Chapter
9:
Cellular
Respiration
AP
Biology
Notes:
I. Chapter
9.1:
Catabolic
pathways
yield
energy
by
oxidizing
organic
fuels:
a. Fermentation:
degradation
of
sugars
that
occurs
without
oxygen
b. Cellular
respiration:
oxygen
is
consumed
as
a
reactant
along
with
the
organic
fuel
i. Degradation
of
sugar:
ii. C6H12O6
+
O2
è
CO2
+
H2O
+
Energy
iii. Exergonic
reaction
1. ΔG
=
-‐686kcal/mole
2. Catabolic
3. Increase
in
entropy
c. Redox
Reactions:
Oxidation
and
Reduction
i. Transfer
of
electrons
from
one
reactant
to
another
=
oxidation/reduction
reactions
1. Oxidation
=
the
loss
of
electrons
2. Reduction
=
the
gaining
of
electrons
3. Reducing
agent
=
the
electron
donor-‐
that
which
gets
oxidized
4. Oxidizing
agent
=
the
electron
acceptor-‐
that
which
gets
reduced
ii. Not
all
redox
reactions
involve
the
complete
transfer
of
electrons
1. Some
change
the
degree
of
electron
sharing
d. Oxidation
of
Organic
Fuel
Molecules
During
Cellular
Respiration:
i. Respiration:
oxidation
of
glucose
ii. C6H12O6
+
6O2
è
6CO2
+
6H2O
+
Energy
1. Glucose
is
oxidized
2. Oxygen
is
reduced
a. Electrons
lose
potential
energy
along
the
way
b. Energy
is
released
c. ΔG
is
negative
d. Downhill
reaction
e. Energy
becomes
available
for
ATP
synthesis
e. Stepwise
Energy
Harvest
via
NAD+
and
the
Electron
Transport
Chain:
i. Energy
cannot
be
harvested
all
at
once:
1. Example:
gasoline
energy-‐
if
all
the
energy
is
harvested
at
once
an
explosion
ensues
=
no
more
energy
for
work
2. All
of
the
energy
from
glucose
is
not
harvest
at
the
same
time
during
cellular
respiration
a. Instead
electrons
are
stripped
from
glucose
at
key
steps
i. the
electron
travels
with
a
proton
which
is
a
hydrogen
atom
1. electrons
lose
very
little
potential
energy
when
they
are
transferred
ii. the
electron
travels
to
oxygen
via
a
coenzyme
called:
nicotinamide
adenine
dinucleotide
(NAD
+)
1. NAD+
is
a
derivative
of
the
vitamin
niacin
2. NAD+
is
a
oxidizer
(electron
acceptor)
3. NAD+
is
the
most
versatile
electron
acceptor
in
cellular
respiration
3. How
does
NAD+
work:
a. Enzymes
called
dehydrogenases
remove
a
pair
of
hydrogen
atoms
(two
electrons
and
two
protons)
from
a
substrate
(glucose
or
some
other
organic
molecule)
oxidizing
it
b. The
enzyme
then
delivers
the
two
electrons
and
one
proton
to
NAD+
i. The
other
proton
is
released
as
H+
to
the
surroundings
ii. NAD+
then
becomes
neutralized
to
NADH
1. NADH
represents
stored
energy
that
can
be
used
to
make
ATP
when
the
electron
is
transferred
from
NADH
to
oxygen
4. How
do
electrons
stored
by
NADH
reach
oxygen:
a. Electron
transport
chain-‐
electrons
cascading
down
a
chain
from
one
carrier
molecule
to
the
next,
losing
small
amounts
of
energy
with
each
step
until
they
finally
reach
oxygen.
i. Breaks
the
fall
of
electrons
from
NADH
to
oxygen
into
several
steps
instead
of
one
explosive
reaction
ii. Located
on
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
iii. Involves
several
proteins
and
other
molecules
b. NADH
shuttles
the
electron
to
the
top
of
the
electron
chain
(high
energy
end)
and
oxygen
captures
electrons
at
the
bottom
of
the
electron
chain(low
energy
end)
c. Exergonic
reaction
i. ΔG
=
-‐53kcal/mole
ii. Downhill
reaction
iii. Oxygen
=
final
electron
acceptor
because
it
has
a
high
affinity
for
electrons(highly
electronegative)
f. The
Stages
of
Cellular
Respiration:
i. Three
metabolic
stages:
1. Glycolysis:
occurs
in
the
cytosol
2. The
citric
acid
cycle:
takes
place
in
the
mitochondrial
matrix(composed
mostly
of
(50%)
proteins)
a. Also
called
the
tricarboxylic
acid
cycle
and
the
Krebs
cycle(after
Hans
Krebs-‐
German
biologist-‐
1930’s)
3. Oxidative
phosphorylation:
occurs
on
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
II. Overview
of
Cellular
Respiration:
a. Step
one:
i. Each
glucose
is
broken
down
into
two
pyruvate
molecules
1. ATP
is
generated
2. Substrate
level
phosphorylation:
ATP
synthesis
occurs
when
an
enzyme
transfers
a
phosphate
group
from
a
substrate
molecule
to
ADP
a. Substrate
molecule
refers
to
an
organic
molecule
generated
during
the
catabolism
of
glucose
3. Energy
Investment
phase:
2
ATP
are
used
to
provide
energy
for
a
enzymatically
controlled
pathway
breaking
down
a
6
carbon
glucose
molecule
to
two
3-‐
carbon
sugars
a. Net
energy
input
=
2
ATP
4. Energy
Payoff
Phase:
Enzymatic
pathway
where
each
3-‐
carbon
sugar
is
converted
into
a
pyruvate
molecule
a. 2
NAD+
molecules
are
oxidized
to
NADH
b. Net
energy
created
4
ATP
5. Overall
Net
energy:
2
ATP
6. Electron
carriers
are
reduced(catalyzed
by
dehydrogenase)
a. 2
NAD+
+
4e-‐
+
4H+
yields
2
NADH
+
2
H+
7. less
than
a
quarter
of
the
chemical
energy
stored
in
glucose
is
released
during
this
stage
a. the
rest
of
the
energy
is
stored
in
the
two
pyruvate
molecules
b. Step
Two:
The
two
pyruvate
molecules
enter
the
mitochondria
i. They
get
converted
to
acetyl
CoA-‐
or
acetyl
coenzyme
A
(2-‐
carbon
molecule)
1. This
is
an
intermediate
process
that
occurs
before
entering
the
citric
acid
cycle
2. Multi-‐
Enzymatic
process
3. 1
molecule
of
CO2
is
released
ii. The
two
acetyl
CoA’s
get
oxidized
to
carbon
dioxide
in
the
citric
acid
cycle
1. Involves
eight
steps,
each
controlled
by
a
particular
enzyme
a. All
enzymes
are
located
in
the
mitochondrial
matrix
2. Two
more
CO2’s
are
released
3. Completes
the
breakdown
of
glucose
4. Called
a
cycle
because
a
molecule
oxaloacetate
is
broken
down
in
step
one
only
to
be
regenerated
in
step
eight
and
reenter
the
cycle
back
at
step
one
with
a
new
acetyl-‐
CoA
molecule.
5. For
each
acetyl-‐
CoA
that
enters
the
cycle
1
ATP
is
generated
a. Electron
carriers
NAD+
and
FAD+
are
reduced
i. 3
NAD+
are
reduced
ii. 1
FAD+
are
reduced
c. Step
Three:
NADH
and
FADH2
transfer
electrons
from
the
pyruvates
to
the
electron
transport
chain
located
on
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
i. Electrons
are
transferred
from
one
molecule
to
another
ii. At
the
end
of
the
chain
the
electrons
are
transferred
to
oxygen
and
combined
with
hydrogen
to
form
water
iii. Any
energy
released
at
each
step
is
stored
in
the
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
space
1. This
energy
is
used
to
synthesize
ATP
in
a
process
called
chemiosmosis
III. Chapter
9.4:
During
Oxidative
Phosphorylation,
Chemiosmosis
couples
electron
transport
to
ATP
synthesis.
a. The
Pathway
of
Electron
Transport:
i. Folding
of
inner
mitochondrial
membrane
called
cristae,
increase
surface
area
1. Provides
space
for
thousands
of
copies
of
electron
transport
chain
which
is
a
collection
of
molecules
a. Most
of
these
molecules
are
proteins
ii. During
electron
transport,
electron
carriers
alternate
between
reduced
and
oxidized
states
1. Electrons
move
downhill
iii. NADH
carries
an
electron
to
the
first
protein
complex
and
reduces
FMN
(flavin
mononucleotide),
NADH
becomes
oxidized
to
NAD+
1. FMN
will
then
become
oxidized
by
reducing
the
Fe-‐S
protein
2. Fe-‐S
protein
then
will
reduce
ubiquinone
(Q)
the
only
non-‐
protein
molecule
in
the
complex
a. Q-‐
resides
between
protein
complex
I
and
protein
complex
III
3. In
protein
complex
II,
FADH2
will
reduce
Fe-‐S
protein,
returning
to
its
oxidized
state
(FAD+)
a. Fe-‐S
protein
from
complex
II
will
also
reduce
Q
4. Protein
complex
III-‐
Q
will
reduce
cytochrome
b,
which
transfers
its
electron
to
another
Fe-‐S
protein
which
then
reduces
cytochrome
c1.
a. Cytochromes
are
electron
carriers
that
have
a
prosthetic
group
called
a
heme
group.
i. The
heme
has
an
iron
atom
that
accepts
and
donated
electrons
5. Cytochrome
c1
will
then
transfer
its
electron
to
cytochrome
c
which
resides
between
protein
complex
III
and
protein
complex
IV.
6. In
protein
complex
IV,
cytochrome
a
is
reduced
from
cyctochrome
c.
a. Cytochrome
a
then
reduces
cytochrome
a3
b. Cytochrome
a3
is
the
last
stop
for
the
electron
before
it
is
finally
accepted
by
oxygen
i. Oxygen,
due
to
its
high
electronegative
state,
accepts
the
electron
along
with
two
hydrogens
from
the
aqueous
solution
to
form
water