose oxidation, the role of NAD+ in electron transport, and the stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The chapter emphasizes the importance of stepwise energy harvesting to prevent explosive reactions and ensure efficient ATP synthesis.

Uploaded by

Salma Wesam
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© All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

Chapter

 9:  Cellular  Respiration  


AP  Biology  Notes:    
 
I. Chapter  9.1:  Catabolic  pathways  yield  energy  by  oxidizing  organic  fuels:  
a. Fermentation:  degradation  of  sugars  that  occurs  without  oxygen  
b. Cellular  respiration:  oxygen  is  consumed  as  a  reactant  along  with  the  
organic  fuel  
i. Degradation  of  sugar:  
ii. C6H12O6      +      O2    è    CO2    +      H2O      +    Energy  
iii. Exergonic  reaction  
1. ΔG  =  -­‐686kcal/mole  
2. Catabolic  
3. Increase  in  entropy  
c. Redox  Reactions:  Oxidation  and  Reduction  
i. Transfer  of  electrons  from  one  reactant  to  another  =  
oxidation/reduction  reactions  
1. Oxidation  =  the  loss  of  electrons  
2. Reduction  =  the  gaining  of  electrons  
3. Reducing  agent  =  the  electron  donor-­‐  that  which  gets  
oxidized  
4. Oxidizing  agent  =  the  electron  acceptor-­‐  that  which  gets  
reduced  
ii. Not  all  redox  reactions  involve  the  complete  transfer  of  
electrons  
1. Some  change  the  degree  of  electron  sharing  
d. Oxidation  of  Organic  Fuel  Molecules  During  Cellular  Respiration:  
i. Respiration:  oxidation  of  glucose  
ii. C6H12O6      +      6O2    è    6CO2    +      6H2O      +    Energy  
1. Glucose  is  oxidized    
2. Oxygen  is  reduced  
a. Electrons  lose  potential  energy  along  the  way  
b. Energy  is  released  
c. ΔG  is  negative  
d. Downhill  reaction  
e. Energy  becomes  available  for  ATP  synthesis  
e. Stepwise  Energy  Harvest  via  NAD+  and  the  Electron  Transport  Chain:    
i. Energy  cannot  be  harvested  all  at  once:  
1. Example:  gasoline  energy-­‐  if  all  the  energy  is  harvested  
at  once  an  explosion  ensues  =  no  more  energy  for  work  
2. All  of  the  energy  from  glucose  is  not  harvest  at  the  same  
time  during  cellular  respiration  
a. Instead  electrons  are  stripped  from  glucose  at  
key  steps  
i. the  electron  travels  with  a  proton  which  
is  a  hydrogen  atom  
1. electrons  lose  very  little  potential  
energy  when  they  are  transferred  
ii. the  electron  travels  to  oxygen  via  a  
coenzyme  called:  nicotinamide  adenine  
dinucleotide  (NAD  +)  
1. NAD+  is  a  derivative  of  the  vitamin  
niacin  
2. NAD+  is  a  oxidizer  (electron  
acceptor)  
3. NAD+  is  the  most  versatile  
electron  acceptor  in  cellular  
respiration  
3. How  does  NAD+  work:    
a. Enzymes  called  dehydrogenases  remove  a  pair  of  
hydrogen  atoms  (two  electrons  and  two  
protons)  from  a  substrate  (glucose  or  some  
other  organic  molecule)  oxidizing  it  
b. The  enzyme  then  delivers  the  two  electrons  and  
one  proton  to  NAD+  
i. The  other  proton  is  released  as  H+  to  the  
surroundings  
ii. NAD+    then  becomes  neutralized  to  NADH  
1. NADH  represents  stored  energy  
that  can  be  used  to  make  ATP  
when  the  electron  is  transferred  
from  NADH  to  oxygen  
4. How  do  electrons  stored  by  NADH  reach  oxygen:  
a. Electron  transport  chain-­‐  electrons  cascading  
down  a  chain  from  one  carrier  molecule  to  the  
next,  losing  small  amounts  of  energy  with  each  
step  until  they  finally  reach  oxygen.  
i. Breaks  the  fall  of  electrons  from  NADH  to  
oxygen  into  several  steps  instead  of  one  
explosive  reaction  
ii. Located  on  the  inner  mitochondrial  
membrane  
iii. Involves  several  proteins  and  other  
molecules  
b. NADH  shuttles  the  electron  to  the  top  of  the  
electron  chain  (high  energy  end)  and  oxygen  
captures  electrons  at  the  bottom  of  the  electron  
chain(low  energy  end)  
c. Exergonic  reaction  
i. ΔG  =  -­‐53kcal/mole  
ii. Downhill  reaction  
iii. Oxygen  =  final  electron  acceptor  because  
it  has  a  high  affinity  for  electrons(highly  
electronegative)  
f. The  Stages  of  Cellular  Respiration:    
i. Three  metabolic  stages:    
1. Glycolysis:  occurs  in  the  cytosol  
2. The  citric  acid  cycle:  takes  place  in  the  mitochondrial  
matrix(composed  mostly  of  (50%)  proteins)  
a. Also  called  the  tricarboxylic  acid  cycle  and  the  
Krebs  cycle(after  Hans  Krebs-­‐  German  biologist-­‐  
1930’s)  
3. Oxidative  phosphorylation:  occurs  on  the  inner  
mitochondrial  membrane  
II. Overview  of  Cellular  Respiration:    
a. Step  one:  
i. Each  glucose  is  broken  down  into  two  pyruvate  molecules  
1. ATP  is  generated    
2. Substrate  level  phosphorylation:  ATP  synthesis  occurs  
when  an  enzyme  transfers  a  phosphate  group  from  a  
substrate  molecule  to  ADP  
a. Substrate  molecule  refers  to  an  organic  molecule  
generated  during  the  catabolism  of  glucose  
3. Energy  Investment  phase:  2  ATP  are  used  to  provide  
energy  for  a  enzymatically  controlled  pathway  breaking  
down  a  6  carbon  glucose  molecule  to  two  3-­‐  carbon  
sugars  
a. Net  energy  input  =  2  ATP  
4. Energy  Payoff  Phase:  Enzymatic  pathway  where  each  3-­‐  
carbon  sugar  is  converted  into  a  pyruvate  molecule  
a. 2  NAD+  molecules  are  oxidized  to  NADH  
b. Net  energy  created  4  ATP    
5. Overall  Net  energy:  2  ATP  
6. Electron  carriers  are  reduced(catalyzed  by  
dehydrogenase)  
a. 2  NAD+  +  4e-­‐    +  4H+      yields  2  NADH    +    2  H+  
7. less  than  a  quarter  of  the  chemical  energy  stored  in  
glucose  is  released  during  this  stage  
a. the  rest  of  the  energy  is  stored  in  the  two  
pyruvate  molecules  
b. Step  Two:  The  two  pyruvate  molecules  enter  the  mitochondria  
i. They  get  converted  to  acetyl  CoA-­‐  or  acetyl  coenzyme  A  (2-­‐  
carbon  molecule)  
1. This  is  an  intermediate  process  that  occurs  before  
entering  the  citric  acid  cycle  
2. Multi-­‐  Enzymatic  process  
3. 1  molecule  of  CO2  is  released  
ii. The  two  acetyl  CoA’s  get  oxidized  to  carbon  dioxide  in  the  citric  
acid  cycle  
1. Involves  eight  steps,  each  controlled  by  a  particular  
enzyme  
a. All  enzymes  are  located  in  the  mitochondrial  
matrix  
2. Two  more  CO2’s  are  released  
3. Completes  the  breakdown  of  glucose  
4. Called  a  cycle  because  a  molecule  oxaloacetate  is  broken  
down  in  step  one  only  to  be  regenerated  in  step  eight  
and  reenter  the  cycle  back  at  step  one  with  a  new  
acetyl-­‐  CoA  molecule.    
5. For  each  acetyl-­‐  CoA  that  enters  the  cycle  1  ATP  is  
generated  
a. Electron  carriers  NAD+  and  FAD+  are  reduced  
i. 3  NAD+  are  reduced  
ii. 1  FAD+  are  reduced  
c. Step  Three:  NADH  and  FADH2  transfer  electrons  from  the  pyruvates  to  
the  electron  transport  chain  located  on  the  inner  mitochondrial  
membrane  
i. Electrons  are  transferred  from  one  molecule  to  another  
ii. At  the  end  of  the  chain  the  electrons  are  transferred  to  oxygen  
and  combined  with  hydrogen  to  form  water  
iii. Any  energy  released  at  each  step  is  stored  in  the  inner  
mitochondrial  membrane  space  
1. This  energy  is  used  to  synthesize  ATP  in  a  process  
called  chemiosmosis  
III. Chapter  9.4:  During  Oxidative  Phosphorylation,  Chemiosmosis  couples  
electron  transport  to  ATP  synthesis.  
a. The  Pathway  of  Electron  Transport:    
i. Folding  of  inner  mitochondrial  membrane  called  cristae,  
increase  surface  area  
1. Provides  space  for  thousands  of  copies  of  electron  
transport  chain  which  is  a  collection  of  molecules  
a. Most  of  these  molecules  are  proteins  
ii. During  electron  transport,  electron  carriers  alternate  between    
reduced  and  oxidized  states  
1. Electrons  move  downhill  
iii. NADH  carries  an  electron  to  the  first  protein  complex  and  
reduces  FMN  (flavin  mononucleotide),  NADH  becomes  
oxidized  to  NAD+  
1. FMN  will  then  become  oxidized  by  reducing  the  Fe-­‐S  
protein  
2. Fe-­‐S  protein  then  will  reduce  ubiquinone  (Q)  the  only  
non-­‐  protein  molecule  in  the  complex  
a. Q-­‐  resides  between  protein  complex  I  and  
protein  complex  III  
3. In  protein  complex  II,  FADH2  will  reduce  Fe-­‐S  protein,  
returning  to  its  oxidized  state  (FAD+)  
a. Fe-­‐S  protein  from  complex  II  will  also  reduce  Q  
4. Protein  complex  III-­‐  Q  will  reduce  cytochrome  b,  which  
transfers  its  electron  to  another  Fe-­‐S  protein  which  then  
reduces  cytochrome  c1.    
a. Cytochromes  are  electron  carriers  that  have  a  
prosthetic  group  called  a  heme  group.    
i. The  heme  has  an  iron  atom  that  accepts  
and  donated  electrons    
5. Cytochrome  c1  will  then  transfer  its  electron  to  
cytochrome  c  which  resides  between  protein  complex  
III  and  protein  complex  IV.  
6. In  protein  complex  IV,  cytochrome  a  is  reduced  from  
cyctochrome  c.    
a. Cytochrome  a  then  reduces  cytochrome  a3    
b. Cytochrome  a3  is  the  last  stop  for  the  electron  
before  it  is  finally  accepted  by  oxygen  
i. Oxygen,  due  to  its  high  electronegative  
state,  accepts  the  electron  along  with  two  
hydrogens  from  the  aqueous  solution  to  
form  water  

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